The Defenition of Writing

Writing is one of the important skills in teaching English. It has always

occupied place in most English language course. Meyers (2005:2) say that writing is
a way to product language, which you do naturally when you speak. Writing is
communication with other in a verbal way. Writing is also an action a process of
discovering and organizing your idea, putting them on paper and reshaping and
revising them (2005:2).
According to Klein (1985), writing is the ability to put pen and paper to express
ideas through symbols, this way, representations on the paper will have meaning
and content that could be communicated to other people by the writer. Writing skills
are specific abilities which help writers put their thoughts into words in a meaningful
form and to mentally interact with the message. Writing is not just about conveying
content but also about the representation of self. Who we are effect how we write,
what ever we write (Ivanic, 1998 :181 )
Another definition Michael ( 1981:10) that writing could be a semantically
visible and permanent representation of the auditory and transient phenomena of
speech, Byner (1981:24) that writing is a primary means of recording speech, even
though it must be acknowledge as a secondary medium of communication. Writing is
about more than making our thoughts and idea visible and concrete (Ghaith, 2002).
Nystrad (1998:75), states that writing is a matter of elaborating text in accordance
with what the writer can reasonably assume that the reader knows and expects. And
process of reading is a matter of predicting text in accord with the reader assumes
about the writer’s purpose.
Writing is a form of thinking ; it is thing king for particular audience, and for
particular occasion. Consider that writing is also the important expression language
activity, Pretty and Jensen have an opinion that writing is process of expression
thought, of thingking and feeling and of shaping experiences, and it is an important
medium for self expression, for communication, and for the discovery of meaning
( Pretty and Jensen, 1980:369).
From definition above the research concludes that writing is a way to product
language that comes from our thought. By using writing, we can share our idea,
feeling or anything that exist in our mind. It is written on paper or a computer screen.
it is influenced both by personal attitudes and social experiences that the writer bring
to writing and the impact of the particular political and institutional context. It is also a
process that we write is influenced by constraints of genre and has to be present in
learning activities.

1.2 The Importance of Writing

Writing is one of language skill which has given an important contribution to
human work. There are so many records of recent activities that we can read today,
which can also be read in the future. Some important feature of writing activities that
are usually done by people such as; teachers write some important thing on
blackboard, or student may write some note that are dictated by the teachers, lots of
people who are going to apply for job in offices write English. In academic, English
department students, especially, need to learn writing and prepare for the final
academic assignment, thesis writing. This, in terms of student’s needs, integrated in
writing is necessary ( Galuh: 2008). And the generally writing has the purpose,
According to Toni Parkinson stated that (2002:41-42) The aims of writing are:
1.   To inform, explain and describe.
2.   To argue, persuade and instruct.
3.   To explore, imagine and entertain.
4.   To analyze, review and comment.

1.3 The Support of Writing Factor

Factor that regards writing skill can at identification of two aspects which are internal
and external factors (Jacobs, 2003). Internal factor gets bearing with self
straightforward writer; meanwhile external factor originates from outside self writer.
Internal factor that regard writing skill are motivate, science, experience, anxiety.
Than External factor that regard writing skill are environment as atmosphere, light,
voice, time, and hall. That aspect ones shall be recognized by writer. It helps to
develop writing skill that is done gets to be gotten by result well.
The Examples :
Components Of Sentence
1.Sentence

In non-functional linguistics, a sentence is a textual unit consisting of one or

more words that are grammatically linked. In functional linguistics, a sentence is a
unit of written texts delimited by graphological features such as upper case letters
and markers such as periods, question marks, and exclamation marks. This notion
contrasts with a curve, which is delimited by phonologic features such as pitch and
loudness and markers such as pauses; and with a clause, which is a sequence of
words that represents some process going on throughout time. This entry is mainly
about sentence in its non-functional sense, though much work in functional
linguistics is indirectly cited or considered such as the categories of Speech Act
Theory.

A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement,

question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion. A sentence is a set of
words that in principle tells a complete thought (although it may make little sense
taken in isolation out of context); thus it may be a simple phrase, but it conveys
enough meaning to imply a clause, even if it is not explicit. For example, "Two" as a
sentence (in answer to the question "How many were there?") implies the clause
"There were two". Typically a sentence contains a subject and predicate. A sentence
can also be defined purely in orthographic terms, as a group of words starting with a
capital letter and ending in a full stop.

In the teaching of writing skills (composition skills), students are generally required to
express (rather than imply) the elements of a sentence, leading to the schoolbook
definition of a sentence as one that must [explicitly] include a subject and a verb. For
example, in second-language acquisition, teachers often reject one-word answers
that only imply a clause, commanding the student to "give me a complete sentence",
by which they mean an explicit one.

As with all language expressions, sentences might contain function and content
words and contain properties such as characteristic intonation and timing patterns.

Sentences are generally characterized in most languages by the inclusion of a finite

verb, e.g. "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.

2. Clause
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. A clause
forms part of a compound or complex sentence.
e.g . “ The man who talked to you is my brother,

“ Who talked to you” therefore is a clause

3. A Phrase

Two or more words in sequence intended to have meaning , less completely

predicated than a sentence because it has no subject and verb, such as behind the
City Hall.

4. Noun Pharase, Noun Clause and Prepositional Pharase

A verb, particulary an action verb, is often followed by an object. the object is usually
a noun phrase or a noun clause :

Noun Pharase is a group word which does not contain a subject and a verb.

Noun Clause is also a group of words which countains a subject and a

A. Prepositional Pharase is a phrase that is preceeded by a preposition.

5. Complement of a Sentence
A complement is a group of words that complete the sentence. It could be
noun clause, noun phrase, modifier of time or place, or prepositional phrase.

6. Predicate of The Sentence

A normal sentence consists of at least one subject and one predicate . The
predicate is the part of the sentence that has the main verb, and tells what subject
did, has done, is doing, or describes the subject. Predicate may also contain a
complement and modifier . Modifier itself may contain a direct object in form of noun
phrase, noun clause, or prepositional phrase.

Sentences: Simple, Compound, and Complex

 A common weakness in writing is the lack of varied sentences. Becoming
aware of three general types of sentences--simple, compound, and complex--can
help you vary the sentences in your writing.

The most effective writing uses a variety of the sentence types explained below.

1. Simple Sentences

A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a subject,
a verb, and a completed thought.

Examples of simple sentences include the following:

1. Joe waited for the train.

"Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb
 
2. The train was late.
"The train" = subject, "was" = verb
 
3. Mary and Samantha took the bus.
"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "took" = verb
 
4. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.
"I" = subject, "looked" = verb
 
5. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station early but waited until noon for
the bus.
"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "arrived" and "waited" =
compound verb  

Tip: If you use many simple sentences in an essay, you should consider revising
some of the sentences into compound or complex sentences (explained below).

The use of compound subjects, compound verbs, prepositional phrases (such as "at

the bus station"), and other elements help lengthen simple sentences, but simple
sentences often are short. The use of too many simple sentences can make writing
"choppy" and can prevent the writing from flowing smoothly.  

A simple sentence can also be referred to as an independent clause. It is referred

to as "independent" because, while it might be part of a compound or complex
sentence, it can also stand by itself as a complete sentence.

2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses

(or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating
conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the
words "FAN BOYS":

 For
 And
 Nor
 But
 Or
 Yet
 So

Examples of compound sentences include the following:

1. Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.
 
2. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the
station before noon and left on the bus before I arrived.
 
3. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on
the bus before I arrived.
 
4. Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at
the bus station.

 Counjuctive adverb ( however, moreover, etc)

Example :
The girl loves swimming ; moreover, she also loves jogging.
Semicolon

Example :
The girl loves swimming ; the boy loves playing basketball.

 Correlative Conjuction
not only...........but also
neither............nor
either...........or
both............. and
Example :
1. Raymond not only succeeds in academic life but also sports.
2. Either you or the boys should clean this mess.
3. The tooddler doesn’t like neither the swing nor the seesaw.
4. Both Justin Bieber and Norman Kamaru are firstlyknown by their vidio in
Youtube.

3.Counjuctive adverb
also (juga)
as a result (hasilnya)
finally (akhirnya)
for example (contohnya)
however (bagaimanapun)
indeed (memang)
in fact (sebenarnya)
instead (malahan)
likewise (demikian juga)
next ( selanjutnya)
still ( masih)
otherwise ( kalau tidak)
thus (jadi)
on the contrary ( sebaiknya)
consequently ( sebagai akibatnya)
besides (di samping itu)
in other words (dengan kata lain)
hence (oleh karena itu)
nontheless ( namun)
in addition (sebagai tambahan)
meanwhile (sementara itu)
futhermore (lebih lanjut lagi)
moreover (sebagai tambahan)
nevertheless (meskipun demikian)
on the other hand (di sisi lain)
then (kemudian)
therefore (oleh karena itu)

Example

The students should study hard for the upcoming test; otherwise, they will fail it.

