Standard Caliper Log Configurations

1. One arm calipers also serves as an eccentering device.

 Tend to seek the longest dimension of the borehole cross section,
especially if the long axis is in a vertical plane.
 If the contact with borehole is steel it is considered to cut through
mudcakes.
 If the contact is rubber, it reads borehole minus one mudcake
thickness.

2. Two arm calipers, extend equidistant from a

• centralized tool body.
• Tend to record the long axis of out-of-round holes.
• All borehole contacts are rubber and measurement is considered as
borehole minus two mudcake thickness.

3. Three arm calipers, center the tool body.

• Maintain their arms equidistant from the body of the tool and
measure only one diameter, somewhere between the minimum and
maximum of the noncircular section.
 Standard Caliper Log Configurations
4. Four arm calipers, consisting of two calipers at right angles to each
other.
 Four-arm calipers typically use two pairs of arms that extend
independently of each other.
 One pair seeks the long dimension of an out of round hole, the
other measures the dimension at right angles.

5. Six-arm devices, which use six independent arms, spaced at 60o

angles,
 Allowing the characterization of irregular shaped boreholes.
 Six-arm calipers have each arm independent, allowing the arms to
characterize the hole shape regardless of the relative position of the
tool body.
 An advantage to this design is that significant pressure is not
required to make a measurement, thereby reducing tool drag and
irregular tool motion.
 Tool Contact
• In addition to the number of arms, the nature of the tool contact also
affects the caliper response when a hole is not cylindrical or has
mudcake.
• Devices that have small contact area can detect smaller borehole
irregularities.
• Contact pressure is usually high enough to cut through any mudcake
(steel pads).
• Pad type devices have somewhat larger pad contact area and when
operated at lower contact pressures will override mudcake (rubber pads).
• Changes in hole shape may not be sensed if the borehole irregularities
are changing rapidly and are smaller than the pad dimensions, depending
on how the tool contacts the borehole wall.
 Caliper Logs
What do They Measure?
• Size and shape of a recently drilled hole.

How do They Work?

• Mechanical arms record hole size
• Hydraulic systems with calibrated potentiometers

How are they Used?

• Hole size used to correct other logs
• Hole Volume for cementing
• Lithologic Information
Washouts indicative of formation properties
• Stress field from hole break-out.
 Key Points
• The pressure overbalance in the borehole causes mud and mud filtrate
to "invade" the borehole wall.
• Mud cake slows fluid and solid invasion into the formation; some
muds contain material which affects log readings.
• Mudcake is formed from the solids in the drilling mud.
• Ideally mudcake should form quickly and have low permeability to
reduce invasion.
• Deeper invasion occurs in lower porosity.
• Prospective intervals should be evaluated as soon as possible after
drilling.
• The depth of investigation of a logging tool determines how much the
measurement is affected by invasion.
 Logging-Related Applications
• Determination of water (oil) saturation in the pore
spaces of formation rock.
• Determination of porosity in known water-filled
formations.
• Stratigraphic correlation of rock sequences between
nearby wells.
• Characterization of borehole and formation fluids for
environmental correction of neutron logs.
 BASIC QUALITY CONTROL
• Once the log arrives, the petrophysicist needs to ensure the quality of he log data
and should perform the following regimen:
1. Check that the logger’s TD and last casing shoe depths roughly match those from
the last daily drilling report.
2. Check that the derrick floor elevation and ground level (or seabed) positions are
correct.
3. Check that the log curves are on depth with each other.
4. Check that the caliper is reading correctly inside the casing (find out the casing
ID) and that it is reading the borehole size in nonpermeable zones that are not
washed out.
5. Check the density borehole correction curve. It should not generally exceed 0.02
g/cc, except in clearly washed out sections (>18in.), for which the density curve is
likely to be unusable.
 BASIC QUALITY CONTROL
6. Inspect the resistivity curves. If oil-based mud (OBM) is being used, the shallow curves
will usually read higher than the deep curves (except in highly gas or oil saturated zones).
Likewise, with waterbased mud (WBM) the shallow curves will read less than the deep
curves, providing Rmf < Rw, or in hydrocarbon-bearing zones. In theory, the curves should
overlie each other in nonpermeable zones such as shales. However, in practice this is often
not the case, due to either anisotropy or shoulder-bed effects.
7. Check the sonic log by observing the transit time in the casing, which should read
47ms/ft.
8. Look out for any cycling-type behavior on any of the curves, such as a wave pattern.
This may be due to corkscrewing while drilling, causing an irregular borehole shape.
However, it is necessary to eliminate any possible tool malfunction.
9. Check that the presentation scales on the log print are consistent with other wells or generally
accepted industry norms.
These are generally:
• GR: 0–50 API
• Caliper: 8–18≤
• Resistivity: 0.2–2000 ohm.m on log scale
• Density: 1.95–2.95 g/cc (solid line)
• Neutron: -0.15 ―
 Class Presentation (Assignment)
Log Names Topics Covered
Lithology Logs
• NGS (Natural Gamma Ray Log)
• Spontaneous Potential Log • Log Presentation and Scales
Porosity Logs
• Compunsated Neutron Log (with other logs in Tracks)
• Sonic Log
• Typical Log Responses
• Bulk Density Log
Resistivity Logs (Fluid Types) • Log measurement Tool
• Resistivity Log (MSFL, )
• Induction
• Log Applications
Petrophysical Interpretation (Petrophysical)
• Workflow • Background and formula Used
• Borehole televiewer (BHTV)
• Temperature Measurements • Interpretation
Data resolution v. coverage (typical subsurface field)
• Core and log provide good-quality data with very high
resolution, but sample a very limited portion of the
reservoir.
• Seismic data sample the entire reservoir but at a
resolution that is typically too low to capture geobody
geometry.
(b) Quantification of aspects are shown.
• Proportion of a reservoir based on a typical field that is
5 × 3 × 0.05 km, penetrated by four wells.
Scale (Petrophysical scene)
 Data Acquisition
•Depth of investigation
–The distance away from the borehole
that a logging tool can measure
•Resolution
–Capability to distinguish and properly
measure thin beds
VERTICAL RESOLUTION OF WELL LOGS
Petrophysical Measurements
 Family of Nuclear Tools
• Radioactivity is a result of decay of an unstable nucleus through
emission of particles or energy.
LITHOLOGY LOGS
Spontaneous Potential Log
Gamma Ray Log
 SP Log
• The Spontaneous Potential, SP curve
Shale
commonly abbreviated SP, is a
measurement of the naturally
occurring electrical potentials in
the wellbore as a function of
depth.
• It is one of the oldest logging Uninvaded M

