Abstraction Science comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning

“knowledge”. It refers to a systematic and methodical activity of

building and organizing knowledge about how the universe
behaves through observation, experimentation, or both.

John Heilbron (2003, p.vii), a famous American science

historian states that “modern science is a discovery as well as
an invention.” He considered science as a discovery of
regularity in nature, enough for natural phenomena to be
described by principles and laws. Heilbron also explained that
science required invention to devise techniques, abstractions,
apparatuses, and organizations to describe these natural
regularities and their law
like descriptions.

Technology for its part, is the application of scientific

knowledge, laws, and principles to produce services,
materials, tools, and machines aimed at solving real-world
problems. It comes from the Greek word techne, meaning
“art, skill, or cunning of hand.”

Mark Zuckerberg, Facebook CEO defined technological tool

as: “What defines technological tool – one historical definition –
is something that takes a human’s sense or ability and
augments it and makes it more powerful. So, for example, I
wear contact lenses or glasses; that is a technology that
enhances my human ability of vision and makes it better.”
Wolper (2005) made an interesting comparison between
science and technology that is helpful in the study of their
interaction with society. Accordingly, in his landmark paper,
The Medawar Lecture 1998: Is science Dangerous? He
explained that:
∙ A reliable scientific knowledge has no moral or ethical
value.
It is meant simply to explain how nature and the
universe work and that the obligation of scientists,
besides studying the nature of the universe, is to
explain the possible uses and applications of such
scientific knowledge.
∙ Science is not the same as technology.
Scientists are not responsible for the application of
knowledge in technology.
 ∙ The very nature of science is that it is not possible to
predict scientific discoveries and how these discoveries
may be applied.
While scientists are responsible for the reliable conduct
of scientific inquiry and its honest interpretation and
dissemination, technological applications of science are
influenced by other sectors such as politics and
governance, religion and business.

Nowadays, advancement in science and technology have

become pervasive. They are manifested in the activities that
humans pursue and the tools they use everyday. The beauty of
this is that an advancement builds upon itself. As such,
humans today live more productive and more exciting lives
than their predecessors. With the way things go, it could be
expected that this generation’s children, and the children of
their children have the chance to lead even better lives than
the generation already does.

Challenges and drawbacks on the dynamism and immensity of

scientific, and technological progress includes:
∙ The introduction of machines tremendously cut the need
for human workforce and gave rise to questions about
whether machines will eventually replace humans.
∙ The invention of drugs that cured the previously incurable
diseases introduced new strains of bacteria and viruses
that are resistant to the very same drugs that once
fought them.
∙ The use of social media drastically changed the way
humans communicate, interact, and share information;
however, this tends to put people’s privacy at risk.

Indeed, science and technology have serve a predominantly

double-edged function. Carl Sagan, an American scientist
quoted in Tom Head’s (2006) book:

“We live in a society absolutely dependent on science and

technology and yet have cleverly arranged things so that
almost no one understands science and technology. That’s a
clear prescription for disaster.”

As problems in science and technology continue to rise and

become more observable, the need to pay attention to their
interactions with various aspects of human life, e.g., social,
political, and economic becomes ever more necessary.
Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young
field that combines previously independent and older
disciplines, such as the history of science, philosophy of
science, and sociology of science. As an academic field. STS
according to Harvard University’s Kennedy School (2018),
traces its roots from the interwar period and the start of Cold
War. It was during this period when historians and scientists
found interest in the interconnections of scientific academic
field resulted from the recognition that many schools today do
not really prepare students to respond critically, reflectively,
and proactively to the challenges posed by science and
technology in the contemporary world.

In general, STS applies methods drawn from history,

philosophy, and sociology to study the nature of science and
technology and ultimately judge their value and place in
society. Kennedy School effectively encapsulates that STS
seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally exclusive
cultures – humanities (interpretive) and natural sciences
(rational) – so that humans will be able to better confront the
moral, ethical and existential dilemmas brought by the
continued developments in science and technology.
Abstraction The history of science and technology focuses on how science
and technology have changed across time. Also, it explores
the impacts of scientific and technological innovations on the
prevailing social, cultural, political, and economic contexts
throughout history. It also pays attention to the conditions that
shaped science and technology.

An antecedent is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or

existence of something. Thus, historical antecedents in science
and technology are factors that paved the way for the presence
of advanced and sophisticated scientific and technological
innovations today. Knowledge of the history of science and
technology is useful in appraising these innovations today. By
understanding how previous generations influenced and were
influenced by developments in science and technology, today’s
generation can come up with informed decisions on the proper
application of science and technology to daily life.

Ancient Period
The rise of ancient civilizations paved the way for advances in
science and technology. These advances during the Ancient
period allowed civilizations to flourish by finding better ways of
communication, transportation, self-organization, and living in
general.

Ancient Wheel. People from ancient civilizations used animals

for transportation long before the invention of the wheel. No
one knows exactly who invented the wheel and when. There
is, however, a general agreement that an ancient wheel grew
out of a mechanical device called the potter’s wheel – a
heavy flat disk
made of hardened clay which was spun horizontally on an
axis. It is believed that the Sumerians invented the potter’s
wheel shortly after 3500 BC. Nonetheless, it would not be until
1000 to 1500 years later that the first wheel was first used on
carts.

Sumerian Wheel

Potter’s Wheel

Paper. Around 3000 BC, ancient Egyptians began writing on

papyrus, a material similar to thick paper. Papyrus is made
from the pith of the papyrus plant cyperus papyrus. It is
lightweight, strong, durable, and most importantly, portable.
Before the Egyptians invented the papyrus, writing was done
on stone. Because of the difficulty of writing on stone, writing
was reserved only for very important occasions. With the
advent of the papyrus, documentation and record keeping
became efficient, widespread, and vast. Through its use,
information dissemination became exponentially faster.
Records were kept and stood the test of time.
 The Edwin Smith Papyrus

Shadoof. The shadoof was an early tool invented and used by

ancient Egyptians to irrigate land. Among Egyptians who live
near the Nile river, irrigation was necessary to water their
crops. The shadoof, also spelled as shaduf, is a hand
operated deviced used for lifting water. Its invention
introduced the idea of lifiting things using counterweights.
Because of this invention, irrigation and farming became much
more efficient. The shadoof is also believed to be an ancient
precursor of more sophisticated irrigation tools.

Shadoof

Antikythera mechanism. Discovered in 1902 and retrieved

from the waters of Antikythera, Greece, the Antikythera
mechanism is similar to a mantle clock. Upon its discovery,
the bits of wood seen on its fragments suggest that it must
have been housed in a wooden case. It is akin to a clock in a
way that the case has a circular face and rotating hands. A
knob on the side makes it possible for it to be wound forward
or backward. As this knob moves forward or backward, its
mechanism allows it to display celestial time. Thus, it is
believed that Antikythera mechanism was used to predict
astronomical positions and eclipses for calendar and
astrological purposes. It is also believed that the Antikythera
mechanism, which is one of the oldest known antecedents of
modern clockwork, was invented by Greek scientists between
150-100 BC.
 A fragment of Antikythera mechanism

Aeolipile. Also known as the Hero’s engine, the aeolipile is

widely believed to be the ancient precursor of the steam
engine. Hero of Alexandria is credited for the demonstration of
the use of aeolipile during the 1st century AD. The aeolipile is a
steam powered turbine which spun when the water container
at its center was heated, thus making it practically the first
rudimentary steam engine. Vitruvius, a Roman author,
architect, and civil engineer described the aeolipile as a
scientific invention through which “the mighty and wonderful
laws of the heavens and the nature winds” may be understood
and judged.

An illustration of Hero’s engine

Middle Ages
Major advances in scientific and technological development
took place. These include steady increase of new inventions,
introduction of innovations in traditional production, and
emergence of scientific thinking and method.