He has fixed the roof tiles ; next, he has to paint the wall.

Tip: If you rely heavily on compound sentences in an essay, you should consider
revising some of them into complex sentences (explained below).

Coordinating conjunctions are useful for connecting sentences, but compound

sentences often are overused. While coordinating conjunctions can indicate some
type of relationship between the two independent clauses in the sentence, they
sometimes do not indicate much of a relationship. The word "and," for example, only
adds one independent clause to another, without indicating how the two parts of a
sentence are logically related. Too many compound sentences that use "and" can
weaken writing.

Clearer and more specific relationships can be established through the use of
complex sentences. 
3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more

dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an
independent clause, or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that
would make it a complete sentence. 

Examples of dependent clauses include the following:

 because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon
 while he waited at the train station
 after they left on the bus

Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but
they can be added to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.

Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the
most common subordinating conjunctions:

 after
 although
 as
 because
 before
 even though
 if
 since
 though
 unless
 until
 when
 whenever
 whereas
 wherever
 while

A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent

clauses.

The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent
clause, as in the following:

Tip: When the dependent clause comes first, a comma should be used to separate
the two clauses.

1. Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not
see them at the station.
2. While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.
3. After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at
the train station.
Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the
dependent clause, as in the following:

Tip: When the independent clause comes first, a comma should not be used to
separate the two clauses.

1. I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at the
bus station before noon.
2. Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the train station.
3. Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train station after
they left on the bus.

Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences because a
complex sentence indicates clearer and more specific relationships between the
main parts of the sentence. The word "before," for instance, tells readers that one
thing occurs before another. A word such as "although" conveys a more complex
relationship than a word such as "and" conveys.

The term periodic sentence is used to refer to a complex sentence beginning with a
dependent clause and ending with an independent clause, as in "While he waited at
the train station, Joe realized that the train was late."

Periodic sentences can be especially effective because the completed thought

occurs at the end of it, so the first part of the sentence can build up to the meaning
that comes at the end.

Beginning Sentences with "And" or "Because"

Should you begin a sentence with "and" or "but" (or one of the other
coordinating conjunctions)?

The short answer is "no." You should avoid beginning a sentence with "and," "or,"
"but," or the other coordinating conjunctions. These words generally are used to join
together parts of a sentence, not to begin a new sentence.

However, such sentences can be used effectively. Because sentences beginning

with these words stand out, they are sometimes used for emphasis. If you use
sentences beginning with one of the coordinating conjunctions, you should use these
sentences sparingly and carefully.

Should you begin a sentence with "because"?

There is nothing wrong with beginning a sentence with "because."

Perhaps some students are told not to begin a sentence with "because" to avoid
sentence fragments (something like "Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus
station before noon" is a sentence fragment), but it is perfectly acceptable to begin a
sentence with "because" as long as the sentence is complete (as in "Because Mary
and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see them at the
station.")
  Basic Grammar and Punctuation: Complex Sentences
The tutorials below address basic grammar and punctuation errors writers
routinely have. Use these guidelines to proofread and correct errors in your papers
before submission.

About Complex Sentences

Once you can identify a basic sentence, you can join two or more sentences into
complex sentences.  Two or more sentences can be combined with a subordinating
conjunction that explains the relationship between each idea.
 
For example:
Simple Sentences - He studied hard. He wanted to go to medical school. He
suffered from arthritis.
 
Complex Sentence - He studied hard because he wanted to go to medical
school as he suffered from arthritis.
 
Complex Sentence - Even though he suffered from arthritis, he studied hard
because he wanted to go to medical school.

Notice how the subordinating conjunction adds additional meaning to the sentence.
The last two sentences tell us why he studied.
 
Some Common Subordinating Conjunctions:
After Before So that Whenever
Although Even Though Where
though
As If Unless Whereas
As if In order Until Whether
that
Because Since When While
 
A subordinating conjunction is sometimes called "a heart word" because it turns two
sentences into one. Even though both sentences contain a subject and verb, one
becomes dependent on the other and cannot stand alone. One sentence becomes
the explaining idea for the main idea.
 
Any time you see words like the ones above, check that your sentence doesn't leave
a question remaining.
 
 For example:
Wrong - When he came late to class. (What happened when he was late?)
 Right - He forgot to give the teacher his homework when he came late to
class.
 
Wrong - After she noticed it missing. (What happened when she noticed?)
Right - The teacher asked for his homework after she noticed it missing.
 
Wrong - Because they knew the test would be difficult. (What happened as a
result?)
Right - The students studied furiously because they knew the test would be
difficult.
 
Punctuation depends on the location of the subordinating conjunction:
 
If the subordinating conjunction comes in the middle or at the end of the sentence
– no comma is required.
 
Wrong – School is not all about studying, since there are lots of clubs and fun
activities on campus.
Right – School is not all about studying since there are lots of clubs and fun
activities on campus.
 
If the subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of the sentence – a comma
comes at the end of the dependent clause.
 
Wrong – Even though I would rather go to the beach I went to the library to
study.
Right – Even though I would rather go to the beach, I went to the library to
study.
 
How to fix Complex Sentences:
1) Look for the subordinating conjunction or "heart word."
2) Does the subordinating conjunction come at the beginning of the sentence?
 
If the subordinating conjunction comes in the middle or at the end of the sentence –
no comma is required.
 
Wrong – Some students skipped studying, because the weather was
gorgeous outside!
Right – Some students skipped studying because the weather was gorgeous
outside!
 
If the subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of the sentence – add a
comma at the end of the dependent clause.
 
Wrong – Since it's hard to resist a sunny day some teachers hold class
outside!
Right – Since it's hard to resist a sunny day, some teachers hold class
outside!
III. Identify simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence

Punctuation
 Punctuation is used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. You use
punctuation marks to structure and organise your writing.

You can quickly see why punctuation is important if you try and read this sentence
which has no punctuation at all:

perhaps you dont always need to use commas periods colons etc to make
sentences clear when i am in a hurry tired cold lazy or angry i sometimes leave out
punctuation marks grammar is stupid i can write without it and dont need it my uncle
Harry once said he was not very clever and i never understood a word he wrote to
me i think ill learn some punctuation not too much enough to write to Uncle Harry he
needs some help

Now let's see if punctuating it makes a difference!

Perhaps you don't always need to use commas, periods, colons etc. to make
sentences clear. When I am in a hurry, tired, cold, lazy, or angry I sometimes leave
out punctuation marks. "Grammar is stupid! I can write without it and don't need it,"
my uncle Harry once said. He was not very clever, and I never understood a word he
wrote to me. I think I'll learn some punctuation - not too much, enough to write to
Uncle Harry. He needs some help!

Use the pages in this punctuation section to learn how to make your English
clearer and better organised.

Punctuation Rules in English

o The period (or full stop in British English)
o The comma
o The exclamation mark
o The question mark
o The colon
o The semicolon
o The quotation mark
o The apostrophe
o The hyphen and the dash
o Parentheses and brackets

Punctuation Guide
 Good punctuation is crucial for successful academic writing. Many students
use little punctuation in their essays beyond commas and full stops. But to be
restricted to just two forms of punctuation mark, when writing your essay, is like
building a house using only a hammer and a saw: you can do it; but not very well.

By learning to use more, or all, of the available forms of punctuation you will be able
to communicate and express your ideas, and arguments, more clearly.

Full stop ( . )

Full stops have three distinct uses:

1.  To mark the end of a sentence

o The cat is completely black.

2.  To indicate abbreviated words a full stop indicates an abbreviation, unless first
and last letters of the word are shown.

o The teacher will be Mr John Smith (B. Sci.).

3.  To punctuate numbers and dates

o All assignments should be submitted by 6. 6. 04.

Colon ( : )

A colon can be used:

1.  To indicate that a list, quotation or summary is about to follow;

o Buy these things: a packet of peanuts, two loaves of bread and a

kilogram of steak.
o Writing the assignment is not easy: to begin with you have to do a lot of
research.

2.  To separate an initial sentence/clause from a second clause, list, phrase or

quotation that supports the first in a particular way.

o The television set, as the icon of the information age, represents the
realisation of a dream for humankind: that knowledge and experience
can be transmitted and shared across the boundaries of time and
space.

