BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Introduction Typical phrases are composed of a preposition and its object (I

fell on the side walk.) or a verbal and its object (I wanted to see
A word is a meaningful unit of language sounds. Or it is a the parade).Phrases are usually classified as prepositional,
infinitive, participial, or gerund phrases.
meaningful sound or combination of sounds that is a unit of
Example
language or its representation in a text. There are two types of
words: function words (grammatical words) and content words.  He is a man of action. (Prepositional phrase)
 I wanted to buy the house. (Infinitive phrase)
A. Function Words are words such as the, and, but, in, to,
because, while, ought, must, etc. The main use of function words  Covered with ice, the road was dangerous. (Participial
is to express relationships among other words. Compare the phrase)
following:
 Making a profit is their only purpose. (Gerund phrase)
- I am lonely at dark. - The cook prepared a rich feast.
III. A Clause is a group of words containing a subject and a
- I am lonely in the dark. - The cook prepared the rich a feast. predicate. The relation of a clause to the rest of a sentence is
shown by the position of the clause or by a conjunction.
B. Content Words are words having meanings beyond grammar
functions. The common content words are a noun, pronoun, There are two kinds of clauses: (1) main, or independent, clauses
adjective, verb and adverb that primarily convey meanings rather
and (2) subordinate, or dependent, clauses.
than grammatical functions.
II. A phrase is a group of related words that has no subject or 1. A main clause has both subject and verb, but it is not
predicate and is used as a single part of speech. As we process
introduced by a subordinating word. A main clause makes an
language , we recognize phrases as chunks of information that
expand a basic sentence, adding to its meaning , but we also independent statement; it could stand alone.
recognize that phrases cannot express complete thoughts by
themselves. Example: Eagles are beautiful. (You can see that this clause is
Example equal to sentence.)

 I fell on the side walk. (It is a complete thought.)

2. Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by a subordinating
 on the sidewalk (It is a phrase - not a complete thought) conjunction (as, since, because, etc) or by a relative pronoun
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

(who, whom, whose, which, that). Subordinate clauses function • Distinguish faulty sentences from correct sentences
as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. They cannot stand alone but • Correct faulty sentences
must be attached to a main clause. They express ideas that are
intended to be subordinate to or dependent on the idea expressed Task 1
in the main clause. The exact relationship between the two ideas
1. What does a sentence mean to you?
is indicated by the subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun 2. What are the parts of a complete sentence?
that joins the subordinate and the main clause.
1.1 Definition of a Sentence and its Parts
Eagles are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs. Eagles
are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs. A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought
through a logically related subject and predicate. The subject is
Main clause: the underlined part in the first sentence the part of the sentence about which something is being said. The
predicate is the part that says something about the subject.
Subordinate clauses: the underlined part in the second sentence
Examples:93
Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences Scientist Kitaw Ejigu died suddenly at the age of 58.

Up on the successful completion of this unit, the students should be able Fertilizer helps to enrich the soil.
to:
In the above sentences, "Scientist Kitaw Ejigu" and "Fertilizer"
• Define what a sentence is are the subjects. The rest of the sentence coming after the subject
• Identify constituent elements of a sentence is named as a predicate.
• Combine two or more sentences into a single sentence
4.2 Constituent Elements of a Sentence
• Identify different kinds of sentences based on their function
• Distinguish different kind of sentences based on their structure
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Every sentence, short or long, is made up of one or more units Simple predicate (act):bloom, teach, laugh, burn, pays
containing two main parts: subject and predicate.
In the sentences given above, the subject (actor) has consisted of
Subject is a part of a sentence about which a statement is made. a single word: flowers, novels, men, candles, honesty. Such
It is a noun or pronoun, with any of its modifiers. subjects are called simple subjects. The predicate (act) has also
consisted of a single word: bloom, teach, laugh, burn, pays. Such
Predicate is the statement made about the subject .It is a verb or
predicates are called simple predicates.
verb phrase, with any modifiers or words used to complete its
meaning. 4.2.2 Complete Subject and Complete Predicate

Example: Our soccer team won the state championship. Our Complete Subject
soccer team / won the state championship.
When a simple subject is expanded by the addition of modifying
4.2.1 Simple Subject and Simple Predicate words, the subject thus expanded is called a complete subject.