Heavy Plough. One of the most important technological

innovations during the middle ages is the invention of the
heavy plough. Clay soil, despite being more fertile than lighter
types of
soil, was not cultivated because of its heavy weight. However,
through the invention of the heavy plough, it became possible
to harness clay soil. Thomas Bernebeck Andersen of the
University of Southern Denmark describes the impact of the
inventions of the heavy plough: “ The heavy plough turned
European agriculture and economy on its head. Suddenly, the
fields with the heavy, fatty and moist clay soils became those
that gave the greatest yields.”

Europe, particularly its northern territories, saw rapid economic

prosperity. The heavy plough stirred an agricultural revolution
in Northern Europe marked by higher and healthier agricultural
yields and more efficient agricultural practices.

An impression of a heavy plough

Gunpowder. Chinese alchemists accidentally invented black

powder or gunpowder. Prior to the invention of gunpowder,
swords and spears were used in battles and wars. Towards the
end of the 13th century, the explosive invention crept into most
parts of Europe and Asia. Since its invention, the gunpowder
has allowed the more advanced warfare. From fiery arrows to
cannons and grenades, the gunpowder has prompted
foundation for the functionality of almost every new weapons
used in war since its invention. It ushered in an unprecedented
advancement in warfare and combat throughout the Middle
Ages.
 Chinese warrior using gunpowder in weapons

Paper Money. The first known versions of paper money could

be traced back to the Chinese. In 17th century AD as an
offshoot of the invention of block printing which is similar to
stamping. Before the introduction of paper money, precious
metals such as gold and silver were used as currency.
However, the idea of assigning value to a marked piece of
paper did not immediately become popular. When the
Mongols attempted to introduce paper money into the Middle
East market in the 13th century, it did not gain immediate
success. Traders and merchants eventually realized the huge
advantage of using paper money because it was easier to
transport around compared to the previous forms of currencies.

The Chinese were credited for the invention of paper money.

Mechanical Clock. Clockwork technology was developed

during the Middle Ages. This development paved the way for
accurately keeping track of time. The sophistication of
clockwork technology of the mechanical clock drastically
changed the way days were spent and work patterns were
established, particularly in the more advanced Middle Age
cities.
 A medieval mechanical clock found in Prague, Czech Republic

Spinning Wheel. Invented in the Middle Ages, spinning wheel

is a machine used for transforming fiber into thread or yarn
and eventually woven into cloth on a loom.

Modern Ages
As the world population steadily increase, people of the
Modern Ages realized the utmost importance of increasing the
efficiency of transportation, communication, and production.
Industrialization took place with greater risks in human health,
food safety, and environment which had to be addressed as
scientific and technological progress unfolded at an
unimaginable speed.

Compound Microscope. A Dutch spectacle maker named

Zacharias Janssen is credited for the invention of the first
compound microscope in 1590. This led to an amazing
discovery that an object, when placed near the end of the
tube, can be magnified far larger than what a simple
magnifying lens can do. It was capable of magnifying objects
three times their size when fully closed and up to ten times
when extended to the maximum.
 Janssen’s compound microscope

Telescope. Invented by Galileo Galilei, this invention could

magnify objects 20 times larger than the Dutch perspective
glasses. It was Galileo who first used the telescope skyward
and made important astronomical discoveries, and identified
the presence of craters and mountains on the moon.

One of Galileo’s first telescope

Jacquard Loom. Built by French weaver Joseph Marie

Jacquard, the Jacquard Loom simplifies textile manufacturing.
In 1801 Jacquard demonstrated the ingenuity of his version of
a loom in which a series of cards with punched holes
automatically created complex textile designs and made mass
production easier.
 Jacquard Loom

Engine-Powered Airplane. Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright

are credited for designing and successfully operating the first
engine powered aircraft. They proved that aircrafts could fly
without airfoil-shaped wings. They demonstrated this in their
original Flying Machine patent showing that slightly-tilted
wings, which they referred to as aeroplanes, were the key
features of a powered aircraft.

The flight of the Flying Machine of Orville and Wilbur Wright

Television. Scottish engineer John Logie Baird is largely

credited for the invention of the modern television. Baird
successfully televised objects in outline in 1924, recognizable
human face in 1925, and moving objects in 1926, and
projected colored images in 1928.
 Baird’s television

Inventions by Filipino Scientist

The Philippines boasts of, its own history of scientific and
technological innovations. Filipinos have long been known for
their ingenuity. As with all other inventions, necessity has
always been the mother of Philippine inventions. Most of these
inventions appealed to the unique social and cultural context
of the archipelagic nation. Throughout Philippine history,
Filipinos are responsible for developing many scientific and
technological innovations focused on navigation, traditional
shipbuilding, textiles, food processing, indigenous arts and
techniques, and even cultural inventions. The following are
some of the most important inventions by Filipino scientist.

Electronic Jeepney (e-jeepney). As demand for more

responsive transportation technology arose, the e-jeepney was
introduced in Metro Manila and Bacolod City. The e-jeepney is
the inventive response to criticisms to the traditional jeepney
that belched smoke, directly causing air pollution which made
it unsustainable and uneconomical.

E-jeepney
Erythromycin. The Ilonggo scientist Abelardo Aguilar invented
this intibiotic out of a strain of bacterium called Streptomyces
erythreus, from which this drug derived its name.

Abelardo Aguilar and his Erythromycin

Medical Incubator. Filipino pediatrician and national scientist,

Fe del Mundo, is credited for the invention of the incubator and
jaundice relieving device. Her original improvised incubator
consisted of two native laundry baskets of different sizes that
are placed one inside the other. Warmth is generated by
bottles with hot water placed around the baskets. A makeshift
hood over the baskets allows oxygen to circulate inside the
incubator.

Dr. Fe del Mundo and the medical incubator

Mole Remover. In 2000, a local invention that had the ability

to easily remove moles and warts on the skin without the
need for any surgical procedure shot to fame. Rolando dela
Cruz is credited for the invention of a local mole remover that
made use of extracts of cashew nuts, which are very
common in the Philippines.
 Rolando dela Cruz’s commercial product – a mole
Remover formula made of cashew nut extracts

Banana Ketchup. Invented by Maria Orosa, a variety of

ketchup different from the commonly known tomato ketchup.
Historical accounts posit that Orosa invented the banana
ketchup at the backdrop of World War II when there was a
huge shortage of tomatoes. As a result, Orosa developed a
variety of ketchup that made use of mashed banana, sugar,
vinegar, and spices, which were all readily available.

Banana Ketchup also called “Banana Sauce”

Abstraction In science and technology, intellectual revolutions refer to the
series of events that led to the emergence of modern science
and the progress of scientific thinking across critical periods in
history.

Copernican Revolution
The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16th century paradigm
shift named after the Polish mathematician and astronomer
Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus formulated the heliocentric
model of the universe. At the time, the belief was that the Earth
was the center of the Solar System based on the geocentric
model of Ptolemy (i.e., Ptolemic model).
 Nicolaus Copernicus and his heliocentric model

Copernicus repositioned the Earth from the center of the Solar

System and introduced the idea that the Earth rotates on its
own axis. The model illustrated the Earth, along with other
heavenly bodies to be rotating around the Sun.

The contribution of the Copernican Revolution is far-reaching.

It served as a catalyst to sway scientific away from age-long
views about the position of the Earth relative to an enlightened
understanding of the universe. This marked the beginning of
modern astronomy. Although very slowly, the heliocentric
model eventually caught on among other astronomers who
further refined the model and contributed to the recognition of
heliocentrism. Thus, the Copernican Revolution marked a
turning point in the study of cosmology and astronomy making
it a truly important intellectual revolution.

Darwinian Revolution
The English naturalist, geologist and biologist, Charles Darwin
is credited for stirring another important intellectual revolution
in the mid-19th century.

The Darwinian Revolution benefitted from earlier intellectual

revolutions especially those in the 16th and 17th centuries such
that it was guided by confidence in human reason’s ability to
explain phenomena in the universe. Darwin gathered evidence
pointing to what is now known as natural selection, an
evolutionary process by which organisms, including humans,
inherit, develop, and adapt traits that favored survival and
reproduction. These traits are manifested in offsprings that are
more fit and well-suited to the challenges of survival and
reproduction.