Semicolon ( ; )

A semicolon:

1.  Separates two complete sentences that are, however, closely linked.

 o To err is human; to forgive, divine.
o Don't go near the lions; they could bite you.

The semicolon can be replaced by a full stop, but the direct link between the two
parts is lost.

2.  Serves as a second level of punctuation in a series of words or phrases which

already have commas making some internal divisions.

o Only one paper, the Canberra Times, managed a regular daily edition
on a Sunday; even there, Saturday`s offered a better read.
o She came out of the house, which had a long drive, and saw the police
officer at the end of the path; but instead of continuing towards him,
she hid until he left.

Comma ( , )

Commas have a vital role to play in longer sentences, separating information into
readable units.

1. A single comma ensures correct reading of a sentence which starts with a

longish introductory element.

Uses of the comma

The comma is used to indicate a pause between parts of a sentence.

Uses of the comma

Before and after words used in apposition to a noun

 Winston Churchill, the statesman, was also an eminent writer.

Janaki, my sister, is an eminent cardiologist.

To separate two or more nouns, adjectives, or adverbs that come together

 England, Russia and France formed an alliance.

To separate a participial phrase

 Feeling tired, I went to bed.

 Being fat, she couldn’t run fast.

To mark off a noun

 James, can we bank on him?

 Mary, have your meals.
 John, come here.
After an introductory phrase or clause

 To be honest, I have little interest in politics.

 For God’s sake, leave me alone.
 In the name of justice, be fair to that poor man.

To indicate the omission of a verb in cases where repetition should be avoided

 My brother bought a watch and my sister, a camera. (= My brother bought a watch

and my sister bought a camera.)

Before and after words or phrases let into the body of a sentence

 She had, surprisingly, paid for everything.

 The boy had, in spite of all the hardships he faced, managed to succeed.

To separate a subordinate clause from the main clause

 After he had finished his job, he went out.

 When I opened the door, the cat jumped in.

The comma can be omitted when the subordinate clause goes after the main clause.

 When Australia celebrated its sesquicentenary in 1938, there was a little of

the confidence or enthusiasm of the centennial celebrations of 1888.

2.  Pairs of commas help in the middle of a sentence to set off any string of words
which is either a parenthesis, or in contrast, to whatever went before.

o Yet in representing ourselves to ourselves, as film and television do,

these media are constantly introducing and reinforcing the
assumptions.

3.  A set of commas is a means of separating items in a list.

o The details required are name, date of birth, address and telephone
number.

4.  Sometimes a comma is needed between the last two items to ensure clarity.

o The details required are name, date of birth, address and telephone
number.

Uses of comma in a simple sentence

The comma is the shortest pause between words.

The comma has the following uses in a simple sentence.

To mark off nouns, pronouns or phrases in apposition

 James, my neighbor, is a doctor.

 Wordsworth, the famous English poet, was a lover of nature.

To mark off each one of a series of words belonging to the same part of speech

 He spoke easily, clearly and eloquently.

 The children laughed, danced, jumped and cried for joy.

A comma is generally not placed before a word preceded by and.

 The farmer owned sheep, cattle and poultry.

To mark off a nominative of address

 Doctor, the patient is ill.

 Gentleman, I bring good news.

After a nominative absolute

 God willing, we shall meet again.

To mark off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence

 ‘I am not tired,’ said James, ‘but I am very hungry.’

To separate each pair of words connected by ‘and’

 Young and old, high and low, rich and poor, all praised the little boy’s clever tricks.

Before and after words, phrases and clauses let into the body of a sentence.

 His conduct, to say the least, was disgusting.

 He did not, however, agree.

The following words and expressions are also separated from the rest of the
sentence by means of a comma: at least, indeed, well, all the same, however,
of course, on the whole, in short, in particular etc.

Using Colon

Colons are used before explanations.

  We decided to cancel the match: it was raining.

A colon is used when direct speech is introduced by a name or short phrase.

It is also used when famous sayings are quoted.

 Bacon says: ‘Reading makes a full man, writing an exact man, speaking a ready
man.’

 Polonius: ‘What do you read, my lord?’

 Hamlet: ‘Words, words, words.’

A colon can introduce a list.

The principal forms of a verb in English are: the present tense, the past tense and
the past participle.

The non-finite verbs are: participles, infinitives and gerunds.

Capitals

In British English, it is unusual for a capital letter to follow a colon. In American

English, colons are more often followed by capital letters.

Letters

Americans usually put a colon after the opening salutation in a business letter.

Dear Mr James:

I am writing to …

British usage prefers a comma or no punctuation mark at all in this case.

Question mark ( ? )

A question mark is used at the end of a sentence which is a question.

o Have the students completed the exam?

Apostrophe ( ' )

There are two uses for the apostrophe:

1) Contractions - A contraction is a shortened version of a word. An apostrophe is

used to show that something has been left out, and where it has been left out.

o don't (do not)

 o It'll (It will)
o she'll (she will)

2) Possessives - An apostrophe is used to indicate ownership/possession with

nouns. To show ownership by a single individual, insert the apostrophe between the
noun and the 's'. To show ownership by more than one individual, use the
apostrophe at the end of the word.

o the dog's tail (belonging to a single dog)

o the women's magazines
o boys' football boots (belonging to more than one boy)
o Einstein's theory of relativity
o Avagradro's number

Note: Be careful: It's is the contraction of it is. It's is not a possessive (a possessive
denotes ownership).

Using the apostrophe

An apostrophe (’) is used to create possessive forms, contractions and some plural
forms. It indicates where the letter has been omitted.

I am = I’m

He’s = he is

They’re = they are

Do not = don’t

I’d = I would or I had

She would have failed. = She would’ve failed.

Contracted forms are not considered appropriate in formal writing. However, it is

basically a matter of personal choice.

Before writing contractions in a paper that is going to be graded, you should ask your
tutor whether it is appropriate to include them in your writing.

Apostrophes are used in writing possessives.

While writing possessives, the position of the apostrophe depends on whether the
noun is singular or plural.

If the noun is singular, the apostrophe goes before the –s. Example: the girl’s
parents
If the noun is plural, the apostrophe usually goes after the –s. Example: the girls’
parents

If the plural form of the noun does not end in –s, the apostrophe goes before the –s.
Example: the men’s hostel

You can also create possessive forms with of. In this case, no apostrophes are
used.

 A friend of mine works abroad.

Common mistakes

The words its and it’s are often confused.

Its is a possessive word.

 The dog wagged its tail.

It’s means it is or it has.

 It’s your book. (= It is your book.)

 It’s stopped raining. (= It has stopped raining.)

They’re and their

These two expressions are also confused.

They’re means they are. Their is a possessive word.

They took their children along.

 They’re waiting for us. (= They are waiting for us.)

‘There are’ does not have an appropriate contracted form.

An apostrophe is also used to form the plurals of letters and digits. This is particularly
common when the letters are written in the small case.

 Mind your p’s and q’s.

 She got 4 a’s this term.

Apostrophes are no longer used to form plurals of years.

 Example: 1990s (more natural than 1990’s)

Hyphen (-)
When used correctly, a hyphen links two or more words, that normally would not be
placed together, in order that they work as one idea and these are called compound
nouns.

o Stonier's post-industrial economy is a service economy.

o There are four types of information-related machines.

Dashes ( — )

Hyphens should not be confused with dashes. Dashes re like brackets; they enclose
extra information. A colon and semicolon would work just as well in the example
opposite. Dashes are rarely used in academic writing.

1.  Although often used in pairs, dashes can also be used singularly.

o To the three divisions of the economy—agriculture, manufacturing, and

service industries—Jones has added a fourth.

2.  Although often used in pairs, dashes can also be used singularly.

o Have an orange—or would you prefer a banana?

o While the importance of sport to Pay TV is clear, the opposite
perspective is less certain—the importance of Pay TV to sport.

Parentheses ( )

1.  Parentheses are brackets used to include extra or nonessential material in

sentences. Parentheses should be used sparingly and always appear in pairs.

o It was unusual to see Paul awake so early (as he often studied late into
the night) and Jane greeted him with amazement.

2.  In citation systems like Harvard, parentheses are used to include in-text
references.

o Larsen and Greene (1989) studied the effects of pollution in three

major cities.
o "Australia is a settler society" (Hudson & Bolton 1997, p. 9).

Using the quotation marks

Quotation marks (“ ”) are used to set off text that denotes quoted or spoken
language.