I Zone (DS)
SP curve Zone
measurements and in today's (Concentrat (D Sand
environment one of the most ed S)
under utilized measurements. Solution)

• It is sensitive to grain size,

permeability and fluid content.
• SP is somewhat less quantitative
than other measurements,
however if used carefully it can Shale
provide a wealth of information.
Invaded Zone Mud (Dilute Solution)
(Dilute Solution)
 SP Log
• The SP is a measure and
record of Direct Current (DC)
voltage differences between
the naturally occurring
potential of a moveable
electrode in the well bore, and
the potential of a fixed
electrode located at the
surface.
• The SP log is recorded on the
left hand track of the log in
track #1.
 SP Scales
• It is measured in millivolts (mV). Spontaneous Potential (mV)
• The scale on the log shows a ->10mV<+
number of mV per division.

For Example, 20mv/division.

This gives a total for the track of
200mV

• The scale across the track is

variable and depends on the
conditions in the well.
• The scale is set during logging to
have the SP curve in the track over
the zone of interest and as much of
the rest of the log as possible.
 Basic Measurement Principles
• The recording of the SP is the measured potential difference between a single passive
moving electrode in the wellbore and a reference electrode, usually located at the surface in
the mud pit, or attached to the casing head, or in sea water.
There are three possible sources of the electrical potential which contribute to the SP; they
are:
1. The electrochemical, Ec potential ,made up of the membrane and liquid junction potentials
2. The electrokinetic, Ek. potential. (sometimes called streaming potential)

• The sum of these different potentials results in a measurement that is not absolute but
relative.
• The potential sensed by the SP electrode is the voltage drop across the mud in the borehole.
• Since the SP requires a current path in the mud it will not function in an oil based mud.
• There also be little or no signal if there is no potential difference between the borehole and
the formation i.e. where Rmf=Rw.
 Basic Measurement Principles
• The maximum normally encountered SP is
called the Static Self Potential (SSP). Bore Hole

• The SSP is the amount of deflection

observed when the SP electrode passes from Ground on
a position inside a very thick, porous, Surface
permeable, clean water sand to a point well
within a thick uniform shale.
• The SSP is the value of the SP that is
predicted by the following equation: Isolated
Cable
SP = -Klog (aw/amf) ;
where:
aw = the activity of the formation water,
Electrode
amf = activity of the mud filtrate,
K = constant Open Hole SP Measurement Principle
 Typical Response of the SP Log
• The deflection may be either to the
left (negative) or to the right
(positive), depending on the relative
salinities of the formation water and
the mud filtrate.

• If the formation-water salinity is

greater than the mud-filtrate salinity
(the more common case), the
deflection is to the left.