The place of the Darwinian Revolution in modern science

cannot be underestimated. Through this revolution, the
development of
 organisms and the origin of unique forms of life and humanity
could be rationalized by a lawful system or an orderly process
of change underpinned by laws of nature.

Freudian Revolution

Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud, is credited for stirring

20th century intellectual revolution named after him, the
Freudian Revolution. Psychoanalysis as a school of thought in
psychology is at the center of this revolution.

Psychoanalysis is a scientific method of understanding inner

and unconscious conflicts embedded within one’s personality,
springing from free associations, dreams ad fantasies of the
individuals. It emphasized the existence of the unconscious
where feelings, thoughts, urges, emotions, and memories are
contained outside of one’s conscious mind. Freud suggests
that humans are inherently pleasure-seeking individuals.

Freud’s psychoanalysis is widely credited for dominating

psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th century.
Psychodynamic therapies that treat a myriad of psychological
disorders still remain largely informed by Freud’s work on
psychoanalysis.

Abstraction Science and technology in the Philippines had its beginnings

during the pre-colonial times. During this period, people used
herbal medicine to treat illnesses, To facilitate trading, Filipinos
made use of writing numerical, measurement, and calendar
systems. Farming, fishing, mining and weaving were the first
livelihood skills developed by Filipinos. In some cases, the
techniques Filipinos developed for livelihood purposes resulted
in majestic architectural designs that managed to attract
worldwide attention like the Banaue Rice Terraces of Ifugao.

During the Spanish colonial period, science and technology

developed through the establishment of formal education
institutions and the launching of scientific organizations.
Schools were mandated to teach religion, mathematics,
reading and writing, music and arts, and health and sanitation.
Medicine and biology were taught in different educational and
training institutions.

Since agriculture was the major livelihood of Filipinos, the

natives were trained to use innovative approaches in farming.
To construct buildings, churches, bridges, roads and forts,
engineering was introduced and developed as well.

When the Americans came, institutions of science and

technology were reorganized.
∙ The former Laboratorio Municipals was replaced by
Bureau of Government Laboratories under the United
States’ Department of Interior. The Bureau was
established for the purpose of studying tropical diseases
and pursuing other related research projects. In 1905, it
was changed to Bureau of Science which became the
main research center of the Philippines.
∙ In 1933, the National Research Council of the Philippines
was established. Developments in science and
technology during the American regime were focused in
agriculture, medicine and pharmacy, food processing
and forestry. In 1946, Bureau of Science was replaced
by the Institute of Science.

During the time of former President Ferdinand Marcos, the role

of science and technology in national development was
emphasized. ∙ He mandated the Department of Education and
Culture, now known as Department of Education (DepEd). to
promote science courses in public high schools.
∙ Additional budget for research projects applied sciences
and science education was granted.
∙ A 35 hectare lot in Bicutan, Taguig was proclaimed in 1968
as the Philippine Science Community now the site of the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST).
 ∙ Seminars, workshops, training programs, and scholarships
on fisheries and oceanography were also sponsored led
by the government.
∙ Philippine Coconut Research Institute (PHILCORIN) was
tasked to promote the modernization of the coconut
industry.
∙ Several agencies and organizations were also established:

Philippine Atomic Energy Commission (now the

Philippine Nuclear Institute

National Grains Authority (now the National Food Authority)

Philippine Council for Agricultural Research (now the

Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic, and National
Resources Research and Development)

Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical

Services Administration (PAGASA)

Philippine National Oil Company

Plant Breeding Institute

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)

Bureau of Plant Industry

Bureau of Forest Products

National Committee on Geological Sciences

∙ National Science Development Board (NSDB) was

reorganized as the National Science and Technology
Authority (NSTA)
∙ In 1976, Marcos established the National Academy of
Science and Technology (NAST) to be the reservoir of
scientific and technological expertise in the country.
∙ Salary increases for teachers and administrators st the
Philippine Science High School were granted
∙ Mindanao and Visayas campuses of the Philippine Science
High School were established during Marcos’ time.

In 1986, under President Corazon Aquino, NSTA was renamed

DOST. This was done in order for the science and technology
sector to be represented in the cabinet and thus play an integral
role in the country’s sustainable economic recovery and growth.
Science and Technology Master Plan was penned by DOST
which aimed to update the production sector, improve research
activities, and develop infrastructures for the science and
technology sector.

In 1987 under the presidency of Fidel Ramos, The Philippines

had approximately 3,000 competent scientist and engineers.

∙ The “Doctors to the Barrio” program made healthcare

accessible even in far-flung areas in the country,
∙ Incentives were given to people who played significant
roles in the science and technology sector.
∙ The National Program for Gifted Filipino Children in
Science and Technology was created for high school
students who wanted to major in science and
engineering in college
∙ The number of laws and statutes related to science and
technology sector were mandated such as:

RA 8439: Magna Carta for Scientist Engineers,

Researchers and other Science and Technology
Personnel in Governance

RA 7687: Science and Technology Scholarship Act of

1994 RA 7459: Inventors and Invention Incentives Act

RA 8293: The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines

RA 8749: The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 and RA 8792:

Electronic Commerce Act of 2000 were both signed and
mandated during the term of President Joseph Estrada. He
was also responsible for implementing cost effective irrigation
technologies and providing basic health care services for those
who could not afford them.

During the administration of President Gloria Macapagal-

Arroyo, the science and technology sector were developed to
strengthen the education system and to address poverty.

∙ Filipinnovation was coined to refer to the Philippines as an

innovation hub in Asia.
∙ Arroyo also promulgated RA 9367: Biofuels Act, to utilize
indigenous materials As source of energy. However, the
act was not able to produce positive outcomes because
of the lack of technology to source raw materials.
 ∙ Farmers were encouraged to use rice that can withstand
environmental hazards.
∙ RA 10601: Agriculture and Fisheries Mechanization
(AFMech) Law was also passed to modernize
agricultural and fisheries machinery and equipment.

In 2014, President Benigno Aquino III named new National

Scientists namely Gavino C. Trono for Marine Biology; Angel C.
Alcala for Biological Science; Ramon C. Barba for horticulture;
and Edgardo D. Gomez also for Marine Biology.

Today, in the administration of President Rodrigo Duterte, the

science and technology sector is seen to be a priority based on
the budget for Research and Development (R&D) that grew
nearly six times over the same period.
∙ Formulation of programs and policies that will aid in
shaping the country is backed up by President Duterte. ∙
The focus of DOST is to put the results of R&D into
commercialization in order to gain new intellectual
properties.
∙ Philippines has the Philippine Space Technology Program
which launched Diwata-2 in 2018 after the launch of
Diwata-1 in 2016 that displayed the Philippine flag in
Space.
∙ Besides space technology, the current administration also
gives importance to agriculture and disaster
preparedness.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES AND

THE ENVIRONMENT

Science and technology have numerous contributions to society:

∙ The mechanization of farming is necessary for agriculture,

being the number one source of food production.
∙ Tools such as water pumps and sprinklers help in
managing the damaging effects of extreme heat caused
by climate change on crops.
∙ Science and technology have also made it possible to
produce genetically modified crops, which grow faster
and are more resistant to pests. Fertilizers that increase
nutrients in the soil enhance the growth of the crops and
produce high quality yields.
∙ It has also improved transportation by land, air and sea. ∙
Communication has also improved through technological
advancements.
Abstraction Harnessing Science and Technology for Poverty
Reduction and Sustainable Development

One of the most strategic issues facing the Philippines has not
yet been addressed: the key role of science and technology in
the Philippine development plan.