Every sentence, we make, usually has a subject and a predicate. Examples of expanded form of subject:

Example: - John fights. - They run - Flowers are blooming. (Flowers, one word, is a simple subject)

In sentence 1, John the actor is, a simple subject, and fights, the - The flowers are blooming.
action, is a simple predicate.
- The small flowers are blooming.
In sentence 2, the simple subject is they, the actor, and the
- The small red-petaled flowers are blooming.
simple predicate is run, the act.

Simple subject (actor) : flowers, novels, men, candles,

honesty…
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Flowers, the simple subject in the first sentence, has been In both cases (complete subject and predicate) though the
expanded by the modifiers: the, small, and red-petaled. Hence, it sentences contain expanded form of subject and predicate, each is
is a complete subject. a simple sentence because each sentence contains only one main
clause involving one subject and one predicate and no
Complete Predicate
subordinate clauses (dependent clauses).
In the same way, when the predicate consists of a single word or
4.2.3 Compound Subject and Predicate
a verb phrase, it is called a simple predicate. When it is expanded
by the addition of other words, then the simple predicate plus its Compound Subject
modifiers, plus any other words that completes its meaning, are
A subject can be made up of two or more nouns or pronouns. In
called complete predicate.
this case the sentence has a compound subject.
Examples of expanded form of predicate:
Example:
- Solomon is walking.
- Gemechu and Chaltu saved $ 500 a year with grocery coupons.
- Solomon is walking quickly. - A right attitude and a winning personality /should be your best
principles to get a job.
- Solomon is walking quickly to school.
- The movement of the tropical fish and the bubbles from the
filter/ fascinate the young cat.
- Solomon is walking quickly to school in the morning.
Compound Predicate
“is walking” ,the simple predicate in the first sentence , has been
A sentence can have two or more verbs for the same subject. In
expanded by the modifiers quickly, quickly to school and quickly this case the sentence is said to have a compound predicate.
to school in the morning. Hence, it is a complete predicate.
Example:

Note: - We chopped the celery, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

- The snow fell throughout the night and blanketed the area. Instructions: Examine these sentences, especially the italicized
- You should leave at six o’clock and arrive by midnight. parts, then answer the questions below. What patterns can you
discover? Don't do anything to the sentences, but do answer the
Sentence Combination
questions below about these sentences.
In writing, you are required to keep the cohesion of ideas. One of
 Harriet earned ‘ A’ in the class, for she studied carefully.
the mechanisms to do this is that varying the length of your
sentences. To do this, you should combine two or more short  We went to the movies, and we ate popcorn.
sentences in to one. Two or more ideas can be connected in a
 He did not study for the exam, nor did he pass.
sentence using the method of coordination or subordination.
 Collecting glass figurines is a delightful hobby, but it can
1.1. Coordination is a method of joining two independent
be expensive.
sentences by using conjunctions. In coordination, the status of the
sentences is not reduced when they are combined. In other words,  Fred wanted to go skiing, or he wanted to go
when they are combined, they still remain independent clauses. snowboarding.

The linking devices (coordinators) we use in coordination are:  He knew the cost, yet he did it anyway.

1.1.1. Coordinating Conjunctions  He knew it would not cost him, so he did it.

1.1.2. Correlative Conjunctions 1. What is the function of the italicized parts?(What is it doing
in the sentence?)
1.1.3. Adverb Conjunctions
2. Where is the italicized portion located?
1.1.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
3. Does the location differ from sentence to sentence?
PATTERN DISCOVERY
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4. What the apparent meaning of each italicized word?  Yet - shows opposition; also shows emphasis (a stronger
but)
The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions which are
used in writing are the following.  So - shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same
meaning as therefore, as a result. X happened, so Y
 For - a more formal word for because, this shows a
happened.
result- cause relationship between two independent
clauses. It shows logical consequence; it has the same Note: When you use the above coordinating conjunctions to join
meaning as because, the reason why complete sentences, use a comma before the coordinators.