• If the mud-filtrate salinity is

greater than the formation-water
salinity, the currents flow in the
opposite direction, producing
positive SP deflections.

• If the salinities of the mud filtrate

and formation water are similar, no
SP is generated.

Typical response of the SP Log Permeability recognition by SP log

 SP Log Interpretation
Calculation of Shale Volume Calculation of Rw:

Vsh= (1-PSP/SSP) Rw= 10 power (K.log(Rmf)+SP)/K

• PSP = SP log read in a thick homogeneous shaly sand zone, The Quick-Look Method – Procedure
• SSP = SP log read in the thick clean sand zone. The Single Chart Method – Procedure
The Smits Method – Procedure

• This assumes a linear mixing relationship between the SP

log and shale volume, and has no theoretical basis.
• It probably overestimates the shale volume.

Mineral Recognition
• Though not as good as some other logs, the SP log does
react unusually to a few minerals and formations.
• The most common occurrences are as follows, BUT are not
reliable:
 Coals: Large negative kick (or none at all!)
 Pyrite: Very large negative kick.
 Rhyolite: Large negative kick.
 Black shale: Positive kick.
 Factors Contribute To Less Than Maximum Deflection
• The shape of the SP curve approaching or leaving the sand/shale boundary is controlled by the relative
resistivities of the mud, sand, and shale, an inflection point is observed at the bed boundary interface.
• This inflection point may be shifted to closure to one formation or another depending on relative resistivities
but the inflection point represents the bed boundary.
1. Insufficient bed thickness: causes the effective resistance of the sand to increase, because of the
corresponding reduction in the cross sectional area of the sand.
2. Increased borehole diameter: the effective resistance of the mud decreases because of the increase of the
cross sectional area of the borehole.
3. Deep invasion: the interface between the liquid junction and the membrane junction is moved deeper into the
formation; which increases the effective resistance of the sand because of the increased path length to the
borehole.
4. Presence of hydrocarbons: increases the effective resistance of the sand because oil and/or gas have a much
higher resistivity than water resulting in a greater drop of potential across the sand, resulting in a suppression of
the SP deflection.
5. Presence of clay: restricts the migration of Cl- ions and assists the migration of Na+ ions due to the
predominant negative charge of the clay.
6. Significantly reduced porosity and permeability.
 Applications

• Differentiate permeable from non-permeable reservoir rocks from

impermeable shales
• Determine bed boundaries and bed thickness
• Give an indication of shalliness (maximum detection is clean sand;
minimum is shale)
• Determine formation water resistivity, Rw
• Can be used to calculate Rw in wet zones
• Estimate the volume of shale, Vsh
 Borehole and Quality Considerations
1. SP's are very sensitive to extraneous electrical fields which can be caused by
welding or other rig electrical equipment, residual magnetism from the cable drum,
or atmospheric electrical charges.
2. Unresponsive SP's can be caused by poor grounding of the surface electrode.
3. Streaming potentials can caused by under or overbalanced mud columns with
differential pressure into or out of the formation.
4. The SP is a relative measurement and drifts with salinity and temperature
changes, practice in older logs was for the field engineer to manually bring the SP
back on scale. These scale changes are generally obvious but may confuse
interpretation.
5. Hydrocarbon causes suppression of the SP signal.
6. Thin beds affect SP development how much depends on the resistivity of the
formation and the contrast between Rw and Rmf .
7. SPs are often base adjusted to remove shifts and drift.
this needs to be done carefully so as not to introduce anomalous readings.
 Key Points
1. Variations in SP are the result of the electric potential between the
wellbore and the formation as result of the difference is the Rmf and Rw.
2. In most wellbore environments, where salinity of the formation water is
greater than the salinity of the mud or mud filtrate (Rw<Rmf).
The result of this relationship is that the expected SP development opposite
relatively high salinity formations is negative. The deflection will be
positive if Rw>Rmf.
3. The SP requires a conductive fluid in the borehole, therefore the SP can
not be run in non-conductive mud systems or air or gas drilled wells.
4. The SP response of shales is relatively constant and follows a straight line,
known as the shale baseline. SP deflection is measured from the shale
baseline.
5. If Rmf = Rw the SP will not deflect from the shale baseline.
 Gamma Ray Log
• The gamma ray log is
probably the most widely Caprock and anhydrite

run logging Coal

Salt
measurement. Dolomite
Limestone

• It is used to distinguish sandstone

Sandy limetstone and Limy sandstone

lithologies particularly Greenish-gray sandstone

sand from shale. Shaly sandstone

Shaly limestone
Sandy shale
• It is a relatively simple Calcereous Shale
Shale
measurement and works Organic marine Shale
Lean potash beds
in open hole or cased so it Rich potash beds

