Metal Forming Processes
It is a Primary Manufacturing Process
The initial material being used normally remains in
• slab (500-1800 mm wide and 50-300 mm thick)
• billets (40-150 sq mm)
• blooms (150-400 sq mm)
Slabs billets and blooms are normally obtained from casting
These shapes are further processed by different forming
Processes to produce plates, sheets, rods, tubes and structura
sections
In any forming process the starting material is deformed.
The main mechanisms of deformation is by slipping or twinning
Different Metal Forming Processes
Bulk Deformation Processes
• Rolling
• Forging
• Extrusion
• Wire Drawing
Press Tool work
• bending
• shearing
• deep drawing
• coining
Bulk Deformation Processes
Sheet Metal working
Broad Classification Metal Forming Operations
• Hot Working of Materials
• Cold Working of Materials
Hot Working
Metal working operations are carried out at temperature
Just above the re-crystallization temperature
Advantages of Hot working
• No strain hardening results so any amount of deformation
• At higher temperature material have higher ductility
• It requires much less force
• A favorable grain size can be achieved
Limitations
• some metals become brittle at higher temperature
• scale formation in some metals take place
Cold Working
Deformation process conducted at temperature below
the re-crystallization temperature
Advantages of Cold working
• Strength and hardness increases because of strain
hardening
• no surface oxide, surface finish is good
• better dimensional accuracy
Limitations
• Larger forces are required
• Many brittle materials cannot be cold worked
ROLLING PROCESS
Flat-Rolling Process
A greater volume of metal is formed by rolling than by any other
metalworking process.
Stresses In Rolling
Stresses on an element in rolling: (a) entry zone and
(b) exit zone.
CHANGE IN GRAIN STRUCTURE DURING ROLLING
Various Roll Arrangements
Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements:
(a) two high; (b) three high; (c) four high; (d) cluster;
(e) tandem rolling with three stands; (f) planetary.
Front & Back tension
Planetary Rolling Mill
Shape Rolling
Stages in shape rolling of an H-section part. Various other structural
sections, such as channels and I-beams, are also rolled by this process
Ring-Rolling
Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Reducing the
thickness results in an increase in the part’s diameter.
(b) Examples of cross-sections that can be formed by ring
rolling.
Thread-Rolling Processes
Thread-rolling processes: (a) flat dies and (b) two-
roller dies. These processes are used extensively in
making threaded fasteners at high rates of
production.
Machined And Rolled Threads
(a) Schematic illustration of machined or rolled threads.
(b) Grain-flow lines in machined and rolled threads. Unlike
machined threads, which are cut through the grains of
the metal, rolled threads follow the grains and are
stronger, because of the cold working involved.
Mannesmann Process
Cavity formation by secondary tensile stresses in a solid round bar
and its use in the rotary-tube-piercing process. This procedure
uses the principle of the Mannesmann mill for seamless tube
making. The mandrel is held in place by the long rod, although
techniques have been developed in which the mandrel remains in
place without the rod.
Salient features of Rolling
• It is an extensively used metal forming operation
• The material is normally sucked up in the rolling gap
because of friction between the roll and the workpiece
• Compressive forces help in changing the cross section
• Geometry of the product can be varied by changing the
contour of the rolls
• Rolls for hot forming are made rough so that they can bite
the workpiece significantly while cold rolls are normally
smooth and polished for good finish
• In cold rolling the crystals get elongated along the rolling
direction but in hot rolling they start reforming after coming
out of the deformation zone
• Peripheral velocity of rolls at entry must exceed the velocity
of the strip and at exit it is more than the roll velocity
• Hence there is a neutral point where roll velocity and
workpiece velocity are same At this point the direction of
friction reverses
Pressure variation during Rolling
Distribution of Pressure along the
Arc of contact
Hot rolling results in higher friction
(coefficient of friction around 0.4)
Sometimes sticking occurs during
Hot rolling and then the friction
Increases to 0.7
Cold rolling results in lesser friction
(coefficient of friction 0.1-0.2)
Effects of Front And Back Tension
Pressure distribution as a function of front and
back tension. Note the shifting of the neutral
point and the reduction in the area under the
curves with increasing tension.