 And - shows the addition of two positive ideas. It has the Example:
same meaning as in addition, along with, moreover,
Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
furthermore
You must come early, or you will miss the bus.
 Nor - shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an
addition of a negative point The driver couldn’t control the speed of the car, for the brake
was not working.
( Note: you must reverse the normal subject- verb
positions in the second clause when using nor). The patient didn’t eat his dinner, nor did he eat his lunch.

 But - shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It Haile is running very fast, so he seems to win the race.
has the same meaning as however, except, on the other
She studied hard, but she failed the examination.
hand
Every summer I go to Addis Ababa, and I visit my grandfather.
 Or - shows alternatives or choices
EXERCISE 1
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Insert the appropriate coordinating conjunction in the space 2. A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian Idols.
provided
B. The judges didn’t allow him to pass to the next stage.
1. Everyone wants a tax cut _________no one wants to give up
3. A. Aster didn’t bring her exercise book.
any government service.
B. Aster didn’t bring her pen.
2. The runner admitted taking steroids _________he was forced
to give up his medals. 4. A. The farmer worked all day and night.

3. You must read paper everyday________ you don’t know what B. The farmer harvested a lot of crops.
is going on in the world.
1.1.2 Correlative Conjunctions
4. Members of the churches met for dinner __________they held
Correlative conjunctions are coordinating words that work in
an interfaith service.
pairs to join words, phrases, and sentences. The most common
5. Employers do not want the theft __________do they want the correlative pairs are:
expense and bad publicity of having an employee arrested.
Correlative conjunctions meaning
6. You should return the paper on time __________ you will lose
Either…..or one of the two
a letter grade for lateness.
Neither …. nor none of the two
Combine the following pairs of sentences by using
coordinating conjunctions. Not only….. but also Both

1 A. The dog ate the food very fast both …… and both

B. The dog was very hungry

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Whether…. .or or clauses that are put together must be of the same type
dilemma/hesitation/confusion or equivalent. This means that nouns must be put together
with other nouns, verbs with other verbs, adjectives with
Look how the correlative conjunctions are used in the following
other adjectives, and so on.
examples .
Note: The units being joined by a correlative conjunction must
 Either go to bed early this evening or stop complaining
be parallel in grammatical structure and importance.
about being tired in class.
The followings are again more examples of how correlative
 Neither the contestant nor his sponsor was willing to
conjunctions are used. See how they are properly used.
attend the lecture.
Example 1:
 The newspaper reported that not only the hurricane but
also the ensuing floods caused millions of dollars worth .. Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
of damage.
The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "both ... and." This
 Does anyone know whether the president or the vice correlative conjunction links together two words of the same
president was responsible for providing the announcement type. In this case, the types of words are the nouns, sister and
to the press? brother.

Summary .. For dessert, you may have either cake or ice cream. The
correlative conjunction in this sentence is "either ... or." This
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that are used
conjunction also links two nouns, cake and ice cream.
to link two sentences having similar subjects or similar
predicates. The most important thing to remember when
using correlative conjunctions is that the words, phrases,
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.. She wanted neither cake nor ice cream. The correlative o Neither my sisters nor my cousins are invited to the party.
conjunction in this sentence is "neither ... nor." This conjunction
Exercise
links two nouns.
Choose the correct correlative conjunction to complete the
.. He did not know whether to exit the freeway at Orange Avenue
following blank spaces.
or to exit the freeway at Cherry Avenue. The correlative
conjunction in this sentence is "whether ... or." This conjunction 1. When they found the man who had been lost for five days, he
links two phrases. was _________ tired __________hungry.