Quotation marks are also used to set off titles of stories, novels and poems.

In American English, it is not uncommon for periods and commas to go inside

quotation marks.
For example, an American may write:

 My favorite novel is “Gulliver’s Travels.”

This use of punctuation marks within the quotation marks is not considered
appropriate in British English.

So if you follow the rules of British English, you are more likely to write:

 My favorite novel is ‘Gulliver’s Travels’.

Note that if the text inside the quotation marks is a sentence, then a full stop can be
used at the end.

 He always said, “Be careful what you wish for.”

 He always said, “Be careful what you wish for”.

We use quotation marks when we quote direct speech. Single quotation marks (‘ ’)
are more common in British English and double quotation marks (“ ”) in American
English.

 Albert said, “Get that woman out of here.”

A long passage of direct speech inside the quotation marks may be introduced by a
colon.

 Announcing the quarterly earnings, the Chairman said: “A number of factors have
contributed to the stellar performance of the company.”

A colon is also used when direct speech is introduced by a name.

 Lord Polonius: “Neither a borrower nor a lender be.”

In reporting words that are said internally, but not spoken out loudly, the writer may
or may not use quotation marks.

 “What a lovely morning!” Maria said to herself.

 What a lovely morning, Maria said to herself.

Exclamation mark ( ! )

An exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence and indicates surprise, anger,
or alarm. Exclamation marks should be used very sparingly and are not often used in
academic writing.

o The police stormed in and arrested her!

o How disgraceful!

Ellipsis ( ... )
An ellipsis consists of three full stops. It indicates that material has been left out of a
quotation. When quoting, it is sometimes necessary to leave out words or lines for
reasons of relevance or length. Using an ellipsis makes any omissions known to your
reader.

o "But to be restricted to just two forms of punctuation mark ... is like

building a house using only a hammer and a saw: you can do it; but not
very well."

Capitalization

1. What is Capitalization?
In writing, capitalization is the use of capital letters as a type of punctuation.
When we say that something is “capitalized,” it means that the first letter of the word
or words is a capital (i.e. capital A versus lowercase a). Capitalization’s real goal is
to point out and separate specific, individual things from general things, which helps
us identify them in a sentence. So, we use capitalization to mark the beginning of a
sentence and to identify all types of proper nouns, names, and titles. Since a capital
letter starts every sentence, you know that every sentence uses capitalization at
least once!

2. Examples of Capitalization

Here are some examples of capitalization in a sentence. You’ll see that it’s
important in many situations:

 To Begin a sentence:
o My friends are great.
 For emphasis:
o “SLOW DOWN!” yelled the man as the car sped by.
 For Proper Nouns:
o Last summer I visited London, England.
3. Types of Capitalization

There are a few ways that we use capitalization, like to begin a sentence, or for
proper nouns, titles, and emphasis. So, overall, a good rule to follow is that the name
or title of ANYTHING specific—from people, to books, to places, to things—should
be capitalized.

a. To Begin a Sentence

The first rule of capitalization is easy—we always begin a sentence with a

capital letter! That’s how you know where a sentence begins. Capitalize the start
of a sentence whether it’s a single letter, like this:

 I visited Paris last year.

 A year ago I visited Paris.

Or, if it’s the first letter of a word, like this:

 Last spring, I visited Paris.

 Before long, I had fallen in love with the city.

b. Proper Nouns
A proper noun is a person, place, thing or idea with a specific, unique name.
We always capitalize proper nouns, because they represent one single thing—for
instance, the Empire State Building is one specific building, not just a building in
general. So, capitalization gives us a way to make that distinction.

Here’s a list of rules about the capitalization of proper nouns that you use
every day:

 When we use I to identify ourselves in writing, it is always capital.

 We always capitalize the first, middle, and last names of people, like: Jane
Ann Smith and Jimmy Michael Brown, for example.

 Capitalize official titles for people, like: President Barack Obama, Dr.
Robinson, Mr. and Mrs. Jones, and Professor Smith.

 Capitalize the names of places, including countries, cities, buildings, roads,

and landmarks, like: Europe; London, England; Buckingham Palace; Abbey
Road; etc.

 Capitalize the names of natural landmarks and specific geographic locations,

from oceans to mountains to islands, like: the Great Lakes, the Nile River, the
Atlantic Ocean, the Himalayas, and the Sahara Desert.
  Capitalize the names of stores and brand name things, like: Abercrombie &
Fitch, Nike shoes, Oreo cookies, and Pepsi cola, to name a few.

 Always capitalize the days of the week and months of the year.

c. Titles

It’s crucial to remember to capitalize the titles of books, movies, TV shows, essays,
and any other piece of work, literature, art, and so on. Here are some examples:

 Every Thursday I watch the series T he W alking D ead.

 I wrote an essay called “How to Survive the Zombie Apocalypse.”
 I just read the book P ride, P rejudice and Z ombies.
 My favorite movie is N ight of the L iving D ead.

d. Capitalization For Emphasis

Sometimes we use capitalization to highlight an important word, phrase, or even

full sentence, like you see on many signs:

 DO NOT ENTER
 STOP
 BEWARE OF DOG

Capitalizing all of the letters in these phrases makes them stronger and more urgent.
These are all important messages, and capitalization emphasizes that.

e. Capitalization in Dialogue
Capitalization can also be a particularly useful technique for dialogue. It can add
fear, volume, intensity, urgency, excitement—pretty much any strong feeling that
needs to be emphasized. Here are a few examples:

 “DON’T OPEN THAT DOOR, JANE!” yelled Jimmy.

 Seeing the other car approaching, I screamed “WATCH OUT!”
 “Ugh, I just HATE broccoli!” said Sam.

You can see that adding capitalization really makes some of the words in the
dialogue stand out. When you’re reading, seeing capitalized words gives you the
feeling that the person or character is shouting, or like the signs, that the words are
really important and meaningful. At the same time, it’s important not to overuse
capitalization in dialogue, otherwise it loses its strength.
4. How to Avoid Mistakes
Capitalization is definitely one of the easiest types of punctuation to use, so
long as you know what it’s for. By now you can recognize the true purpose of
capitalization—to identify individual people and things. That said, here are some
rules to follow and things to avoid:

a. When it comes to names, don’t use capital letters for general and common
things. For example:

Fast Food Restaurants usually sell Hamburgers. INCORRECT

I am going to the City this weekend. INCORRECT

A “fast food restaurant” is just a general type of restaurant, and a hamburger is a

common food; so, we don’t need to capitalize them. Likewise, “the city” could be any
city. But, if we are talking about specific things, we need capitals:

McDonalds is a fast food restaurant that sells a hamburger called the Big
Mac. Correct!
I am going to New York City this weekend. Correct!

Remember, capitalization is for specific things.

b. Don’t capitalize “the” unless it is an official part of a title (or the first word of
a sentence):

Last summer I visited the Empire State Building Correct!

Last summer I visited The Empire State Building INCORRECT

The little girl’s favorite book is T he G iving T ree. Correct!

the little girl’s favorite book is the G iving T ree. INCORRECT

c. When using the name of a place, all of the words in the name need to be
capitalized, not just the first word:

 I can’t wait to visit Niagara Falls.

 Have you ever been to Yellowstone National Park?
 You can see the Eiffel Tower in Paris.

d. When creating a title or heading for something, it isn’t necessary to

capitalize small words like a, to, the, or, and, but, on, in, and is, for example
(unless it’s the first word). You only need to capitalize the important,
meaningful words, which you can see from these book titles:

 A lice’s A dventures in W onderland

 C atcher in the R ye
  T o K ill a M ockingbird
 J ames and the G iant P each

e. Finally, don’t forget—if it’s a name or a title, capitalize it!

PARAGRAPHS

A paragraph is a group of connected sentences that develop a single point,

argument or idea. It should have a topic sentence and other sentences that support
that sentence. Paragraphs are the building blocks of most forms of formal writing.
They hold the main ideas of an essay and connect the essay together.
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic.
Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your
drafting and revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in
following a piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't
presented in an organized fashion, you will lose your readers and fail to achieve your
goals in writing.
Paragraph writing is the foundation of all essay writing, whether the form is
expository, persuasive, narrative, or creative. In order to write a good paragraph,
students need to understand the four essential elements of paragraph writing and
how each element contributes to the whole.

A paragraph should have the following features:

o a topic sentence – a sentence stating what the paragraph is about
o unity - one main idea (which every other sentence supports)
o coherence – the sentences are linked so that they flow logically
o content – enough information to warrant being a paragraph.