is the primary
measurement for deep
control and correlation.
 Log Presentation
• The total gamma ray log is usually recorded in
Track 1 with the caliper log, bit size and SP log.
• The API scale goes from 0 to 200 API,
It is more common to see 0 to 100 API and 0 to
150 API used in log presentations
As data greater than 150 API is not common, and
can always be handled by the use of wrap-
around.
• When gamma ray logging is carried out through
the cement casing, a scale of 0 to 50 API is most
often used, as a result of the lower values
measured due to the attenuation of the gamma
count rate by the casing.
Gamma Log Presentation
• All rocks contain some radioactive material,
although marine shales have a higher gamma ray
emission level than sandstone, limestone and
dolomite.
• This difference makes the gamma ray log useful
for distinguishing shales from non-shales,
therefore the gamma ray is essentially a lithology
log.
 Measurement Principles
• Gamma Rays are bursts of high energy electromagnetic waves which are emitted
spontaneously by some radioactive elements.
• Nearly all of the gamma radiation encountered in the earth is emitted by the
radioactive potassium isotope of atomic weight 40 and the radioactive elements
of the uranium and thorium series.
• For the most part these elements are found in minerals and solid organic material
so almost all the signal comes from the rock matrix and not from the fluid.(some
exceptions do occur, usually tracers or radioactive salts added to muds)
• Gamma rays from the logging environment strike the detector either a solid state
crystal (NaI or CsI), or a Geiger Mueller gas chamber and the incident gamma
rays produce a signal which is recorded as counts/second.
• The counts are converted to API units, a standard defined for gamma ray logs and
units used to display this measurement.
• The higher the API the more gamma ray counts recorded. Gamma rays are only
slightly attenuated by mud , casing and cement so the measurement can be made
under most open and cased hole situations.
 Interpretation
• The radioactivity levels are largely a result of potassium content.

Sand
Line
• Shales exhibit relatively high GR count rates due to the presence

Reservoir
cut off
of potassium ions in the lattice structure of the clay minerals.
• The most common reservoir rock minerals (quartz, calcite and
dolomite) in a pure state do not contain radioactive isotopes and
yield low GR readings.
• The shale content of reservoir rock can be estimated by linear Table shows a typical GR levels (in API units) for a number of
interpolation between the GR log readings across clean rocks (the common minerals and formation materials
sand line) and shales (the shale line), such that
Vsh<- Grlog-GRsd/GRsh-GRsd
• Permeability generally has a negative correlation with shale
content and a GR cutoff is often used to define the limit of
effective permeability. It is thus possible to distinguish permeable
reservoir rock from impermeable shale.
• For quick look evaluations a GR cut off of 50% shale volume is

Shale
Line
often used to discriminate reservoir quality rock.
• This approach works well in pure sand-shale sequences, however
coal, evaporates or tight carbonates are present low GR readings
do not necessarily imply reservoir rock.
• Minerals like mica and feldspar are radioactive and give rise to
relatively high GR readings, though their presence in a sand need
not destroy reservoir properties. For reliable reservoir thickness
determination, it is wise to cross check for indications of reservoir
quality with other logs.
 Shale Volume
1. Pick a clean GR response
2. Pick a shale GR response
3. Scale between
Vsh= Grlog-Grclean/Grshale-Grclean
(Linear Response Vsh=IGR)

GR90->Vsh=55%
 Shale Volume
1. The gamma ray log has Larionov (1969) for Tertiary rocks:
several nonlinear empirical Vsh= 0.083 (2power 3.7IGR -1)
responses as well a linear
responses. Steiber (1970):
2. The non linear responses are Vsh=IGR/3-2*IGR
based on geographic area or
formation age. Clavier (1971):
3. All non linear relationships Vsh=1.7-[(3.38-(IGR+0.7)power 2]power ½
are more optimistic that is
they produce a shale volume
value lower than that from Larionov (1969) for older rock:
the linear equation. Vsh=0.33*2power 2IGR-1)
 Applications
1. To distinguish shale beds from other lithologies.
2. Semi quantitative calculation the volume of shale and/or clay in reservoir rocks; this
assumes the clean zones do not contain radioactive minerals, i.e., granite wash, micaceous
sands, radioactive carbonates.
Vsh = (Grzone- Grclean)/(Grshale- Grclean)
Other nonlinear equations are used in some areas.
3. Correlation and depth control log, between wells and for logging runs in the same well.
4. ID zones of fluid flow (often leaves radioactive scale),fractures, and radioactive tracers.
5. Consistently high uranium readings in shales may indicate high source rock potential due
to the uranium compounds associated with the organic material.
6. Clay Typing:
• The method involves plotting the potassium responses against those of thorium which will
give some indication of the type of clay present in the formation.
This technique assumes the presence of pure clays, which rarely exist in reservoirs.
Because of its limitations, this technique is no longer widely used.
• The uranium-free curve is often a better shaliness indicator than the total gamma ray
curve, because it can distinguish between the gamma rays counted from potassium and
thorium in clays and the gamma rays resulting from uranium which are not necessarily
associated with clays.
• Gamma Ray logs are most commonly used logs for sequence stratigraphic analysis.
 Applications
• Facies and Depositional Environment Analysis:

• The gamma ray log is often used to measure the shaliness of a

formation.
• In reality, the shaliness often does not change suddenly, but occurs
gradually with depth.
• Such gradual changes are indicative of the litho-facies and the
depositional environment of the rock, and are associated with changes
in grain size and sorting that are controlled by facies and depositional
environment as well as being associated with the shaliness of the
rock.
• All possible combinations of these shapes may be encountered.
 Applications (The Gamma ray log and depositional Environment)

Shape Smooth Environments Serrated Environments

Cylinder Aeolian dunes Deltaic distributions
Tidal sands Turbidite channels
Represents Fluvial Channels Proximal deep-sea fans
uniform deposition

Bell Shape Tidal sands Lacustrine sands

Alluvial sands Deltaic distributaries
Fining upwards Braided streams Proximal deep-sea fans
sequences Fluvial channels
Point bars

Funnel Shape Barrier bars Distributory mouth

Beaches bars
Coarsening Crevase splays Delta marine fringe
upward sequence Distal deep-sea fans
 Depth of Investigation
• The gamma rays are attenuated by Compton Scattering by all materials between the atom that
emitted the gamma ray and the detector, which includes the rock itself and the drilling mud.
• The degree of attenuation depends upon the number density of atoms in the material, and this is
related to the density of the material.
• There is a distribution of gamma ray energies, BUT at distance from the emitting atom increases,
the energy of the gamma rays decreases.
 Compton scattering until they are too low to be measured by the Scintillation Counter. Clearly,
therefore, there is a maximum depth of investigation for the tool that depends upon formation and
mud density.
• For average values of drilling mud and formation density, we can say that approximately 50% of
the gamma ray signal comes from within 18 cm (7 inches) of the borehole wall,
 Increasing to 75% from within 30 cm (1 foot). Hence, the depth of investigation, if defined at
75% of the signal, is 30 cm.
• However, this will decrease for denser formations of the same radioactivity, and increase for less
dense formations of the same radioactivity.
• The zone of sensitivity is almost hemispherical, so the 30 cm depth of investigation applies both
horizontally (perpendicular to the borehole wall) and sub-vertically (sub-parallel with the
borehole wall).
 This has implications for the vertical resolution of the tool.
 Borehole Quality
• The gamma ray log usually runs centered in the borehole. If the borehole suffers from
caving, the gamma ray log can be badly affected. In intervals that suffer from caving,
there is more drilling mud between the formation and the gamma ray detector to
attenuate the gamma rays produced by the formation.
• Note that the denser the mud used, the greater the underestimation will be, because of
increased compton scattering in the drilling mud. Barite muds are a particular problem as
barite is very efficient at absorbing gamma rays.
• The measured overestimation may usually be corrected if the caliper log for the well is
known.
• Figure 11.3 also shows the corrected gamma ray log. Comparison of the two show the
degree to which the caving has affected the gamma ray reading. Corrections are carried
out using correction charts supplied by the logging tool company.
• Each tool design has its own set of charts, which are drawn up for a range of drilling
fluids and tool geometries. Figure 11.4 shows an example of such a correction chart.
• Note that the tool can also be run in eccentred mode (pressed up against the borehole
wall).
• When run in eccentred mode the corrections are much smaller as the drilling mud
contributes less to the gamma ray signal, and has less opportunity to attenuate the
gamma rays
 Key Points
1. Gamma Ray logs are lithology logs that measure the natural radioactivity of a
formation
2. Because radioactive material is concentrated in shale, shale has high gamma ray
readings and generally sands and carbonates have low gamma ray readings;
exceptions are granite wash, micaceous sands, and radioactive carbonates.
3. The gamma ray provides bed information in those environments where the SP is
not diagnostic, i.e., salt muds, oil based muds, air or gas drilled holes, and cased
holes.
4. Vertical resolution is affected by logging speed, but is approximately 2' at a
logging speed of 1800 feet/hr.
5. The gamma ray is a statistical measurement not every wiggle on the curve is
significant. In general the tools that are run the slowest give the better readings.
6. Depth of investigation of the gamma ray is approximately 10 - 12".
7. The gamma ray log is nearly always recorded in track 1 of the log display. It is
scaled so that low radioactivity is near the left side of the track and increases to the
right toward the depth column.
 Shale Volume
1. From cutting descriptions on the mudlog
it is known that the logged interval on
the left consists of sands interbedded
with shales.