.. Teachers should be not only intelligent but also friendly. The A. not only .... but also B. either ... or C. neither ... nor
correlative conjunction in this sentence is "not only ... but also."
2. He is neither my uncle ___ my cousin
This conjunction links two adjectives.
A. and B. or C. but D. nor
Example 2:
3. The student was not sure _________ to enroll in a history class
o I wondered whether to make the telephone call or to see
or an art class
her in person.
A. either B. whether C. neither D. both
o The secretary is either working at her desk or visiting the
dean. 4. ________ Sam nor his brother can swim.

o Not only my sisters but also my cousins are invited to the A. Both B. Not only C. Neither D. Either
party.
5. … .Roger….. Carlos knows how to speak Russian.
o Both my sisters and my cousins are invited to the party.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

A. Not only .... but also B. Both..........and C. Combine the following pairs of sentences by using correlative
Whether.........or conjunctions

6. .….. .Roger…. Carlos know how to speak Russian. 1. A. To go to Gondar, You can use a bus.

A. Not only .... but also B. Both..........and C. B. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.
Whether.........or
2. A. Azeb is beautiful
7. I am not sure….. I should take biology …..geology.
B. Azeb is honest.
A. Not only .... but also B. Both..........and C.
3. (I am in confusion)
Whether.........or
A. I want to go to class.
8. I hate the science classes at all, so I want to take…...
physics….. chemistry. B. I want to go to my appointment.

A. not only .... but also B. both..........and C. 2.1.3 Adverb Conjunctions

neither.........nor
Adverb conjunction is an adverb used to relate and connect main
9. My advisor told me to add one optional course; therefore, I clauses in a sentence.
will add.......... history.......... geography.
Common conjunctive adverbs are:
A. not only.... but also B. either.........or C.
also still consequently however
both..........and
indeed
Exercise 2:
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

hence then furthermore moreover  The band struck up a familiar tune; they were, indeed,
likewise playing our song.

thus instead therefore otherwise Note: Most adverb conjunctions are preceded by a semi colon
nevertheless and followed by a comma. There are some exceptions, however.
Adverbs conjunctions like still and also are, for example, not
Example
preceded by a semicolon.
 I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn’t
Example
have to stand in line.
 Sorry I’m late. My alarm didn’t go off. Also, I had
 Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on
trouble starting the car.
jogging.
 He has treated you badly: still, he is your brother.
Conjunctive adverbs, unlike coordinating and subordinating
conjunctions, are the only ones that can be moved from the Some other adverb conjunctions like otherwise and then are
beginning of a clause to another position in the clause without preceded by a semi colon but not followed by a comma.
changing the clause’s meaning. In other words, they occupy
Example
different positions within the main clause in which they stand.
  John must be sick; otherwise he would be here.
Example
  She made coffee; then she cooked breakfast.
 The band struck up a familiar tune; indeed, they were
playing our song. To maintain the desired relationship between independent
clauses, see the following chart to know the meaning of
coordinating and adverb conjunctions.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Meaning coordinating adverb conjunction 3. A. A computer manufacturing plant is opening in Cairo.

conjunction
B. There will be thousands of new jobs available next year.
Addition ,and ;furthermore ;moreover
1.2 Subordination
Contrast ,but ,yet ;however ;nevertheless
Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a
Alternative ,or ,nor ;instead ;otherwise dependent clause in the same sentence by using subordinators. In
subordination, the status of one of the sentences to be combined
Result ,so ;therefore ;consequently
is reduced to a subordinate (dependent) clause. As you might
;thus
recall from the above discussion, in coordination the status of the
sentences to be combined is not reduced; they remain
independent.
EXERCISE 1
The linking devices we use in subordination are:
Join the following pairs of sentences using the appropriate
conjunctive adverbs. Be sure that you punctuate it properly. 1.2.1 Subordinating Conjunctions