It is now clearly accepted that science, technology and

innovation (STI) are a key elements in the advancement of a
country. Indeed, there is no country that has progressed
without including STI as a central part of their development
plan. All progressive countries in the world have put STI as a
centerpiece of their strategy. The Philippines has failed to do
this. This national election must address this question and the
new administration must correct this failure.

The Philippines faces multiple global and local challenges

which require science, technology and innovation. These
include: ∙ the intensifying competition from globalization and
regional integration;
∙ natural disasters, environmental degradation and climate
change;
∙ and persistent poverty and increasing inequality. Without
STI: we will not be competitive; we will continue to suffer great
damage from natural disasters, environmental degradation
and climate change; and we will continue to be poor.

How the Philippines responds to these challenges will

determine whether the country will experience rapid, inclusive
and sustained growth and development or revert to the status
of the economic laggard of the region which includes high-
performing countries,
such as Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam,
and China. (China, our giant neighbor, recently announced
that it will increase its investment in science and technology
over the next 5 years and cut red tape which hampers science
and innovation).

Science, technology and innovation (STI) are an indispensable

component of the response to our challenges. However, the
Philippines is at present ill-prepared to cope with these
challenges. We are not investing sufficient resources in
science and technology (S&T) human resource development,
research and development (R&D), and physical infrastructure.
Today we lack even the minimum number of scientists and
technologists needed for innovation-driven development. As a
result, we suffer from low industrial and agricultural
productivity, overall inefficiency, and a meager output of
knowledge products, such as scientific publications, patents,
and innovations. Where there are highly-trained scientists and
technologists, there is not enough local investment to absorb
them. Thus, we are engaged in an unwinnable effort to stem
the exodus of our highly-trained professionals to countries that
are able to provide them the material reward, productive
working conditions, and social recognition that are denied
them in own country.

Moreover, the S&T sector in particular, and Philippine society

in general, are burdened by archaic legal, financial, and
administrative rules and practices which stifle R&D, innovation
and productivity, and have thus prevented STI from fulfilling its
goals of poverty reduction and sustainable development. NAST
therefore proposes the adoption of the following policies and/or
programs:

Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs)

Facilitate access of MSMEs to advanced technologies and

global markets. An industrial extension network should be
established to assist and train MSMEs in using advanced
technologies and accessing financing to produce higher
valued products that can
be marketed globally.

Agriculture
Agriculture has the greatest potential to solve urgent national
problems, in particular, poverty, unemployment, overpopulation
in the cities, poor health and nutrition, and environmental
degradation. To achieve this, we propose a science-based,
nature-inspired program that requires the following
commitments from the national leadership:
 ∙ Redirect agricultural production programs from single
commodity (e.g., rice, livestock, fisheries) to a farming
systems-oriented program. Replace rice sufficiency with
food security as the primary national goal.
∙ Restructure agricultural R&D, including education and
extension services, to make them a catalyst for
diversification, integration and intensification in the
farms. Give the highest priority to applied biology and
biotechnology, flexible machinery systems, and
utilization of information technology.
∙ Formulate innovative policies that promote coupling of
mechanization with energy self-reliance in all steps of
the value chain, using renewables and indigenous
sources of energy.
∙ Review highly restrictive regulations involving
bioprospecting, biotechnology, information technology,
and other components of modern technology.
∙ Manage land and water resources to ensure food security
and the protection of the environment.
∙ Actively promote diversification in agricultural production
to ensure food security and promote better nutrition. ∙
Invest in the local production of agricultural inputs, such as
high-value animal care products and machinery.
∙ Adopt a whole industry approach to the coconut sector,
which includes agricultural production, integrated
processing, health research, biofuels, and biochemical.

Manufacturing
∙ Manufacture higher-valued food and non-food products
from agricultural raw materials. Manufacture higher-
value products from our mineral resources.
∙ Provide reliable and inexpensive power to industry and
SMSEs.
∙ Improve product quality, efficiency and productivity of the
manufacturing sector by facilitating access to new
developments in emerging technologies, such as
biotechnology, information technology, materials
science and nanotechnology.
∙ Institute an industrial policy that promotes broad
technologies rather than specific industries.

Health and Nutrition

∙ Sustain policy and operational research to provide quality

health care to all Filipinos.
 ∙ Increase R&D support in the National Unified Health
Research and Development Agenda for non
communicable diseases such as heart disease and
hypertension, and diabetes, the neglected tropical
diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis and rabies;
as well as emerging infectious diseases such as
MERS-CoV and Zika.
∙ Strengthen and improve the infrastructure for the
surveillance and monitoring of diseases through efficient
and updated case registries.
∙ Upgrade the testing facilities for food and drug quality and
safety that conform to global standards and ensure that
these services are affordable and available in the
regions where they are needed.
∙ Train and provide tools to health workers to enable them
to make prompt and appropriate diagnoses and
treatment through point of care health products and
technologies.
∙ Promote health and nutrition by actively campaigning for
diversified diet and requiring open spaces and parks, in
communities and schools.
∙ Intensify support for science-based herbal medicine
services.
∙ Train human resources to gain national capacity to
evaluate, build, repair and maintain civil infrastructure
(roads, bridges, airports, seaports) according to global
standards.
∙ Improve the national information infrastructure by
installing a reliable and secure high-speed wide
bandwidth internet system.
∙ Provide IT access to remote communities.
∙ Adopt measures and the technology to ensure a reliable
and safe transportation system on land, sea and air;
rehabilitate and expand the railway system.

Environment and Climate Change

∙ Continue investments in R&D to develop a highly reliable

early warning system and appropriate adaptation
measures to address the effects of climate change and
the increasing frequency of highly-damaging natural
disasters.
∙ Institute measures that balance development and
environmental concerns and harness technological
advances to deal with climate change, disaster risk
reduction/management, biodiversity conservation
especially in the mapping of: (a) pollution sources and
 risks; (b) vulnerable communities and ecosystems; and
(c) land use and cover change.
∙ Review, and if necessary revise, the elementary and high
school curricula to include courses or modules on the
environment, biodiversity and climate change, with
emphasis on understanding the need for balancing
these global concerns with national development
goals.S&T Infrastructure and Governance
∙ Increase R&D to GDP ratio, first to 1% and later to 2%,
with government support being focused on technologies
with the highest impact.
∙ Revise rules and regulations on the procurement of
scientific equipment and the auditing of S&T
expenditures that hinder R&D and innovation to
conform to the needs of R&D.
∙ Designate and strengthen selected universities as a base
for the establishment of discovery- innovation institutes
or knowledge-innovation hubs.
∙ Adopt more flexible hiring rules and compensation levels
for highly-trained scientists and technologists.
∙ Adopt a whole of government approach to Science,
Technology and Innovation (STI) so that STI should be
a top priority at the highest levels of policymaking.

Brain Drain and Science Education

∙ Provide additional incentives for scientists and
technologists. Over the long term, the aim should be
not only to retain Filipino scientists and technologists
but to attract back some of those who have left for
greener pastures abroad.
∙ Improve the work environment of Filipino scientists and
technologists to ensure that policies, procedures, and
institutions’ practices are conducive to scientific
knowledge production comparable to the more
technologically advanced countries in the region.
∙ Adopt measures to attract the best and the brightest to
pursue undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate
programs in S&T. The Philippines needs to graduate at
least 3,000 new PhDs each year for the next 10 years
in order to meet UNESCO’s critical threshold
comparable to the more technologically advanced or
progressive countries in the region.
∙ Formulate appropriate government hiring rules in order to
make it easier for public and private universities and
research institutes to create new research positions,
starting with designated research universities.
 ∙ Develop regional and global academic linkages. ∙
Strengthen the provisions and support for mathematics
and science education at the basic education level (K to
12), adapting to local schools the standards and best
practices in more technologically advanced or progressive
countries in the region.

These proposed policies, programs or projects, though

separate, are mutually supportive and reinforcing. Individually
and collectively, they promote inclusive growth and
sustainable development. They are also, in our view, doable
within the six
year term of the President.
embryonic stem cell research, genetic engineering, diet and
obesity, teaching evolution in schools, space exploration,
renewable energy technologies, and bioterrorism are just a few of
the media subjects that have significant implications for both
public policy and personal decision-making.