Determine:
A. Tops and Bottom of the sand (reservoir)
sections.
B. Thickness of the individual layers
H1= H2=
C. Total thickness of sand (=Net reservoir).
Net reservoir =h1+h2=

Fraction od reservoir within the total sand

sequence (=Net/Gross)
NG= (h1+h2)/H=
 Borehole and Quality Considerations
1. Hole Size : Increased borehole diameter attenuates
the detector response by moving the tool farther from
the formation.
2. Position of the tool in the borehole, eccentered
tools are closer to the borehole wall.
3. Variations in the mud system
 Bentonite, a clay mineral, is used widely as a gel
additive and contains significant amounts of Th and
U.
 Potassium salts (KCL) are frequently used for clay
stabilization.
 Barite weighting material tends to shield the
detectors from the formation by increasing the
photoelectric absorption of gamma rays.
4. Variations in casing size and weight
 Casing properties such as, thickness, material, grade
and its position in the hole, as well as the cement
properties introduce variations in the energy spectra.
5. Variations in porosity: can have effect more rock
material means more counts.
 Logging Speed
• Radioactive emissions are random, and hence fluctuate in an unpredictable way with time.
• If the count rates are high, this causes no real problems as there are sufficiently many counts in a reasonable time
interval for the fluctuations to average out.
• In gamma ray logging, the count rate is low so the fluctuations have to be taken into account.
• For each measurement depth, the tool must linger long enough to measure enough count in order to obtain good quality
data. In gamma ray logging a time averaging procedure is adopted to minimize the statistical fluctuations.
• The output from the detector is measured as a gamma ray count rate, which is averaged over a time defined by a time
constant Tc.
• In order to increase the quality of the log data Tc should be as large as possible.
• However, as the logging tool is constantly moving, a large Tc will result in the bluring of bed boundaries, which as
implications for the vertical resolution of the tool.
• As there are large costs associated with running logs slowly, thee is a compromise to be reached between logging speed
and log quality. In practice, the product of logging speed in feet per second and Tc in seconds is conventionally held
constant at 1 foot.
• Hence, the gamma ray measurement is averaged over this one foot interval, and the log data is shifted down by 1 foot to
compensate. Note that the log data is therefore recorded at the bottom of the one foot interval over which it is averaged.
 Quick Look Evaluation
• Lithology
– GR, DEN/NEU, Resistivity, Sonic
• Volume of Shale
– GR
• Porosity
– DEN
• Saturation
– Resistivity, Porosity, etc
• Net / Gross
– Cutoffs porosity and VSH
Flowchart showing the procedural steps for the complete Petrophysical analysis

Marking of Zone of Identification

Raw Log Curves
Interest Character of Strata

Calculation of Porosity
Calculation of Volume • Density Porosity Calculatiion of Volume
of Shale(Vsh) • Neutron -Density Porosity of Matrix
• Effective Porosity

Calculation of Calculation of
Resistivity of Water Saturation of Water Summation
(Rw) (Sw)
 Flowchart showing the procedural steps for the complete Petrophysical analysis

Density Porosity= Sw={Rw/(Rt*фm)}1/n

Densitymatrix- Densitylog/ Densitymatrix – Densityfluid
Where

Neutron Porosity= Rw= Resistivity of Water

Value read directly from the Neutron log to obtain
PhiN. Rt= True Resistivity (obtained from LLD log)

Ф= Porosity (PhiE- Effective Porosity)

Average Porosity=
(Density Porosity + Neutron Porosity) / 2 m= Cementation factor (01)

n= Wettability factor (02)

Effective Porosity=
Porosityavg * Vmatrix Shc=1-Sw
• Volume of Matrix= 1- Vsh
 Petrophysics - Basic deliverables for a well
Petrophysical variables at each relevant depth:
–Shale volume
–Porosity
–Permeability
–Water saturation
–Net Reservoir (Net Sand)

• The petrophysical variables are estimated based on mathematical

relations including log measurements and parameter values
 Quick Look Evaluation - Saturation
• Saturation
– The fraction of the
formation pore volume
occupied by a specified
fluid.
• Fraction of gas+oil+water
=1=100%

• Water Saturation (Sw)

– The fraction of the pore
volume that contains
formation water.
 Quick Look Evaluation - Net / Gross
• Gross Rock: Comprises all the rock within the thickness under
consideration.
• Net Reservoir: Net sand intervals which have useful reservoir
properties.
–From cutoffs on Porosity and VSH

• Net Pay: Net reservoir intervals which contain significant

hydrocarbons.