1. A. Sunshine Construction Company is building a plant in 1.2.2 Relative Pronouns

Nazareth.
1.2.1 Subordinating Conjunctions
B. Sunshine Construction Company is planning to build
PATTERN DISCOVERY
another in Bahir Dar next year.
Instructions: Examine these sentences, especially the italicized
2. A. Tell him to carry out his duties properly!
parts, and then answer the questions below.
B. We will fire him.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Even though polar bears look like land animals, they are subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they must be joined to an
extremely adept in the water. independent clause to convey a complete thought and for
grammatical accuracy. They tell when, where, why, how, and to
Pups also love the snow because they like to slide down
what extent an action takes place. When a writer wants to
inclines.
emphasize the idea in one clause over the other, the most
They love to roll around in the snow providing a good important idea is contained within the independent clause, and
snowstorm hits. lesser ideas are presented in the dependent clauses. More often
we use a subordinating conjunction to show a difference in
If they can punch through the ice sheet, polar bears love
importance and strength of ideas.
swimming most.
Example
Rachel was reading fiction while her brother was listening
music. Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.
Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.
1. What is the function of the italicized part? (What is it doing in
the sentence?) Subordinate clause and Independent clause respectively
Notice: With the addition of because at the beginning of an
2. Where is the italicized portion located? Does the location independent clause, the independent clause becomes a dependent
differ from sentence to sentence? clause. Similarly, when other subordinating conjunctions are
added at the beginning of independent clause, the independent
clause becomes a dependent clause.
3. How is the italicized portion punctuated? Does this differ from
sentence to sentence? Subordinating Conjunctions show:

Subordinating conjunction is a kind of conjunction that joins Meaning Subordinating conjunctions

subordinate clauses with independent clauses. Here the
Cause: because, since, as
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 Mr. Mitchell, who was a stockbroker, liked the status a

boat afforded.
Time: since, as, after, until, as soon as, before, when,
while, once, after, whenever, as long as,  His guests, whom Mr. Mitchell chose with little care,
partied on the boat to all hours.
Condition: if, as if, as long as, provided that, unless,
provided, as though  One guest, whose criminal record was unknown to Mr.
Mitchell, stole the boat, then sank it when the police got
Contrast/ although, even though, though, even if, whereas,
too close.
concession: while
1. What is the function of the italicized part? (What is it doing in
Result: that, so that, in order that
the sentence? Why is it there?)
Place: where, wherever
2. Where is the italicized portion located? Does the location
1.2.2 Relative Pronouns differ from sentence to sentence?

PATTERN DISCOVERY 3. How is the italicized portion punctuated? Does this differ from
sentence to sentence?
INSTRUCTIONS: Examine these sentences, especially the
italicized parts, and then answer the questions below. 4. What are the words that begin each italicized portion?

 The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are
harbor. used to join subordinate clauses with independent sentences.
They also introduce relative clauses.
 The Crescent Moon, which was Mr. Mitchell's boat, was
brand new. Example
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

 The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the who, which Subjective case
harbor. (The italicized part is a subordinate clause.)
whom, which: Objective case
What makes the subordinate clause in relative clauses different
Whose Possessive case
from the other type of subordinate clauses is, the subordinate
clause in a relative clause is an adjective clause.

In relative clauses, the adjective clauses which are dependent Note: The relative pronoun ’that’ can be used in place of who,
clauses that modify a noun or a pronoun in the main clause, which or whom, but not in place of whose. Restrictive and non
usually begin with relative pronoun: who, whom , whose, which, restrictive adjective clauses
or that.
Adjective clauses may be restrictive (also called essential) or non
Note: In relative clauses: restrictive (non essential).

The adjective clauses answer the question Which one? or A restrictive adjective clause is necessary to make the meaning
What kind of? of the sentence complete. For example, in the sentence’ The
movie that I saw yesterday won a Grammy Award,’ the
Adjective clauses are always placed after the noun or the
information in the adjective clause ‘that I saw yesterday’ is
pronoun they modify.
essential to the meaning of the sentence. Without it, it is difficult
The relative pronoun that introduces an adjective clause to the reader to identify which special movie the writer is
can function as a subject, as an object, or as a possessive discussing about.
marker.
A non restrictive adjective clause merely adds information to a
Relative pronoun Use sentence by which the full meaning of which is already clear.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Example
Task 4

New York, which is America’s populous city, is one of the 1. Functionally, in how many ways can you classify sentences?
world's leading commercial, financial, and cultural centers. Please give one example from each.
2. Structurally, in how many ways can you classify sentences?
Please give one example from each.
Note: You can see in this example that the noun New York is
defined by itself. So, the relative clause does not define it. In Sentences can be classified according to both function and
other words, it is non-defining or non-restrictive. A non grammatical structure.
restrictive adjective clause is separated from the main clause by
commas.