Defects in Rolling
Edge Cracking; Alligatoring:
Due to excessive thickness redn.Due to Ratio of slab thickness
to length of contact 1.4 to 1.7
Folds: due to low reduction per pass
FORGING
• Open Die Forging
• Closed Die Forging
Closed Die Forging
Favourable grain structure obtained in Forging
Merits of Open Die Forging
• Improves flow and microstructure
• Refines microstructure and removes defects
• Batch or Mass production possible
• Low cost per piece
Limitation
• Poor dimensional accuracy and finish
Closed Die Forging
Advantages
• Greater consistency of product
• Closer tolerance
• Better surface finish with min. surplus
• Greater strength
• Lesser cost
Limitations of closed die forging
• High cost of forging dies if shapes are intricate
• Viable only for mass scale production
Two types of Closed Die Forging
• Conventional Die forging
• Flashless die forging
Flash removed by trimming. Flash has an important role. Due
to flash in the die gap friction increases restricting the metal to
be within the die cavity. It is more predominant in hot forging
where the thin flash cools down quickly increasing the friction
largely.
Such impression die forging process can produce forgings
with thinner sections, complex geometries, closer tolerances
and sometimes elimination of machining allowances possible.
Common work matls for precision forging are aluminium and
titanium
Load-Stroke Curve in Closed-Die Forging
Typical load-stroke curve
for closed-die forging.
Note the sharp increase in
load after the flash begins
to form. In hot-forging
operations, the flash
requires high levels of
stress, because it is thin-
that is, it has a small h-and
cooler than the bulk of the
forging. Source: After T.
Altan.
Flashless Forging
The starting blank must not be too large or too small. It is
applied to the part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical. Common work materials are Al and Mg and
their alloys.
COINING
Advantages
Good surface finish
High dimensional accuracy
High productivity
Heading
Forging heads on fasteners such as bolts and
rivets. These processes are called heading.
Cogging Operation
Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a
rectangular bar. With simple tools, the thickness and cross-
section of a bar can be reduced by multiple cogging
operations. Note the barreling after cogging. Blacksmiths use
a similar procedure to reduce the thickness of parts in small
increments by heating the workpiece and hammering it
numerous times.
Roll Forging Operation
Schematic illustration of a roll forging (cross-rolling)
operation. Tapered leaf springs and knives can be made
by this process with specially designed rolls. Source:
After J. Holub.
Manufacture of Spherical Blanks
Production of steel balls
for bearings by the skew-
rolling process.
Production of steel balls by
upsetting of a cylindrical
blank. Note the formation of
flash. The balls are
subsequently ground and
polished for use as ball
bearings and in other
mechanical components.
Equipment for Forging work
(a) For few small object (Black Smithy) – Hammers & Anvil
(b) For lot production of medium size objects (drop forging)
(i) Mechanical power hammer
(ii) Pneumatic power hammer
(iii) Steam powered hammer
(c) For lot production of large jobs (pressing)
(i) Hydraulic Press
(ii) Mechanical Press
Presses Used In Metalworking
Schematic illustration of various types of presses used in
metalworking. The choice of the press is an important factor in
the overall operation.
Internal Defects In Forging
Laps formed by buckling of the web during forging.
Internal defects produced in a forging because of an oversized billet. The die
cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the center of the part flows
past the filled regions as deformation continues.
Defect Formation In Forging
Effect of fillet radius on defect formation in forging. Small fillets
(right side of drawings) cause the defects. Source: Aluminum
Company of America.
Forging Defect
Forging A Connecting Rod
Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion
engine. Note the amount of flash that is necessary to fill the die
cavities properly.
EXTRUSION
It is a compression forming process in which the
work metal is forced to flow through a die opening to produce
a desired cross sectional shape.
Normally non ferrous metals and alloys like copper, brass,
aluminium, zinc and magnesium are extruded.
These days by proper choice of suitable lubricants and tooling
metals such as steel, titanium, refractory metals, uranium and
thorium can also be extruded.Stocks used are mainly cast
ingot or rolled billet free of surface defects.