Paragraph length
Paragraph are generally between 4 and 12 lines in length. If a paragraph is shorter
than this, it is usually not a developed idea.
Examples

 Expository paragraph
Most working and students in Indonesia enjoy vacation time, some less, some
a great deal more. In vacation, they leave there home to see interesting place
of their country
or find a quiet place for a rest, recreation or just fun.There are so many
interesting places to see that it is wise to make a good and careful plan before
starting the trip. The teacher and students of SMP lampenerut are planning to
trip to the seaside at lampuuk, big Aceh. They are going to spend their
vacation at the end of the school year this month.The teachers decide the day
and date have the trip to the seaside, the beautiful tourist object. They plan go
there by bus.

 Argumentative paragraph
There are many differences between smoker and people who do not smoke.
For example, the smokers will pay much money to buy cigarette, and they will
not health because they was buy disease to their body with smoke. People
who do not smoke they save their body from disease, and they save much
money too. WHO said that smoking is slow suicide because the Cigarette has
brings many of viruses inside. The smoker will be poor in financial and
knowledge, but the people who do not smoke will be rich and clever people.
So, which one you want to choice?

 Descriptive paragraph
I have a beautiful friend, her name is fanny. She has blue eyes, black hair,
and slim body. She is a perfect person in my village. Because she has a
beautiful character and beauty physical, many people love her. Sometime we
go to our favorite place, in farm behind my home, there have beautiful
scenery. we can look at mountain chain and wide farm there, sometime when
the rice is planted, there has most beautiful scenery because the rice have
 been green, and it make fresh our eyes. We will remember to our creator who
created of all. Thank you Allah. .

 . Narrative paragraph
I want to tell you about making a cup of tea, you should prepare some
of water, tea and sugar, also a cup or glass. Firstly you have to cook
the water until boil. When the water is cooking, you can put a small
spoon of tea and two spoon of sugar into the cup, you can put more of
sugar if you want. When the water is boile2d, you have to cast it into
the cup and don’t forget to stir, finally you can drink a cup of sweet tea.

Paragraph Structure

Basic paragraph structure usually consists of Three part for a paragraph is as

following :
1. Topic sentence
2. Supporting sentences
3. Concluding sentence

1. Topic Sentence

What is a topic sentence?

A topic sentence is the first sentence of the body paragraph. Simply put, the
topic sentence introduces the topic of the paragraph. A good topic sentence will be
broad enough to allow for explication but narrow enough that it does not require a
paragraph that is too long.

The topic sentence states what the paragraph will be about.  It gives the
topic of the paragraph, and it also restricts the topic to one or two main ideas which
can be explained fully in the space of one paragraph.  The controlling idea is the
specific area that the topic is limited to:
topic            controlling idea
Studying abroad has two main benefits

2. Supporting Sentences

What is a supporting sentence?

The supporting sentences of a paragraph are the sentences between the

topic sentence and the concluding sentence. The supporting sentences “support” the
topic sentence. That is, they explain and elaborate the point of the paragraph.

Supporting sentences explain and develop the topic sentence.  Specifically,

they discuss the topic sentence by explaining the main ideas and discussing those
more fully using reasons, examples, facts, results, statistics, or anything
else that proves your ideas are true.

The supporting sentences that explain the benefits of studying abroad are:

People get a better job when they return home (1st supporting idea)

 Better qualifications & experience mean better pay and promotion

(reason)
 Now has a high standard of living (result)

Students gain independence (2nd supporting idea)

 Students have to cope with the challenges of living alone and meeting
new people from different cultures.(example)
 Students will become more confident in their life and relationships
(result)

2. Concluding Sentence (Optional)

Concluding sentences

What is a Concluding Sentence?

A concluding sentence indicates that you are bringing closure to a paragraph.
Writing a concluding sentence may not come as easily as you may think. Many
writers fail to realize that it closes out the final thoughts about the topic on which they
are writing. This is why it is important for you to be able to write effective concluding
sentences. For each paragraph, the reader should be able to identify what your key
points are based on the concluding sentence. Remember, it should not include any
information that was not discussed in the paragraph.
When teaching students how to write concluding sentences, you may need to
provide a few examples they will be able to use as a guide for their own writing.

Examples of concluding sentence starters include :

 In conclusion
 Therefore
 As expressed
 Overall
 As a result
 Thus
 Finally
 Lastly
 For this reason
 In general

Characteristics of Effective Concluding Sentences

It is important for your students to know how to write effective concluding sentences
in order to drive home the final point. Some characteristics include:

 Reviewing main points mentioned in a paragraph

 Restating the topic sentence
 Are found at the end of a paragraph
 Do not introduce new ideas or topics

As the writer, you should keep in mind that concluding sentences may look different
for various types of writing. Examples of these types of writing include narratives,
descriptions, compare and contrast, and argument.

The concluding sentence of a narrative paragraph should emphasize the moral

lesson to the audience. With descriptive paragraphs, the concluding sentence helps
to tie everything together by emphasizing details from the topic sentence, using
different wording and summing up supporting facts. When writing a concluding
sentence for the compare and contrast paragraph, you will want to restate both
topics by pointing out the various similarities and differences that were discussed.
The concluding sentence in an argument paragraph will summarize the argument
being made. It may reaffirm why the argument is correct and the consequences that
may occur if the argument is not heeded.

Examples of Concluding Sentences

Let's look at an example paragraph, and how a concluding sentence would be

written for it:

Early colonists came to the New World in order to gain freedom from the harsh reign
of the English monarchy. Not only did the colonists desire freedom from the king's
taxation system, but they also wanted to break away from the intolerance that kept
them from worshiping freely in England. They saw the new country as a place for
new beginnings, and looked forward to beginning their lives anew—even if it meant
living in a land of uncertainty.

There are several ways in which the concluding sentence in this example can be
written.

Example 1: As a result, the colonists willingly gave up their oppressed lives in

England, in order to live freely in a new land that was completely unfamiliar to them.

Example 2: Hence, the colonists' desire to worship freely and escape punitive taxes
was much more appealing than continuing to live under the authoritarian system of
intolerance that was commonplace in England.

This section examines the ways in which the concluding sentences of

paragraphs contribute to a text’s cohesiveness. It also provides an opportunity
for you to practise writing concluding sentences.

What do concluding sentences do?

Concluding sentences link one paragraph to the next and provide another device
for helping you ensure your text is cohesive. While not all paragraphs include a
concluding sentence, you should always consider whether one is appropriate.

Concluding sentences have three crucial roles in paragraph writing.

They draw together the information you have presented to elaborate your
controlling idea by:

 summarising the points you have made.

 repeating words or phrases (or synonyms for them) from the topic sentence.
 using linking words that indicate that conclusions are being drawn, for
example, therefore, thus, resulting.

They often link the current paragraph to the following paragraph. They may
anticipate the topic sentence of the next paragraph by:

 introducing a word/phrase or new concept which will then be picked up in the

topic sentence of the next paragraph.
  using words or phrases that point ahead, for example, the following,
another, other.

They often qualify the information or perspectives developed in the elaboration.

They may qualify this information by:

 using concessive conjunctions to foreground the importance of some

perspectives and background others.
 making comparisons and contrasts between perspectives.
 using other language that clearly indicates the perspective they favour.

A concluding sentence can be used to signal the end of the paragraph. It tells
the reader the important points to remember.  It is often a paraphrase of the topic
sentence.

All in all, it is clear that studying abroad is a beneficial experience.

Concluding sentences are optional and paragraphs often do not have them.  You
won't get marked down if you do not have a concluding sentence in IELTS, but it is a
good way to add coherence to your paragraph.

How to Write a Paragraph Using the Four Essential Elements

Secrets to paragraph writing lay in four essential elements, which when used
correctly, can make a okay paragraph into a great paragraph.

Element #1: Unity. Unity in a paragraph begins with the topic sentence. Every
paragraph has one single, controlling idea that is expressed in its topic sentence,
which is typically the first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph is unified around
this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail and discussion. In
order to write a good topic sentence, think about your theme and all the points you
want to make. Decide which point drives the rest, and then write it as your topic
sentence.
Element #2: Order. Order refers to the way you organize your supporting sentences.
Whether you choose chronological order, order of importance, or another logical
presentation of detail, a solid paragraph always has a definite organization. In a well-
ordered paragraph, the reader follows along easily, aided by the pattern you’ve
established. Order helps the reader grasp your meaning and avoid confusion.