EXERCISE 1.2.1 Classification of Sentences Based on their Function

INSTRUCTION: Join the following sentences using the most Sentences are classified on the basis of their function as
appropriate relative pronouns. Rewrite the sentences in the space declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.
provided, revising the sentences as necessary.
A. Declarative (Assertive) Sentence
who whom which whose
A declarative sentence is a sentence which makes a statement or
1. A. The woman has been arrested. provides information. This type of sentence makes statement
rather than asking a question or making an exclamation. It
B. Her child was accused of theft._________________
normally ends with a period (full stop).
2. A. The thief has been caught.
Examples:
B. The police were looking for the thief.______________
1. The project was under the direction of a well-known
4. A. Roberto is sure to win an art scholarship. organization.
2. The results of the exam were posted on the department’s
B. Roberto is a talented portrait artist.______________ website.
1.2 Types of Sentences 3. She is a songster.
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B. Interrogative Sentence 3. How cold the night is!

An interrogative sentence is a sentence which asks a question. It

ends with a question mark. Task 5

Examples: Direction: Identify the following sentences as declarative,

interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. Then, put the correct
1. Is she a vocalist? punctuation mark for each kind of sentences.
2. How does this machine work? 4. When do you expect
1. What a sadistic war
to graduate?
Answer:_____________________________________
3. Does she speak English? 5. Have you married? 2. Go out from here quickly
Answer:_____________________________________
C. Imperative Sentence
3. What a beautiful daughter you have
An imperative sentence is a sentence which gives a command or Answer:_____________________________________
issues a request. It ends with an exclamation mark when the 4. Leave me alone, please
command is forceful. It also ends with a period when the Answer:_____________________________________
command is mild. 5. He is an outstanding student__________________

Examples: 1.2.2 Classification of Sentence Based on their Structure

1. Do not answer me in that tone of voice. 3. Please consider Structurally sentences are divided into four categories: simple,
my application for the internship. compound, complex, and compound-complex.
2. Go away from here! 4. Turn to Table 1 in
the appendix. A. Simple Sentence
D. Exclamatory Sentence A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause
containing a subject and a verb and it expresses complete
An exclamatory sentence is a sentence which expresses surprise
thought. There is no dependent clause. It may have one subject
or a similar emotional response. It ends with an exclamation
and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.
mark.
Examples:
1. What an easy test that was!
2. These disruptions must end! 1. A single subject and a single predicate
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Hilina wrote a letter yesterday. 2. We must eat to live, but we should not live to eat.
2. Compound subject and a single predicate
3. Many students have left the campus, for they had already
Hilina and her husband wrote a letter yesterday. completed their exams.
3. A single subject and compound predicate 4. He promised to give back my money, yet he did not.
Hilina wrote a letter and mailed it yesterday. 5. My sister is a talented musician, but she doesn’t like to
4. Compound subject and compound predicate practice.
Hilina and her husband wrote a letter and mailed it
yesterday. II. A conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, nevertheless,
therefore, consequently, thus, furthermore, in fact, etc.)
Example:
B. Compound Sentence 1. My interest was to study Engineering; however, I have been
assigned in department of Information Technology.
A compound sentence is composed of two or more independent
2. "Kibur Dingay" is an interesting novel; therefore, I read it
clauses with no subordinate clauses. It is usually joined by:
many times.
I. A coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, or, yet, for,
etc.) – a comma precedes the coordinating conjunction III. A semicolon
when the subjects of the clauses differ, when the
If a coordinating conjunction does not join independent clauses, a
coordinating conjunction shows contrast, or when the
semi-colon usually separate them. Semi-colon usually shows that
clauses are fairly long.
the two clauses are closely related to each other.
Examples:
Example:
1. The children played games, and the parents sang songs.
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1. You should always clean your teeth after meals; cleaning teeth while, until, as soon as, before, when, as, because, since,
although, despite, in spite of, if, unless, etc. ) , relative pronouns (
helps to prevent decay and toothache.
which, what, who, whom, that, whose, where, etc.) or a
coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, or, yet, for, etc.).
2. I asked him a question; he replied correctly.
Examples:

C. Complex Sentence 1. If he got the job, he would have to commute 50 miles to work,
so he decided the job was not worth it.
A complex sentence composed of one independent clause with 2. Although she felt guilty for missing her friend’s birthday, she
one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses introduced by took her out to dinner the next day, and they had a great time.
subordinating conjunction ( after, while, until, as soon as, before,
when, as, because, since, although, despite, in spite of, if, unless,
etc. ) , or relative pronouns ( which, what, who, whom, that,
whose, where, etc.)

Task 6
Examples:
Direction: identify the following sentences as simple, compound, complex, and
1. When they finished their work, they complimented each other
on the results. compound-complex.
2. If we are not going to the restaurant, we need to cancel our
reservation. 1.Since recycling is an effective way of helping the environment, everyone

should recycle at home.

3. Hayat, whose father is a policeman, is a decent girl.
4. She went to class even though she was sick. 2.As cell phones distract students and teachers, they should

D. Compound-Complex Sentence not be used in class, and I encourage faculty to forbid their use.
4. The researchers did not come to the correct conclusion, so they
restructured their hypothesis.
A compound- complex sentence composed of at least two
5. Although he was a talented and successful songster, Tedi Afro had
independent clauses joined to one or more dependent
intense personal issues; indeed, many say his exposure to orthodox
(subordinate) clause joined by subordinating conjunction ( after,
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

church contributed to his classy art. 2. I sometimes don’t remember. I parked my car. (Where)

6. You can’t pass the test unless you study for it.
3. It was raining heavily. They went out for dinner. (Although)
7. I like an apple, but my brother likes a mango.
4. Senait is a decent girl. Senait married last week. (Who)
8. The car stopped on the street when the traffic light turned red.
9. She ate her lunch, took a walk, and went back to work.
5. She is an industrious girl. Everyone likes to marry her.
10. She wanted to go on vacation, so she saved up her money.
11. Although I enjoy classical music, I prefer rock and roll because I (Because)
play the drums.
6. Many o f the students failed. The exam was so difficult. (as a
11. When the package finally arrived, after a delay of more than two
result)
weeks, she was anxious to open it, but she decided to wait until we
could share the experience with her.
12. Both the dean and the provost made speeches at the orientation.

Task 8

Direction: Write at least four sentences of each type.

Task 7 1. Simple sentences, Compound sentences, Complex

sentence,Compound-complex
A. _____________________________________________
Direction: Join the following pairs of sentences by using the
B. _____________________________________________
conjunctions given in the parenthesis.
C. _____________________________________________
1. We arrived home. It started raining. (As soon as) D. _____________________________________________

1.3 Common Errors in Sentence Construction

 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

The sentence problems that occur most frequently in college or Fix It! Here are four ways of correcting run-on sentences:
university students’ writing are run-on, comma splice, sentence
fragment, dangling modifier, misplaced modifier, agreement
errors and faulty parallelism.

Task 9

1. What kind of sentence errors do you know before?

2. Which of the errors are your problems?

Use period Use a Use a conjunctive Use a

plus capital coordinating adverbs (however, semicolon
conjunction nevertheless, thus,
1.3.1 Run-on Sentence (and, but, so, therefore, in fact,
or, yet, for, consequently, as a
A run-on occurs when two or more independent clauses are
etc.) result, furthermore,
"fused together" with no conjunction or proper punctuation to
etc., )
demonstrate that the ideas are distinct from one another.
1. The 1. The 1. The student is late; 1. The student
Examples:
student is student is therefore, she must is late; she
1. The student is late she must get a late slip.
late. She late, so she get a late slip. must get a late
2. Genzebe ran fast she won 1500 meter race in Beijing
must get a must get a 2. Genzebe ran fast; as slip.
Olympic.
late slip. late slip. a result, she won 1500 2. Genzebe ran
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