Advantages of Extrusion
A variety of shapes possible
Grain structure and strength can be enhanced in cold and
warm extrusion
Close tolerances are possible
It is mostly a near net shape process
Two main varieties of extrusion possible
• Direct / forward extrusion
• Indirect / backward extrusion
Direct Extrusion
Production of hollow
Or semi-hollow
Cross sections by
Direct extrusion
Indirect Extrusion
Indirect extrusion to produce hollow bars
Friction is low and waste scrap is only 5%. However tooling
cost and press required are expensive.
Work length is limited. Ram support to be provided if work
length is higher.
Extrusion Pressure
Schematic illustration of typical extrusion pressure as a
function of ram travel: (a) direct extrusion and (b)
indirect extrusion. The pressure in direct extrusion is
higher because of frictional resistance in the chamber as
the billet moves toward the die.
Impact Extrusion
Main features of Impact extrusion
It can be forward, backward or a combination of these.
Done under ambient condition on a variety of metals.
Backward extrusion is the most common.
Products made by this process includes toothpaste tubes
and battery cases.
Very thin walls are possible on extruded parts.
Larger reductions and high productivity can be achieved.
Extrusion of Seamless Tube
Extrusion of a seamless tube. The hole in the billet may
be prepunched or pierced, or it may be generated during
extrusion.
Hydrostatic Extrusion
Friction between billet and container gets reduced.The
hydrostatic pressure increases work material ductility and
hence suitable also for brittle materials. Limitation is that the
starting material must have a taper at one end so that it can
get fitted into the die entry angle. The taper actually acts as
a seal preventing the fluid from coming out of the die hole.
Defects in Extrusion
• Surface cracking
• Piping
• Internal cracking
Surface cracking occurs when extrusion temp. is too high,
Extrusion speed or friction is high. It can also happen at low
Temp. especially when sticking of the extruded matl. With
Die takes place
Piping occurs when surface oxides or impurities present
In the material are drawn towards the centre of the billet.
to prevent piping sometimes machining of the billet is
performed to remove surface scales and impurities
The centre of an extruded product may develop cracks
known as centerbursts due to a state of hydrostatic tensile
Stress at the centerline of the deformation zone in the die
Stress On Wire
Stresses acting on an element in drawing of a solid
cylindrical rod or wire through a conical
converging die.
Advantages of Drawing
• Close dimensional tolerance
• Good surface finish
• Improved mechanical properties
• Adaptability to economic batch or mass production
Drawing
Equipment
Tube Drawing
Various methods of tube drawing.
Sheet Metal working
Sheet metals are characterized by
• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
Sheet Metal operations(press working) can be broadly
divided into two groups:
• Cutting operations like shearing, cut off, parting, blankin
• punching, notching, shaving
• Shape forming operations like bending, deep drawing,
embossing, coining, stretch forming
Cutting Operations
Shearing
Blanking Punching
Slotting Perforating Notching
Shaving Operation
Shaving Shearing shaving combined
Bending Operation
Bending is the straining of the metal around a straight axis
Metal on the inside of the neutral plane is compressed
while the metal on the outside is stretched.
Bending produces little or no change in thickness.
The Effect of Elongated Inclusions
The Effect of Springback in Bending
Springback is caused by the elastic recovery of
the material upon unloading. In this example, the
material tends to recover toward its originally flat
shape. However, there are situations where the
material bends farther upon unloading (negative
springback).
Negative Springback
Spinning Processes
Schematic illustration of spinning processes: (a)
conventional spinning and (b) shear spinning.
Note that in shear spinning, the diameter of the
spun part, unlike in conventional spinning, is the
same as that of the blank. The quantity f is the
feed (in mm/rev or in./rev).
Explosive Forming Process
Schematic illustration of the explosive-forming
process. Although explosives are generally used for
destructive purposes, their energy can be controlled
and employed in forming large parts that would
otherwise be difficult or expensive to produce by other
methods.
Sheet Metal Working
Deep Drawing
Common products are beverage cans, ammunition shells,
cooking pots, automobile body panels.