Today, news about science and technology is featured in front

page articles in stories abate discoveries, news about health, and
reviews of economic trends and business affairs. Media attention
focuses on technology related policy issues such as
environmental quality and public health. Controversies over
biotechnology, AIDS therapies, the patenting of new life forms,
and incidents of fraud have become newsworthy events.
Increasingly, in the 1990s, science appears in the coverage of
such global issues as climate change, environmental disasters
and international economic affairs. And scandals from the
radiation experiments on human subjects during the Cold War to
the falsification of data for research on alternative breast cancer
therapies concentrate interest on the problems of science and call
attention to the importance of timely and informative reporting. For
most people, the reality of science is what they read in the press.
They understand science less through direct experience or past
education than through the filter of journalistic language and
imagery. The media are their only contact with what is going on in
rapidly changing scientific and technical fields, as well as a major
source of information about the implications of these changes for
their lives. Good reporting can enhance the public’s ability to
evaluate science policy issues and the individual’s ability to make
rational personal choices; poor reporting can mislead and
disempower a public that is increasingly affected by science and
technology and by decisions determined by technical expertise. At
the community level, people are continually confronted with
choices that require some understanding of scientific evidence:
whether to allow the construction of a toxic waste disposal dump
in their neighborhood, or how to respond to a child with AIDS in
their school. Similar choices mu st be made at the personal level:
whether to use estrogen replacement therapy, whether to eat high
fiber cereals or to reduce consumption of coffee, or how to act
upon the results of a prenatal genetic test. Information and
understanding are necessary if people are to think critically about
the decisions they must make in their everyday lives.
Abstraction THE CONSUMER HIT PARADE

In the October 6, 1987, issue of Newsweek, Robert J.

Samuelson described the ten products or services that he
believed had changed post-war American society most
profoundly, resulting in a "society of greater individual choice
and mobility without many of history's wants and discomforts."

Samuelson's list included the following ten items:

∙ Television: "TV has surely changed politics; it brought the
Vietnam War into living rooms. It's also expanded
national culture..."
∙ Jet Travel: "It has shrunk the country."
∙ The Pill: "Along with working women and better
appliances obverted old sex roles."
∙ Air Conditioning: "It made the sun belt possible." ∙
Automatic washers and dryers: "They revolutionized
housework."
∙ Antibiotics: "Drastically reduced the threat to life of
commonplace injuries and infections."
∙ Health Insurance: it made health care an entitlement."
∙ Long Distance: "It too has shrunk America."
∙ Social Security and Pensions: They made retirement "an
expected part of life."
∙ Interstate Highways: "They've shaped suburbia by
attracting offices, malls, and industrial parks,
determining where we live, work, and shop."

Samuelson's list did not include computers. He described

computers as one of the products "that mainly serve business"
and therefore "don't count."

We often forget just how much society has changed. The

consumer culture's emphasis on the "new" tends to keep us
from focusing on the impact of change.
its own sake, but to augment and enhance the skills of the people using
it. After all, a key is meant to unlock the door to something greater—not
something of value in and of itself.

Key to the Future of Work: “Next Era” Partnership

The truth is, none of us—human or AI—can predict the future of work in
this moment. That said, we do have some pretty good ideas how
technology will co-exist with humans in the next 10 to 15 years.
The Institute for the Future (IFTF) and Dell have been working together
to put some broad brushstrokes to that vision. One of the most colorful
threads: humans will serve as “digital conductors” in the modern world,
where tech exists within and as an extension of us, rather than separate
from us as it is now.
What the heck does that even mean? Imagine this: in the future, we’ll
store smart phones in our brains, not our pockets. We’ll play video
games with neural pathways rather than digital consoles. We’ll be able
to implant computers into our bodies, rather than sitting at desks and
coffee shops to type on them. It’s mind-blowing stuff, yes. But it also
opens up huge opportunities for humans to save time, money, and
energy in pursuit of even more amazing things. This time and capacity
are both keys to the future of work. Indeed, this second machine age, or
fourth industrial revolution, has brought the most uncertainty, but also
the greatest opportunity of any age we’ve ever experienced.

Key to the Future of Work: Learning in the Moment

One of the stats that never fails to blow my mind is this: more than 80
percent of the jobs we’ll be doing in 2030 don’t even exist yet. Forget
Chief Data Officer or Data Protection Officer. I’m talking jobs that we as
humans can’t even fathom yet because we have no reference point to
even imagine them. That’s one reason IFTF has marked “in the moment
training” as another key to the future of work. Rather than seeing
students head to college to train for four years to learn coding or cyber
security, for instance, we’re more likely to see employers hiring
adaptable, resilient, smart, capable leaders who can pick up new skills
as needed, amidst a fast-flowing sea of change.
Which brings me to another key to the future of work: soft skills. As our
relationship with technology and AI continues to intensify, we’ll be seeing
employers putting greater emphasis on A+ “human skills,” rather than
simple technical skills. Indeed, as machines continue to overtake the
mundane and menial tasks, it gives room for deeper cognitive traits like
compassion, empathy and complex problem-solving within the human
brain to partner alongside machines to create new jobs, new
experiences and solve problems that have to this day been unsolvable.
 Key to the Future of Work: Going with the Flow

While many don’t agree how the future of work will look, most do agree
that we’ll need to change to embrace it—most likely daily. This means
considering new business models that allow us to use technology to its
fullest—strategically—every step of the way.
The future of work does not have to be a scary one. In fact, it can be an
incredibly exciting one as we prepare to use technology in ways most of
us have never even imagined—from creating our own real-life Iron Man
suits to aid solders, to building smart exo-skeletons that help those
suffering from paralysis. All we need to do is remember who’s in charge.

Application Have you ever heard to your parents or other adults speak negatively
about technology, especially technology that they use on their jobs?
Why do some adults react this way to changes in the ways things are
done, while others are excited about using any new machine that comes
along?

Closure Good job! You are done with lesson in this module. Keep up with the
pace that the lessons of the modules set for you and you’ll find the
amount of material and work to be easier to handle

Module No. and Module 3: Science, Technology, and Society Issues

Title

Lesson No. and 2: Simulating the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

Title

Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to: ∙
Describe the goals of the Strategic Defense Initiative. ∙
Analyze a simplified model of the SDI, examining the
values and assumptions underlying the model.
∙ Appreciate the necessity for a technologically literate
society.

Time Frame 2 hours

Introduction The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) is the Reagan

administration's proposal for using a space- based defense
system for the United States. The program has been widely
hailed and widely assailed. To help make the proposed project
understandable to citizens, a variety of neatly simplified models
have appeared. This lesson examines one model, asking
students to critically assess the assumptions, operations, and
conclusion resulting from that model.
During the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan initiated the
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), an anti-ballistic missile
program that was designed to shoot down nuclear missiles in
space. Otherwise known as “Star Wars,” SDI sought to create
a space
based shield that would render nuclear missiles obsolete.