Element #3: Coherence. Coherence is the quality that makes your writing
understandable. Sentences within a paragraph need to connect to each other and
work together as a whole. One of the best ways to achieve coherency is to use
transition words. These words create bridges from one sentence to the next. You
can use transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships
(above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact). Also, in writing a paragraph,
using a consistent verb tense and point of view are important ingredients for
coherency.
Element #4: Completeness. Completeness means a paragraph is well-developed. If
all sentences clearly and sufficiently support the main idea, then your paragraph is
complete. If there are not enough sentences or enough information to prove your
thesis, then the paragraph is incomplete. Usually three supporting sentences, in
addition to a topic sentence and concluding sentence, are needed for a paragraph to
be complete. The concluding sentence or last sentence of the paragraph should
summarize your main idea by reinforcing your topic sentence.

Coherence and Unity of Essay

Coherence refers to a certain characteristic or aspect of writing. Literally, the

word means "to stick together." Coherence in writing means that all the ideas in
a paragraph flow smoothly from one sentence to the next sentence. With
coherence, the reader has an easy time understanding the ideas that you wish
to express.

Consider the paragraph:

 

My hometown is famous for several amazing

natural features.  First, it is noted for the
Wheaton River, which is very wide and
beautiful. On either side of this river, which is
175 feet wide, are many willow trees which have
long branches that can move gracefully in the
wind.  In autumn the leaves of these trees fall
and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. 
Second, on the other side of the town is
Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is
very steep.  Even though it is steep, climbing
this hill is not dangerous, because there are
some firm rocks along the sides that can be
used as stairs.  There are no trees around this
hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and can
be seen from many miles away.  The third
amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree
stands two hundred feet tall and is probably
about six hundred years old.  These three
landmarks are truly amazing and make my
hometown a famous place.
Major Connectors
Look at the words in bold font. Do you see how they help guide the reader? For
example, consider the words, First, Second, and The third amazing feature.
We can call these words major connectors. Major connectors help organize the
main parts of your paragraph. This paragraph has three main parts:

(1) a part about the Wheaton River, (2) a part about Wheaton Hill, and (3) a part
about the Big Old Tree. Another way of saying this is that this paragraph has
three main points which are indicated by the major connectors. Using such
major connectors is an important way of providing coherence in a paragraph.
 
Minor Connectors
What about the other words in bold, such as those appearing in the phrases
"these trees" and "this hill"? We can call these minor connectors. Minor
connectors provide coherence to a paragraph by connecting sentences within
each of the main parts of your paragraph. That is, when you write about your
main points, you can use minor connectors to link your details to each main
point.
 

Now, look at this paragraph. Can you identify the main points?
 
Each of the U.S. manned space exploration
projects had specific major goals. The Mercury
project was designed to test whether or not
human beings could survive and function in
outer space. The Mercury project tested rockets
with the new Mercury space capsule, which
could hold one person. The Gemini project was
intended to find out whether two people could
work in the weightless environment of space.
Gemini astronauts took "spacewalks." They
floated outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit,
connected to it by a tether. Gemini astronauts
tried out new flying skills. Some astronauts flew
two spacecraft extremely close together; this
procedure was called "rendezvous." On some
Gemini flights, astronauts physically linked two
spacecraft together. Linking, or "space docking,"
was a major goal of the Gemini program. The
Apollo project, with three astronauts, was
intended to test spacecraft and skills so that
people could actually fly to the Moon and land
on it. Performing scientific experiments on the
lunar surface and collecting rocks for study on
 Earth were goals.

 Was this paragraph a little confusing to read? Now consider the same paragraph
with a few changes:
 
Each of the U.S. manned space exploration
projects had specific major goals. For example,
the Mercury project was designed to test whether
or not human beings could survive and function in
outer space. In addition, the Mercury project tested
rockets with the new Mercury space capsule,
which could hold one person. As another example,
the Gemini project was intended to find out
whether two people could work in the weightless
environment of space. One way of doing this was
by having Gemini astronauts take "spacewalks."
That is, they floated outside their spacecraft in a
spacesuit, connected to it by a tether. Gemini
astronauts alsotried out new flying skills. For
example, some astronauts flew two spacecraft
extremely close together; this procedure was
called "rendezvous." On some Gemini flights,
astronauts physically linked two spacecraft
together. This linking, or "space docking," was a
major goal of the Gemini program. Finally, the
Apollo project, with three astronauts, had the goal
of testing spacecraft and skills so that people
could actually fly to the Moon and land on it. Other
goals included performing scientific experiments
on the lunar surface and collecting rocks for study
on Earth.

Do you see which of the connectors above are major and which are minor? The
major ones are For example in the second sentence, which introduces the first
supporting point (the Mercury program); As another example, which begins the
second main point (the Gemini program); and the word Finally, which introduces the
third and last main point (the Apollo moon program). (In the paragraph above, all of
the major connectors are underlined.)

As for the minor connectors, we can divide them into three groups. The first group
of minor connectors provides coherence for the first main point (the Mercury
program). There is only one minor connector in this first group, In addition, although
it is possible to have more than one, depending on how many details you have to
support your first main point.

The second group of minor connectors consists of That is, also, and also the phrase
For example in the sentence, "For example, some astronauts..." Notice that this last
minor connector is the same as the major connector at the beginning of the
paragraph. However, the function of each is different, depending on the meaning of
the sentences.

The third group of minor connectors in this particular paragraph also has one
member, which is Other goals included....

Here is a table of a few common connectors (also called transitions):

 
On the one
For example, As another example,
hand,
For instance, Another example of [xxx]
On the other
One example of is    (that)
hand,
(this) is Finally,
However,
First, Second, In conclusion,
..., but...
Third, etc. To summarize,
also

Paragraph Unity

Unity is a very important characteristic of good paragraph writing. Paragraph unity

means that one paragraph is about ONLY ONE main topic. That is, all the sentences
-- the topic, supporting sentences, the detail sentences, and (sometimes) the
concluding sentence -- are all telling the reader about ONE main topic. If your
paragraph contains a sentence or some sentences that are NOT related to the main
topic, then we say that the paragraph "lacks unity," or that the sentence is "off-topic."

Look at the following paragraph, which is similar to the paragraph that we have
studied above. Does it have perfect unity? Try to find the sentence that is off-topic:

Each of the Russian manned space exploration

projects had specific major goals. For example,
the Vostok project was designed to test whether or
not human beings could survive and function in
outer space. For another example, the Voshkhod
project was intended to find out whether people
could work in the weightless environment of
space. One Voshkhod cosmonaut experimented
with weightlessness by taking a "spacewalk." That
 is, he floated in a spacesuit outside his Voshkhod
spacecraft, connected to it by a tether. The
cosmonaut to do this was Alexei Leonov. Several
weeks later, Leonov's spacewalk was followed by
that of U.S. astronaut Ed White. Finally, the Soyuz
project, with three cosmonauts, had goals of
testing spacecraft and spaceflight skills so that
people could fly long missions in Earth orbit.

This paragraph is generally good, but the sentence, Several weeks later, Leonov's
spacewalk was followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White, does not have anything
to do with the major goals of the various Russian space projects. That is, it is an "off-
topic" sentence, so we can say that the paragraph somewhat lacks unity. In order to
improve the paragraph, we should omit this sentence, even though it is historically
accurate.

Let us now analyze our model paragraph for unity and coherence:
 
THE HUMAN BODY

(1) The human body is a wonderful piece of work that nature has
created. (2) It is not beautiful like the body of a butterfly or peacock but it
is shaped practically. (3) It can do many types of work which other
animals cannot. (4) It is not strong like the body of a tiger. (5) But in
place of physical strength it has a big and sharp brain. (6) By using this
brain the human physique has been able to overcome many of its
limitations. (7) By sitting in an aeroplane it flies faster than a kite, by
riding a motorcycle it travels faster than a leopard, and by firing a
machine gun it fights much better than a tiger. (8)In spite of all this, the
human body suffers from many diseases because it has a weakness for
habits such as smoking, drinking and overeating. (9) When it is healthy
the body can give great pleasure but when it is sick it can cause great
pain. (10) The wise man would always keep his body fit because a
healthy mind can work only in a healthy body.
 Transition Signals

Transition signals are connecting words or phrases that act like bridges
between parts of your writing. They link your sentences and paragraphs together
smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas. Transition
signals act like signposts to indicate to the reader the order and flow of your writing
and ideas. They strengthen the internal cohesion of your writing. Using transitions
makes it easier for the reader to follow your ideas. They help carry over a thought
from one sentence to another, from one paragraph to another, or from one idea to
another. There are several different transition signals. Some lead your reader
forward and imply the building of an idea or thought, while others make your reader
compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.
The following words and phrases can be used to indicate transitions and to
cur your readerabout how ideas are logically connected in your writing.