For reservoir modelling purposes we present the distribution of Net

Reservoir (and Net/Gross), while the presence of hydrocarbons (pay)
is modelled based on estimated Saturation-Height functions and fluid
levels.
 Quick look Evaluation - Summary

In clean water bearing formations (Sw = 1):

Rw = ϕ²Rt
assuming a = 1, m = n = 2
 What it is all about??
• Pososity (PHI, ᵩ ):
Fraction (or %) of rock not
occupied by solids
• Porosity contains fluids:
Water/oil/gas.
• Water Saturation (Sw):
Fraction (or %) of porosity
filled with water.
 Resistivity – Induction & Laterolog
Electrical resistivity - resistance to current, inverse of conductivity

Induction principle (Faradays Law):

• Current in a source coil (S) induces a
magnetic field in the formation (Hp).
• The magnetic field sets up a geo-electric
current in the formation (J), which generate a
secondary magnetic field (Hs).
• A current is induced in the receiver coil (R)
with change in amplitude and phase.
•Works best in resistive mud (OBM) .

Laterolog:
• Focusing of current from the tool into the
rock by focusing electrodes making the
current flow only in the lateral direction .
• Need electrical contact with the formations,
i.e. conductive drilling mud (WBM).
 Quick Look Evaluation - Saturation
• Water saturation (Sw) from resistivity logs
–Matrix (dry rock) is a good insulator high resistivity
–Oil and gas is a good insulator high resistivity
–Water is a good conductor low resistivity
–Shales contain bound water and is therefore a
conductor low resistivity
Archie Archie with
Equation: standard
values:
 Permeability - fundamentals
• Permeability quantifies the capability
of rocks to transmit fluid.
 Permeability – Sources of Information
• Quantitative:
– Primary (Direct measurement):
• Core measurement
• Production test analysis
• WFT analysis
– Secondary (Indirect):
• Core calibrated log correlation/regression
• Multivariable linear regression/ neural
network prediction
• NMR, (Stoneley)

• Qualitative indication of permeable rock:

– Invasion effects: Permeability estimates are typically based on
establishing empirical-/statistical relationships between
• Presence of mud cake permeability and porosity measured on core plugs and
• Resistivity curve separation available logs
 Permeability vs Porosity trends
• Example where grain
size affects the
permeability – porosity
relationship
 Data Acquisition Methods
• Wireline (EWL)
–Vertical or low angle wells
–Logging tools conveyed by
electrical wireline
–Generally most advanced and
highest quality logs
 Data Acquisition Methods
• Pipe Conveyed Logging (PCL)
–Highly deviated wells
–Logging tools are lowered down the
well by drill pipe, with the tool
connected at the end
 Data Acquisition Methods
• Logging while drilling
(LWD)
–Sensors as a part of the
drilling assembly
–Sending real time
signals through the
drilling mud
Typical
Well Log
Responses
Typical
Well Log
Responses
 Calculation of Rw
• This is one of two quantitative use of the SP log.
• However, extremely useful: when no formation water samples or
water-bearing sands available
• Otherwise obtain Rw from during an analysis for OOIP.
 Calculation of Rw (The Quick-Look Method)

Cross Plots/Correction Charts Required:

• Correction chart for fluid Resistivity-Salinity-Temperature.
• Correction chart Bed Thickness (for diameter of invasion, equals
twice the borehole diameter).
• Correction chart for the Rmfe/Rwe ratio (from SSP for various
formation temperatures).
• Correction chart for the Rw from Rwe (for various formation
temperatures).
 Calculation of Rw (The Quick-Look Method - Procedure)

• The quickest and most common method.

[1] Obtain mud resistivity at formation

temperature.
It will either be directly available, or given
at some other temperature, such as at 75oC.
If the latter is the case, use a resistivity-
salinity temperature correction chart.
If the chart is used, enter the chart on
the left y-axis with the value of mud
resistivity at the starting temperature, and
scan across to the point represented by
that temperature.
This may lie on a curve or between curves.
At this point the equivalent salinity of the mud (which is constant) may be read off the chart.
Follow the curve (or parallel to the curves if lying between them) until the new temperature is
reached.
The value for the mud resistivity at this temperature can then be read off the right hand y-axis.
 Temperature (oC)
10

Correction Chart

Resistivity of Solution (ohm.m)

Resistivity of Solution (ohm.m)

Fluid Resistivity-
Salinity-Temperature
Mud resistivity, Rm @ 75oF = 1.80 ohm.m.
Mud resistivity, Rm @ 200oF = 0.68 ohmm

0.006
40 100 150 400
Temperature (oF)
 Calculation of Rw (The Quick-Look Method - Procedure)

[2] Read off the difference in millivolts between the shale base line and
the SP curve in the centre of the formation of interest.
[3] Correct the SP reading from for bed thickness using the correction
chart (Correction chart Bed thickness).
• Enter the bed thickness, read off the correction factor, and multiply
the correction factor by the reading.
• This gives the SSP for the depth concerned.