Origins
Reagan’s interest in anti-ballistic missile technology dated
back to 1967 when, as governor of California, he paid a visit to
physicist Edward Teller at the Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory. Reagan reportedly was very taken by Teller’s
briefing on directed-energy weapons (DEWs), such as lasers
and microwaves. Teller argued that DEWs could potentially
defend against a nuclear attack, characterizing them as the
“third generation of nuclear weapons” after fission and
thermonuclear weapons, respectively (Rhodes 179).
According to George Shultz, the Secretary of State during
Reagan’s presidency, the meeting with Teller was “the first
gleam in Ronald Reagan’s eye of what later became the
Strategic Defense Initiative” (Shultz 261). This account was
also confirmed by Teller, who wrote, “Fifteen years later, I
discovered that [Reagan] had been very interested in those
ideas” (Teller 509).
The need for an effective anti-ballistic missile system grew
considerably in Reagan’s eyes after he visited the
headquarters of the North American Aerospace Defense
Command (NORAD) in 1979. The NORAD headquarters are
located deep inside the Cheyenne Mountain Complex, a
military bunker near Colorado Springs. During his tour of the
complex, Reagan—impressed with the extensive
fortifications—asked General James Hill what would happen if
a Soviet nuclear missile hit within the vicinity of the mountain.
“It would blow us away,” said Hill. A missile could be tracked,
but there was nothing they could do to stop it from reaching its
target. “There must be something better than this,” replied a
shocked Reagan (Shultz 262).
After his election in 1980, President Reagan demonstrated a
continued interest in anti-ballistic missile technology from the
early stages of his administration. In early 1981, he signed
National Security Decision Directive (NSDD) 12, which
included the creation of a “vigorous research and development
program on ballistic missile defense systems.” Reagan also
adopted tough anti-Soviet rhetoric and policy, a stark contrast
to the decade of détente which preceded him. Three weeks
before the announcement of SDI, Reagan gave his famous
“evil empire”
speech, which branded the Soviet Union as the unequivocal
enemy of the United States. An anti-ballistic missile system—
one which would give the United States complete protection
from the Soviet Union—was the natural next step.

The Announcement
On March 23, 1983, President Reagan announced the SDI
program in a television address broadcast nationally. “What if
free people could live secure in the knowledge that their
security did not rest upon the threat of instant U.S. retaliation
to deter a Soviet attack, that we could intercept and destroy
strategic ballistic missiles before they reached our own soil or
that of our allies?” he said. “I call upon the scientific
community in our country, those who gave us nuclear
weapons, to turn their great talents now to the cause of
mankind and world peace, to give us the means of rendering
these nuclear weapons impotent and obsolete.”

Reagan instructed Secretary of State Shultz to give Soviet

Ambassador to the U.S. Anatoly Dobrynin an advance copy of
the speech announcing SDI. Shultz told Dobrynin “that this
was a research and development effort” and “that we knew
that the Soviets were pursuing such efforts as well, and that
our proposed program for strategic defense would be
designed to enhance stability.” A disturbed Dobrynin
reportedly replied, “You will be opening a new phase in the
arms race” (Shultz 256).
Reagan’s speech blindsided many of his close advisors, some
of whom had not been given advance warning that SDI would
soon be administration policy. Secretary of State Alexander
Haig recalled, “I know the aftermath the next day in the
Pentagon, where they were all rushing around saying, ‘What
the hell is strategic defense?’” (O’Connell 23).
In an interview only a few days after the announcement,
Reagan insisted that SDI was not part of a new arms race but
instead a path to ridding the world of nuclear weapons
altogether. To prove this point, the president suggested that
the United States could eventually share SDI with the Soviet
Union. “A President of the United States could offer to give
that same defensive weapon to them to prove to them that
there was no longer any need for keeping these missiles,”
explained Reagan. “Or with that defense, he could then say to
them, ‘I am willing to do away with all my missiles. You do
away with yours’” (Shultz 260).
Reaction in the West
The announcement of SDI shocked officials around the globe.
To many, it was as unexpected as it was provocative. As
Secretary of State Schultz explained, “Prior to the president’s
speech, even the possibility that the United States might
seriously seek to defend itself from nuclear attack seemed
outlandish. After President Reagan’s speech, what had
seemed ‘outlandish’ became the agenda for debate” (Shultz
261).
Among other controversies, SDI threatened to undermine the
American and Soviet deterrence policy of mutually assured
destruction (MAD). Decades before, the two superpowers had
successfully developed intercontinental ballistic missiles
(ICBMs) as well as effective second strike capabilities such as
nuclear submarines. These weapons would be very difficult to
destroy, even in a preemptive nuclear strike, and thus the
Americans and the Soviets reached a certain equilibrium.
Neither country could attack the other without the strong
probability that both sides would be annihilated.
MAD was firmly instituted as the policy of nuclear deterrence
for both sides when President Richard Nixon and General
Secretary Leonid Brezhnev signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile
Treaty (ABM) in 1972. The treaty limited each side “to have
one limited ABM system to protect its capital and another to
protect an ICBM launch area,” and the signatories agreed “not
to develop, test, or deploy [additional] ABM launchers.” ABM
recognized the reality that an anti-ballistic missile system
would actually make both sides less secure because it would
undermine the balance of mutually assured destruction.
Unsurprisingly, concerns over MAD and ABM were widespread
following the announcement of SDI, even among members of
the Reagan administration. “Can you be sure of an
impenetrable shield?” asked Shultz. “And what about cruise
missiles? What about stealth bombers? What about the ABM
Treaty? What about our allies and the strategic doctrine on
which we and they depend?” (Shultz 250). Under Secretary of
State for Political Affairs Lawrence Eagleburger likewise
critiqued, “The president seems to be proposing an updated
version of the Maginot Line [the interwar defensive
fortifications on the Franco-German border which gave France
a false sense of security]” (252).
Another common criticism of SDI was that it was simply not a
feasible project. For example, the day after Reagan announced
SDI, Senator Ted Kennedy dismissed his speech as
“misleading Red-scare tactics and reckless Star Wars
schemes,” indirectly coining SDI’s Hollywood nickname. A
New York Times op-
ed similarly noted, “It remains a pipe dream, a projection of
fantasy into policy….There's no statesmanship in science
fiction.” Scientists also expressed their doubts about SDI. In
1985, for example, physicist Wolfgang Panofsky wrote in
Physics Today, “ABM defense technology deserves further
research within treaty limits, but the ‘Star Wars’ program is too
large, too political, raises false hopes and poses grave
dangers to national and world security.” Members of the
Reagan administration, however, pushed back against this
notion. Science Advisor George Keyworth argued, “I have
been asked time and time again one simple question, is it now
a good time to attempt a development of a technological
solution to making ballistic missiles obsolete? No more, no
less. And the answer, to the best of my judgment, is yes. It is
technically feasible.”

Allies of the United States in Europe, particularly those in

NATO, were also alarmed by the development of SDI.
Throughout most of the Cold War, American nuclear power
was the primary deterrent which prevented a Soviet invasion
of Western Europe. With SDI, the Europeans feared that the
United States would no longer provide this defense. As U.S.
Ambassador to Canada Thomas Niles explained, “The
Europeans saw SDI as an indication that the United States, at
least theoretically, was interested in backing away from this
commitment to Europe and building a ‘Fortress America,’ with
this high-tech system that would protect us, but not them.”
French President Francois Mitterrand, for example, was very
vocal about his concerns regarding SDI: “I am opposed to the
idea of SDI—I perceive it as a potential opportunity for a first
strike….It is obvious that SDI will not replace nuclear weapons,
but will become a substantial addition to the existing arsenals”
(Gorbachev 429). Although they protested the development of
SDI, the opposition of the United States’ European allies had
little effect on the program’s development.
Despite its many critics, the Strategic Defense Initiative was
ultimately very popular with the American public. It appealed
both to the desire for security against nuclear war and to the
belief in the superiority of American technological
achievements. Political scientist Kerry L. Hunter explained this
phenomenon:
The power of Reagan’s Star Wars vision…lay in its
utopian characteristics. It did not matter that Star Wars
ignored reality. In fact, it was for this reason that the
ideal was so appealing. The Star Wars dream allowed
Americans to avoid a very stark truth that was
practically intolerable to face: there was nothing they
could do to protect
 themselves from nuclear annihilation outside of
cooperating with the Soviets (Rhodes 180).
Polling data from the 1980s supports this notion. A 1985
Gallup poll reported that 61% of respondents replied
affirmatively to the question, “Would you like to see the United
States go ahead with the development of (SDI), or not?''