►To introduce an example:

especially in this case take the case offor example one example of this is to
demonstrate
for instance on this occasion to illustratefrequently specifically.

►To show agreement:

of course admittedly it is true that certainly no doubt

►To introduce an additional idea:

additionally as well as in additionagain besides moreover also equally important
one could also sayand finally norand then further not to mentionanother
furthermore.

►To indicate sequence or order, or logically divide an idea:

after eventually previouslyafterwards finally second and then first simultaneously
at this point followed by subsequently at this time last thirdbefore, meanwhile
ultimately concurrently next.

►To indicate time:

after, earlier previouslyafterwards finally prior toat this point formerly soon at this
time immediately then before initially thereafter during later to this day
►To compare:
another way to view this just like similarly balanced against likewise whereas by
comparison like while.

►To contrast:
a different view is even so nevertheless and however notwithstandingbalanced
against in contrast still but on the contrary unlikeconversely on the other hand yet
differing from

►To introduce an opposite idea or show exception:

alternatively in contrast on the other hand but in spite of still despite instead
whereas
even though nevertheless while however one could also say yet

►To show cause and effect:

and so consequently therefore as a consequence for this reason thus as a result
hence

►To summarise or conclude:

as a result in conclusion therefore as shown in other words thusconsequently in
summary to conclude finally on the whole to summarisehence summing up
ultimatelyin brief

SOME USEFUL TRANSITIONS

To show addition:
again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too
To give examples:
for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate
To compare:
also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly
To contrast:
although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in
contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still,
though, yet
To summarize or conclude:
all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that
is, therefore, to sum up
To show time:
after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier,
finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly,
subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while
To show place or direction:
 above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to
the left (north, etc.)

To indicate logical relationship:

accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if,
otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus

Below is an example of how using transitional words and phrases can improve
the quality of a piece of writing. Note how the ideas flow more smoothly, and
the logical relationships between the ideas expressed are clearer in the
second paragraph.

Nothing is known about Adrian’s birth. We know that, during his early years, he was
raised by hedgehogs in Birmingham, England. This upbringing would have a lasting effect on
him. Adrian is a nocturnal creature who has been known to curl himself into a ball on
occasion. The diet on which Adrian likely subsisted when he was young, namely insects, left
him with a phobia for anything with more than four legs. Adrian was able to lead a relatively
normal life. Mr. and Mrs. Smith rescued him from the Birmingham hedgehogs. The Smiths
set about teaching Adrian how to behave in the world of humans. They taught him to speak
English. They taught him to read. They sent him toschool for the Arts. Adrian quickly became
a talented guitar player. He decided that if he could not be a professional musician, he would
curl himself into a ball forever. Adrian met some fellow musicians who were as talented as
he. They formed a band that became a huge success.
It is true that nothing is known about Adrian’s birth, but we know that, during his
early years, he was raised by hedgehogs in Birmingham, England. This upbringing would
have a lasting effect on him; for example, Adrian is a nocturnal creature who hasbeen
known to curl himself into a ball on occasion. In addition, the diet on which Adrian likely
subsisted when he was young, namely insects, left him with a phobia for anythingwith more
than four legs. Nevertheless, Adrian was able to lead a relatively normal life after Mr. and
Mrs Smith rescued him from the Birmingham hedgehogs. The Smiths set about teaching
Adrian how to behave in the world of humans. First, they taught him to speak English.
Second, they taught him to read. Finally, they sent him to a school for the Arts. As a result,
Adrian quickly became a talented guitar player, and he decided that if he could not be a
professional musician, he would curl himself into a ball forever.Ultimately, Adrian met some
fellow musicians who, in comparison, were as talented as he, and they soon formed a
band that became a huge success.
 Concrete Support
Defenition of Concrete Support is the supporting or additional sentences in a
paragraph which truth and isn’t taken by opinion. The aim of concrete support is a
make paragraph have strong support to prove the statement in that paragraph.

There are diffrences between fact and opinion sentence

Fact : Objective statments of truths.

example : Monday is always before Tuesday

Opinition : Subjective statments based on a person’s beliefs or attitudes

example : Engineering students don’t need to take a lot of English Course

 Concrete Supporting detail

Concrete Details :

 Evidence that support the topic sentence’s main idea.

 It can be an occurrence, description, defenition, exploration, or example.
 It the essay is about a literary work, the concrete should include or be a direct
quote from the work.
 Either way the detail must be specific
 You must give your detail context or background.

The most common are used in concrete supporting detail :

 Example
 Statistics
 Quotations

Concrete detail refers to a FACT statement that support what has been said in
the topic sentence.

Example : TS : Running is an excellent sport

CD : for example, running is great exercises
The Concrete Detail offer proof and support for topic sentence.
 16 Ways to Improve Your Writing Skills

Nothing strikes fear into the heart of a marketer quite like being asked to write
a blog post. Some marketers would rather wrestle with pivot tables (or grizzly bears)
for days on end than write a blog post – but why?

Writing doesn’t have to be this painful.

With content marketing shaping up as one of the most important marketing

skills to have on your resume, getting a handle on writing could really benefit your
career. Writing is intimidating to a lot of people, particularly those who don’t write for
a living or blog on a regular basis. The good news is that writing doesn’t have to be
agonizing, and almost anybody can hone their writing skills with a little discipline and
a willingness to learn. In today’s post, I’m going to share 16 ways you can start
improving your writing skills right now.

1. Brush Up on the Basics

Before you can start writing incredible content, you’ll need at least an intermediate
understanding of the basic principles of writing. This doesn’t mean you need to enroll
in a prestigious creative writing program at an Ivy league university, but you will need
to know the basics of grammar and spelling. Every writer should have a copy of “The
Elements of Style” by Strunk and White on their bookshelf, as this small but
invaluable book is one of the most comprehensive resources on the correct use of
grammar and other helpful topics. For quick and easy online resources, bookmark
Grammar Girl and, of course, Merriam Webster.
2. Write Like It’s Your Job
If you want to get better at something, you have to practice – and writing is no
exception. Unfortunately, there are few shortcuts that can transform you into an
amazing writer overnight, and even the most talented writers had to learn their craft
over a period of many years.

If you want to improve your writing skills, writing on a regular basis will not only
diminish your fear of the blank page (or blinking cursor), it will also help you develop
a unique style. So, even if nobody reads it, keep writing. Practice makes perfect.

3. Read Like It’s Your Job

The best writers are also keen readers, and reading on a regular basis is an easy
way to start developing your writing skills. I don’t just mean blog posts, either –
diversify your reading material. Expand your horizons to more challenging material
than you typically read, and pay attention to sentence structure, word choice, and
how the material flows.
The more you read, the more likely you are to develop an eye for what makes a
piece so effective, and which mistakes to avoid.

4. Find a Writing Partner

If you work at a reasonably sized company, the chances are pretty good that there is
at least one other person who also secretly harbors a desire to become a better
writer. Although writing is typically considered a solitary activity, the best writers
know when it’s time to get much-needed feedback on their work.

Talk to your coworkers (or friends) and ask someone if they’d be willing to cast an
eye over your work – they may spot mistakes that you overlooked. Finding a writing
partner is also a great way to hold yourself accountable and keep going.

5. Join a Workshop or Take a Night Class

Most people balk at the idea of standing in front of a room full of strangers and
baring their soul to the world, but joining a writing workshop can be immensely
beneficial – and a lot of fun (if you manage to find a good one).
 You don’t need to have an unfinished novel hidden away in your desk drawer
to join a workshop. These days, content marketing meet-ups and professional
development groups are becoming wildly popular. Join one of the many content
marketing groups on LinkedIn to meet like-minded writers, or search for writing
workshops near you on sites like Meetup. Pick a topic, write something, listen to the
feedback of the group, and then revise it. Rinse, repeat.

6. Dissect Writing That You Admire

Most people read the same blogs or sites on a regular basis because the
material appeals to them – but fewer people understand why their favorite blogs are
so appealing.

Find a handful of recent blog posts you really like, then print them out. Next,
just like your high school English teacher did, take a red pen and highlight things you
liked: certain sentences, turns of phrase, even entire paragraphs. Examine why you
like these elements, and see if there are any common threads in your favored
reading material. See how writers take one subject and transition into another. Apply
these techniques to your own work.