(i) Diameter of invasion= 2*diameter of borehole,

(ii) ratio of resistivity of surrounding beds (shale) to the resistivity of the mud (clay based), Rs/Rm = 1,
(iii) borehole diameter = 8.75 inches.
 Calculation of Rw (The Quick-Look Method - Procedure)

Correction chart Rs/Rm=1

Bed thickness

SP Correction Factor
Diameter Of Invasion Rt/Rm

(equals twice the borehole diameter).

Ratio of resistivity of the invaded zone, RXO
(sometimes Ri) to the resistivity of the mud

Rm; RXO/Rm = Ri/Rm = 4/0.68 = 6

 RXO= 4 (From input Data) H, Bed Thickness

 Rm= 0.68 (calculated from previous chart)

 Correction factor = 1.2.

 Multiply this by the SP value gives the bed
corrected SSP for the formation:
 SSP = 1.2* –25 mV = -30 mV
 Calculation of Rw (The Quick-Look Method - Procedure)

[4] Enter this value (-30 mV) into the correction chart in x-axis, and
intersecting the relevant temperature curve, read off the value of the
ratio Rmfe/Rwe from the y-axis.
 Calculation of Rw (The Quick-Look Method - Procedure)

Rwe Estimation from SSP

Correction Chart

For the Rmfe/Rwe ratio

SSP, Static SP (mV)

(from SSP for various
formation temperatures).

Rmfe/Rwe = 2.1

Rmfe/Rwe
 Calculation of Rw (The Quick-Look Method - Procedure)

[5] Now go back to the initial data provided by the log header to find Rmf @ 75oF.
• If Rmf @ 75oF (24oC) > 0.1 ohm.m, correct Rmf to the formation temperature
using Fluid Resistivity-Salinity-Temperature as in [1], and use Rmfe = 0.85* Rmf
• If Rmf @ 75oF (24oC) < 0.1 ohm.m, determine the value of Rmfe at the formation
temperature using the correction chart (Fluid Resistivity-Salinity-
Temperatures).

[6] With the known value of Rmfe at the formation temperature, calculate the value
of Rwe at the formation temperature from the Rmfe/Rwe ratio calculated in [4].
[7] Determine the value of Rw at the formation temperature from calculated Rwe at
the formation temperature using the correction chart (Correction Chart,
for the Rw from Rwe for various formation temperatures).
• This is essentially the same method as described in Rider [1996].
 Calculation of Rw (The Quick-Look Method - Procedure)

Rwe, Resistivity of Water Equivalent (ohm.m)

Correction Chart

Rw, Resistivity of Water (ohm.m)

Rw, Resistivity of Water (ohm.m)

(Rw from Rwe for
various formation
temperatures).
 Given Rmf @ 75oF = 1.35 ohm.m, which is > 0.1 ohm.m.
 So, first correct the value of Rmf @ 75oF
to that at 200oF using Fluid Resistivity-Salinity-Temperatures
 This gives Rmf @ 200oF = 0.51 ohm.m.
 The value of Rmfe @ 200oF can be calculated by simply
multiplying this value by 0.85.
 So, Rmfe @ 200oF = 0.85 ´ 0.51 = 0.43 ohm.m.
Rwe, Resistivity of Water Equivalent (ohm.m)
 Calculation of Rw (The Quick-Look Method - Procedure)

• As Rmfe/Rwe = 2.1 Rwe, Resistivity of Water Equivalent (ohm.m)

• and Rmfe @ 200oF = 0.43 ohm.m Rw

(from Rwe for various formation
temperatures),

Rw, Resistivity of Water (ohm.m)

Rw, Resistivity of Water (ohm.m)

we can find Rwe = 0.43/2.1 = 0.21
ohm.m @ 200oF.

• Now this value of Rwe = 0.21 ohm.m

@ 200oF can be entered into the
correction chart (Rw from Rwe for
various formation temperatures)

To read off the value of Rw @ 200oF,

by intersecting the appropriate
temperature curve.

• Here Rw = 0.31 ohm.m @ 200oF Rwe, Resistivity of Water Equivalent (ohm.m)

 Water Saturation Formula

Sw={Rw/(Rt*фm)}1/n
Where

• Rw= Resistivity of Water

• Rt= True Resistivity (obtained from LLD log)

• Ф= Porosity (PhiE- Effective Porosity)

• m= Cementation factor (01)

• n= Wettability factor (02)