Development
Two days after announcing SDI, Reagan signed NSDD 85,
which authorized “the development of an intensive effort to
define a long term research and development program aimed
at an ultimate goal of eliminating the threat posed by nuclear
ballistic missiles,” but “in a manner consistent with our
obligations under the ABM Treaty and recognizing the need
for close consultations with our allies.” According to the
Reagan administration, SDI was not a violation of ABM
because it was only pursuing research and development, not
deployment. As Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger
explained, “The fact is, deployment will not occur unless a
defensive system is developed that would better contribute in
better ways to deterrence than the arrangement which now
keeps the peace, as it has for nearly 40 years” (O’Connell 77).

Although he was influenced by scientists such as Teller, the

Strategic Defense Initiative was ultimately Reagan’s personal
vision because it was based on technology that had not yet
been invented. Scientific experts had not made any
groundbreaking discoveries in the years leading up to the
announcement of SDI, and they were far from certain whether
such a system was even possible. Scientific development did
not influence policy in this case; it was policy that was
intended to influence science. Reagan confirmed this fact in a
1984 letter: “Frankly, I have no idea what the nature of such a
defense might be. I simply asked our scientists to explore the
possibility of developing such a defense” (Lazzari 31).
On March 27, 1984—more than a year after Reagan had
announced SDI—Air Force Lieutenant General James
Abrahamson was appointed as the first director of the Strategic
Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO). The role of the
organization, however, remained largely unclear. By 1985,
SDIO was serving as an umbrella for the 22 think tanks and
aerospace firms working on the program (O’Connell 76). The
actual design of SDI was also unclear; scientists and experts
considered an enormous number of possibilities. Options
included both space-
based and ground-based lasers, as well as a wide variety of
missiles and tracking systems. Edward Teller, for example,
was an early proponent of the satellite X-ray laser, although it
was ultimately ineffective. Later on, the program focused on
smaller, space-launched missiles known as “Brilliant Pebbles.”

SDI as Propaganda
The Strategic Defense Initiative was ultimately most effective
not as an anti-ballistic missile defense system, but as a
propaganda tool which could put military and economic
pressure on the Soviet Union to fund their own anti-ballistic
missile system. This possibility was particularly significant
because, during the 1980s, the Soviet economy was teetering
on the brink of disaster. “Why can’t we just lean on the Soviets
until they go broke?” quipped Reagan (Lazzari 23).
Although Reagan was sincerely invested in SDI for the
purposes of national security and never intended for it to be a
bargaining chip, many of his advisors acknowledged its
potential as a negotiating tool. Despite his concerns about the
shortcomings of SDI as a legitimate system of defense, Shultz
recalled saying at the time, “The Soviets will assume that we
are on the verge of some special technical innovation. Maybe
that is the greatest benefit” (251).
Shultz’s assessment proved to be correct. As Soviet
Ambassador Dobrynin explained, the Soviet Union believed
“that the great technological potential of the United States had
scored again and treated Reagan’s statement as a real threat”
(Gaddis 227). Soviet scientists were immediately tasked with
investigating SDI. Physicist Roald Sagdeev, who was a part of
this effort, recalled, “You know what the major argument was
for investigating? What we were most afraid of? We were
afraid that the industrialists in our military-industrial complex
would say, ‘Great, we should do the same thing’” (Rhodes
202). Sagdeev later acknowledged, “If Americans oversold
[SDI], we Russians overbought it.”
Soviet research into anti-ballistic missiles had begun in the
1970s, well before Reagan announced SDI, but it was quickly
made a top priority in 1983. Above all else, Soviet leaders
feared that SDI would pave the way for weaponizing space.
Although the Soviet military budget remained a closely
guarded secret, some
American estimates concluded that it accounted for 15-17% of
the Soviet Union’s annual GDP. The high point of Soviet anti
ballistic missile efforts came on May 15, 1987, when they
launched an Energia rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome
launch site in southern Kazakhstan. The rocket carried the
Polyus spacecraft, which was equipped with a laser system,
Skif, and a
missile system, Kaskad. It was designed to shoot down SDI in
space. In the end, Polyus failed to reach orbit and quickly
broke apart.

When reformer Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985, he

began to drastically cut Soviet military spending, particularly
the anti-ballistic missile program the USSR had started in
response to SDI. In a speech to the Politburo in March 1986,
Gorbachev exclaimed, “Maybe we should just stop being
afraid of SDI! Of course we can’t simply disregard this
dangerous program. But we should overcome our obsession
with it. They’re banking on the USSR’s fear of SDI—in moral,
economic, political, and military terms. They’re pursuing this
program to wear us out” (Rhodes 224). Scaling back the
military budget was one method Gorbachev used in his efforts
to revive the Soviet economy; another was negotiating directly
with the United States.
Arms Control Negotiations
The Strategic Defense Initiative became a key negotiating
point in a series of meetings between Reagan and Gorbachev:
the Geneva Summit (1985), the Reykjavik Summit (1986), the
Washington Summit (1987), and the Moscow Summit (1988).
These negotiations culminated in the Intermediate-Range
Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF), which went into effect in 1988,
and laid the groundwork for the Strategic Arms Reduction
Treaty (START) in the 1990s. “The Strategic Defense Initiative
in fact proved to be the ultimate bargaining chip,” recalled
Shultz. “And we played it for all it was worth” (Shultz 264).

Although SDI was a frequent topic in negotiations with

Gorbachev, Reagan was reluctant to surrender his project. At
Geneva, for example, Reagan proposed that the two sides
reduce their respective nuclear arsenals by 50% but was
unwilling to surrender SDI. Once again, however, Reagan
offered to share SDI technology with the Soviet Union,
although not all of his advisors shared his enthusiasm for the
proposal. “We had no idea where the idea had come from,
none of us,” said Kenneth Adelman. “We thought it was
wacko” (Rhodes 206). Gorbachev was skeptical that a sharing
program could be arranged, arguing, “I do not take your idea
of sharing SDI seriously. You don’t want to share even
petroleum equipment, automatic machine tools or equipment
for dairies, while sharing SDI would be a second American
Revolution” (Hanhimaki and Westad 583).
Gorbachev was likewise flabbergasted by Reagan’s obsession
with SDI. “Ronald Reagan’s advocacy of the Strategic Defense
Initiative struck me as bizarre,” Gorbachev wrote in his
memoirs. “Was it science fiction, a trick to make the Soviet
Union more forthcoming, or merely a crude attempt to lull us in
order to carry out the mad enterprise—the creation of a shield
which would allow a first strike without fear of retaliation?”
(Gorbachev 407). He argued that SDI was hypocritical—the
West would be terrified if the Soviet Union developed an anti-
ballistic missile system. In fact, Secretary of Defense
Weinberger had said as much back in 1983: “I can’t imagine a
more destabilizing factor for the world than if the Soviet should
acquire a thoroughly reliable defense against these missiles
before we did” (Rhodes 201).
At Reykjavik the following year, Reagan’s attachment to SDI
again proved to be a significant obstacle to negotiations and
the summit ended without a deal. As Gorbachev recalled,
Reykjavik was “the site of a truly Shakespearean
drama….Success was a mere step away, but SDI proved an
insurmountable stumbling block” (Gorbachev 418). By 1987,
however, Gorbachev agreed that missile reductions and SDI
could be negotiated separately. Along with reduced Cold War
tensions, Gorbachev was aware that the U.S. Congress was
cutting SDI’s budget and had been assured by physicist
Andrei Sakharov that the missile defense technology was far
from complete. The INF Treaty, which eliminated all short-
range (310-620 miles) and intermediate range (620-3420
miles) nuclear missiles, was signed at the Washington Summit
later that year.
Legacy
Without Reagan to support it, SDI’s funding plummeted in the
early 1990s. Although the program was never officially
canceled, it was renamed under President Bill Clinton as the
Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO).
In 2001, President George W. Bush announced his
administration’s plan to withdraw from the ABM Treaty within
six months. “A number of [rogue] states are acquiring
increasingly longer-range ballistic missiles as instruments of
blackmail and coercion against the United States and its
friends and allies,” read an official statement. “The United
States must defend its homeland, its forces and its friends and
allies against these threats.” The anti-ballistic missile program
was once again renamed, this time as the National Defense
Agency (NDA). NDA, which still exists today, has studied the
possibilities of space
based anti-ballistic missile technology, as SDI once did,
although without any significant results to date.
In a speech to the Federal Assembly in March 2018, Russian
President Vladimir Putin criticized the United States’ decision
to
Abstraction Technology and Social Change

Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to the making of tools

to solve specific problems. Technological advances such as automobiles,
airplanes, radio, television, cellular phones, computers, modems, and fax
machines have brought major advances and changes to the world. Indeed,
20th century technology has completely—and irreversibly—changed the way
people meet, interact, learn, work, play, travel, worship, and do business.
Technological information increases exponentially: The entire database of
scientific knowledge doubles every several years. This “technological
explosion” is due in part to an “Information explosion,” as well as to
advances in storage, retrieval, and communication of data. In other words, a
cycle occurs: Improvements in technology lead to increases in knowledge
and information and, thus, to uncovering the means to create better
technology. Consequently, sociologists are concerned with how
technological societies will be forced to adapt to the social changes that
improvements in technology will continue to bring.

Computer technology

In the 1990s, people witnessed an explosion of computer technology—both

in America and around the globe, which has in turn led to a change in how
and where people work. Telecommuters are employees of agencies or
business firms who work full‐time or part‐time at home instead of in the
office. They connect to their offices via electronic networking: phone,
computer, e‐mail, and fax. Telecommuting allows employees to work under
supervisors in another state or country. This form of employment especially
helps disabled individuals
who are unable to leave home or travel to an office, as well as working
parents of young children.
The Internet—the world's largest computer network—has revolutionized
electronic networking. The number of people using the Internet continues to
double annually, with at least 50 percent of all Americans “online” in 2000.
The Internet originally developed from a system built by the U.S. Defense
Department to permit governmental work in the aftermath of a nuclear attack.
Although originally only those with governmental or university positions could
access the Internet, now virtually any home can purchase World Wide Web
service. Net‐surfers can telecommute, read articles, check stock prices,
conduct research, comparison price, shop from home, meet others in chat
rooms or on bulletin boards, take college courses, and even earn an
accredited degree. The Internet has certainly provided exciting new
possibilities for electronic communication, yet critics argue that a dark side
exists to this informational tool. One area of special concern, especially for
families with young children, is the ability to access and download
pornographic materials. Internet users can download pornographic photos,
trade sexual messages on a bulletin board, have overtly sexual
conversations with a distant “playmate,” play erotic games, or purchase
tickets for a singles cruise. In recent years, sexual predators have also used
the Internet to identify potential victims. Other areas of concern include
potential social isolation, random and reckless dissemination of non verifiable
or inaccurate information, plagiarism, and family estrangement.

Biotechnology

Recent decades have produced dramatic—though controversial—scientific

advances in biotechnology (the application of technology to the practice of
medicine). Advances in such areas as reproductive technologies, surrogate
parenthood, sex preselection, and genetic engineering have raised difficult
political, ethical, and moral questions.

Reproductive technologies and sex preselection

Not every couple wanting to conceive can do so. If they fail to conceive after
one year or more of trying, the couple is considered infertile. At any one
time, up to 20 percent of couples in the United States may be infertile.
In many cases, doctors can successfully treat infertility:
∙ Fertility drugs (ovulation‐stimulating hormones) can help when the
woman's inability to ovulate causes the infertility.

∙ Artificial insemination, which involves collecting and introducing sperm

into the vagina using a syringe, proves particularly useful when the
man possesses a below‐normal sperm count.

∙ In vitro fertilization, or the “test‐tube baby” method, involves fertilizing

an egg outside the woman's body and implanting it into the uterus.
This
 procedure is useful when the woman has blocked fallopian tubes.

∙ Gamete intrafallopian transfer (“GIFT”) involves taking eggs from the

woman's ovaries, mixing them with the man's sperm, and then
inserting them into the fallopian tube. In this procedure, fertilization
takes place inside the woman's body rather than outside. To date,
couples in the United States have produced over 20,000 babies using
alternatives such as these.

Some couples or individuals decide that adopting a child represents the best
way of dealing with infertility. Others elect to utilize the services of a
surrogate mother—a woman who contracts with a couple to carry their
fetus to full term, deliver it, and adopt it to the couple. A physician may
artificially inseminate the surrogate with the man's sperm or implant an in
vitro fertilized egg into her uterus. Either way, the procedure remains
controversial, given the many potential ethical, legal, and moral issues it
raises. For example, questions of legal, moral, and biological parenthood can
give rise to long and complicated custody proceedings.

Similar to surrogate motherhood, and also controversial, is carrier

implantation. The procedure involves implanting a fertilized egg into a
relative's uterus. Because a relative carries the fetus to term, the woman or
couple avoids the expense and hassle of hiring a surrogate mother.
Physicians have now successfully implanted embryos into women in their
50s, following hormone therapy to reverse the effects of menopause.

Sex preselection techniques designed to help a couple choose the gender

of their unborn child have also proven controversial. Because sperm bearing
the Y chromosome produce males, couples wanting a male baby attempt to
increase the chances of a Y‐bearing sperm fusing with the X‐ovum. A
number of sperm‐
separating techniques supposedly accomplish this. For example, doctors can
impregnate the mother‐to‐be via artificial insemination of primarily Y‐bearing
sperm, which they have separated in a test tube. Success rates of sperm‐
separating techniques are questionable, with reported figures approaching 85
percent. Critics note that society cannot know the effects of gender
imbalances created through sex preselection. Will people prefer more girls
than boys? What happens to the future of marriage and family?

Genetic engineering
Perhaps even more presumptuous (or alarming, according to some critics)
than reproductive technologies and sex preselection is altering human
behavior through genetic engineering. Cloning, or the creation of exact
replicas from a single genetic ancestor, represents the most extreme form of
genetic engineering. Geneticists have cloned animals for years, but may
soon focus their efforts on human beings.
One of the latest advances in genetic engineering is gene therapy, in which
genetic engineers, in limited cases, can disable genes carrying undesirable
traits and replace them with genes carrying desirable traits. While these sorts
of developments pose many possibilities for altering various organisms and
eradicating certain diseases and disabilities, gene therapy remains
experimental.
For obvious reasons, certain groups, such as the National Multiple Sclerosis
Society and the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, support genetic engineering in
the hopes of dramatic cures being developed. Still others, like certain
religious groups, oppose genetic engineering.

Ten Emerging Ethical Dilemmas and Policy Issues

1. Helix – a digital app store designed to read genomes.

2. BlessU-2 and Pepper – first robot priest and monk.
3. Emotion-Sensing Facial Recognition – a software being developed to
assess your reactions to anything such as shopping and playing games.
4. Ransomware – a way of holding data hostage.
5. Textalyzer – a device that analyzes whether a driver was using his or
her phone during an accident.
6. Social Credit System – a system of scoring citizens through their
actions by placing them under constant surveillance ( which China plays
to adopt 7. Google Clips – a hands free camera that lets the user capture
every moment effortlessly.
8. Sentencing Software – a mysterious algorithm designed to aid courts in
sentencing decisions.
9. Friendbot – an app that stores the decreasd’s digital footprint so one
can still chat with them.
10. Citizen App – an app that notifies users of ongoing crimes or major
events in specific area.

The list points to the ever growing challenges, questions, issues that need to
be addressed and resolved when science and technology and humanity
intertwine. Today,’s approach in critiquing emerging science and technology
issues, such as the one’s listed above may be influenced by how sciewntists
and non
scientists evaluated the positive and negative implications of clinical trials of
gene therapy in the 1990s. For this purpose, one can continue to specifically
draw from the tenets of history, philosophy, and sociology in making informed
and critical judgements of ethical and moral values of these innovation in
science and technology.