Let’s take a look at a particularly powerful (and memorable piece) from Copyblogger
that serves as a great example of this.
 Immediately, you’re hooked by Morris’ opening. You can’t not read to see
what happens next. The pacing is excellent, it grabs your attention, and best of all, it
keeps you reading. This piece was first published back in June, and I still
remember it. Read the full post here, and see how Morris masterfully tells the story
of a band named Death and how this relates to writing content.

7. Imitate Writers You Admire

Before we go any further, a disclaimer – imitation is not the same as plagiarism.
Don’t rip off anyone’s work. Ever.

Just as you probably have a list of blogs you read often, you’ll likely also read the
same writers on a regular basis. Identify what it is you enjoy about their work, and
see if you can use it to improve your writing skills. Does a writer you like use humor
to spice up dry topics? Try it. Do they use pop culture references to make their work
entertaining and useful? Try that, too.
When I first started writing, I imitated some of my favorite nonfiction writers and
essayists, such as Joan Didion, Truman Capote and Bill Bryson. I also attempted
(and failed) to imitate writers such as Dave Eggers and Dan Kennedy, but soon
realized that I wasn't funny enough and gave it up. Over time, I eventually developed
my own style, but reading the works of these writers and seeing how they
constructed their essays and books was immensely helpful to me as a writer..

8. Remember That Outlines Are Your Friend

The blinking cursor of a blank page is a considerable foe, even for the most
experienced writers. Before putting pen to proverbial paper, sketch out an outline of
what you plan to write. This will be your battle plan, and it will help you win the war.
Very few – and I do mean very few – writers sit down to write anything without a solid
plan in mind.

An outline doesn’t have to be complex. A simple framework of which sections

should appear in a particular order, along with a few sentences about what each
section contains, may be enough. If the topic you’re tackling is a little more complex,
your outline might have to be, too – but having an outline before you write is like
having a roadmap in the glove box of your car before a road trip. If you start to feel
lost, refer back to your outline and get back to kicking ass and taking names.

Let’s take a look at a real example – one of my own outlines:

Introduction

Brief summary of the post

Section 1 – What is Brand Voice?

 Paragraph(s) explaining the key principles behind brand voice (style, tone, and
messaging)

Examples of each

Section 2 – Developing Brand Voice with Content

Explanations of how to develop brand voice using content (written, visual,

video)

Considerations for content producers/marketers to bear in mind when

producing content (strategy, goals, overall brand messaging)

Section 3 – Examples of Content That Builds Brand Voice

Several examples (three or four) of content that aligns well with marketing
positioning and branding of recognizable brands

Conclusion

Wrap-up

This outline eventually became my recent post about brand voice. I deviated from my
initial outline slightly, but the overarching structure was always there to keep me on
target.

9. Edit Your Work Ruthlessly

So, you’re writing every day (or regularly, at least), and you’re feeling more
confident about your work. Awesome! Now you’re going to become your own
harshest critic.
 Editing is a tough skill to learn for beginner writers, because they place
immense value on the time and effort they put into writing in the first place. However,
a lot of writing is actually rewriting, and this is where the cold, hard eye of an editor
will serve you well.

Develop the discipline it takes to eliminate extraneous words (more on this shortly).
Resist the temptation to wax lyrically and get to the point. Not sure if a paragraph
works? It probably isn’t. Be tough on yourself, and know when to delete or rework
something. Your work will be much stronger as a result.

10. Accept That First Drafts Are Almost Always Crap

The best writers make it look so easy. After reading a great post, it’s tempting to
imagine your favorite bloggers effortlessly turning in incredible posts with minimal
effort before spending the rest of their day reading obscure books in a quaint corner
café somewhere. Take comfort in the knowledge that this isn’t how writing works.
 First drafts are almost always crap, and that’s okay. Don’t beat yourself up if
you don’t create a masterpiece on your first attempt – chances are, you probably
won’t, and that’s okay, too. Just get your ideas down on paper first, then go back and
start cleaning up. Writing is an iterative process, and even the best writers have to
spend a lot of time reworking material they were probably too embarrassed to show
anybody.

11. Find a Good (Patient) Editor

Whether you’re trying to make the case for a content strategy to your manager or
want to start guest blogging on your favorite sites, finding and working with a good
editor is one of the best things you can do to improve your writing skills. I’ve worked
with dozens of editors over the years, and in my experience, the best are those who
show you why something doesn’t work, rather than just telling you that it doesn’t.
Allowing someone else to read your work can be brutally difficult for some writers,
especially when they’re just starting out, but it’s crucial that you develop good habits
from the outset and learn to accept constructive criticism about your work.
Remember – writers are desperately needy creatures who need to be constantly
reassured that they’re the creative geniuses they believe themselves to be, but you’ll
need to develop a thick skin if you’re serious about your work, and a good editor is
invaluable when it comes to toughening up.

12. Eliminate Unnecessary Words

Another common mistake among beginner writers (and some more
experienced writers who should know better) is writing overly complex sentences in
an attempt to “sound” more authoritative.

In many cases, shorter sentences can have a greater impact. You may have
heard of a six-word story that was supposedly written by Ernest Hemingway, which
reads, “For sale: Baby shoes, never worn.” Whether Hemingway wrote this or not is
irrelevant – the power of these six words shows that brevity can be a powerful tool
when used correctly, and not every sentence needs to be overwrought to get your
point across.
Let’s look at another real example from one of my posts – my very first post for
WordStream, as it happens. This lengthy sentence is a prime candidate for a
ruthless red pen, even if my lame jokes were intended to give it a little more flavor.
I’ve edited the sentence to show you how you could edit a similar line in your own
work (additions italicized).

“Whether you’re a newcomer to AdWords or have been running PPC campaigns

since Google launched the platform in 2000 (with a grand total of 350 customers) for
years, you’ve probably given a great deal of thought to about which keywords will
result in more clicks and higher conversions – not to mention that vacation home in
Lake Tahoe you’ve been dreaming about.”

13. Take a Stroll Down Memory Lane

I’ve been writing professionally, in one way or another, for the past ten years. When I
look back at my early work, which I do every so often, it literally makes me cringe. I
don’t do this because I’m a masochist, but to remind myself how far I’ve come.

Writing should be fun, and along with the thrill of seeing your byline for the first time,
seeing how far you’ve progressed is one of the most satisfying parts of being a
writer. Every now and then (but not too often), re-read your earlier work and marvel
at how much better you are now than you were then. Pat yourself on the back.
You’ve worked hard, so don’t be shy – congratulate yourself.

14. Don’t Be Afraid to Say What You Think

Most content on the web is bland and dreadfully boring. This is because far
too many bloggers focus on regurgitating the same news as everybody else without
bothering to add their own opinions. Obviously you don’t want to fall afoul of libel
laws, but that doesn’t mean you can’t (or shouldn’t) say what you think.

Once you’ve started to discover your own “voice,” don’t be shy about sharing your
opinions. This makes for more interesting reading. Don’t be contrarian for its own
sake, and don’t set out to purposefully piss anyone off, but make sure there’s
enough of you in your writing to make it a worthwhile read for your audience.

15. Do Your Research

Aside from plagiarizing someone else’s work, nothing will undermine your credibility
faster than failing to do your homework.

In their eagerness to be done with a blog post (or even major newspaper article),
many writers try to take shortcuts with the facts. This can range from accidentally
fudging a statistic out of haste to being lazy when it comes to sourcing or attribution.
Not only can this land you in big trouble with your editor/content marketing
manager/other boss-type person, it also makes you look like an amateur.
Everybody makes mistakes, and you don’t need to spend weeks cross-referencing
every last statistic (see the next tip), but common sense should prevail here – don’t
rely exclusively on sites like Wikipedia, and use current, primary sources whenever
possible.

16. Don’t Take Weeks to Finish a Post

You should definitely take the time to write as well as you can, proofread and edit
your work thoroughly, and ensure that your piece flows logically from one point to the
next. However, this doesn’t mean you should take weeks to write something.

No blog post (or any piece of writing, for that matter) will ever be perfect – you have
to know when it’s time to let it go. This is especially important in content marketing,
because you’ll rarely (if ever) have the luxury of crafting agonizingly beautiful blog
posts full of poignant sentences and evocative imagery. As you become more
confident, the “writing” part of writing will become easier and faster, but never lose
sight of the fact that deadlines, or editorial calendars, are just as much your masters
as any boss or manager.

As for me, I’m going to take my own advice and call this post done. I hope you find
these tips useful, no matter how long you’ve been writing. If you have questions or
want to share your own advice, leave a comment!