2. Genzebe 2. Genzebe meter race in Beijing fast; she won

ran fast. She ran fast and Olympic. 1500 meter
won 1500 she won race in Beijing
meter race in 1500 meter Olympic.
Beijing race in
Olympic. Beijing
Olympic. Use period plus Use a Use a Use a semicolon
capital coordinating conjunctive
conjunction adverbs
(and, but, so, or, (however,
yet, for, etc.) nevertheless, thus,
1.3.2 Comma Splice
therefore, in fact,
A comma splice occurs when two sentences are incorrectly joined
consequently, as a
or spliced together with a comma.
result,
Examples: furthermore,
etc., )
1. The student is late, she must get a late slip. 2. The student is 1. The student is 1. The student is 1. The student is
2. Genzebe ran fast, she won 1500 meter race in Beijing Olympic. late. She must late, so she must late; therefore, she late; she must get a
3. Genzebe ran fast, as a result, she won the Golden League Final. get a late slip. get a late slip. must get a late late slip.
Fix It! Here are four ways of correcting comma splice 2. Genzebe ran 2. Genzebe ran slip. 2. Genzebe ran fast;
sentences: fast. She won fast and she won 2. Genzebe ran she won 1500 meter
1500 meter race in 1500 meter race fast; as a result, race in Beijing
Beijing Olympic. in Beijing she won 1500 Olympic.
Olympic. meter race in
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Beijing Olympic. 3. Genzebe ran fast;resume.org.

as a result, she wonError Type: __________________________
the Golden League
Correction: __________________________
Final.
2. Many applicants responded to our advertisement, however,
only one had computer training.
Error Type: ________________________

Correction: ________________________________________
Task 10
1.3.3 Sentence Fragment
Direction: Identify the type of error and correct the sentences.
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. It may be a
1. I was watching TV, the doorbell rang.
phrase or a clause punctuated as if it were a complete sentence.
Error Type: ____________________________ Fragments are often broken off from preceding or succeeding
Correction: _____________________ sentences. The following are some of the common types of

2. I’m not hungry for dinner I ate a big lunch. fragments:

A. Dependent Clause Fragment
Error Type: ___________________
A dependent clause fragment occurs when a dependent clause is
Correction: _____________________ not connected to an independent clause that makes sense by
3. Getting married is easy, staying married is another matter. standing alone. It often begins with subordinating conjunctions

Error Type: ____________________ (although, while, as, since, though, if, before, when, after, until,
that, where, which, unless, because, whereas, etc.).
Correction: _______________________
Examples:
4. Let us help you develop your online resume visit us at
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

1. I didn't want to wait. Because it is getting time for me to go sentences start with coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but,
home. or, yet, so, etc), and transitional phrases (such as, including,
(“Because it is getting time for me to go home.” is a fragment especially, for example, among them, etc.). This error often
because it is a dependent clause. occurs when the fragment is actually an extension of a previous
It needs to be joined to an independent clause to be part of a or following sentence.
complete sentence.) Examples:
2. When the cat ran under the car. 1. Dawit skips lunch every day. To go swimming. (Infinitive
(This dependent clause is a fragment because the word “when” phrase)
makes the statement unable to stand on its own.) 2. She worked hard every day. Trying to keep up with her boss’s
Methods of correcting a dependent clause fragment: demands. (-ing participle phrase)
A. Attaching the dependent clause to a nearby independent 3. Hileni talked for two hours. Elated by the company’s success.
clause to which it logically relates or adding a logical sentence (Past participle phrase)
to make it complete 4. They kept dialing the boss’s phone number. With no luck.
1. I didn't want to wait because it is getting time for me to go (Prepositional phrase)
home. 5. The prize was awarded to Sara. The best worker in the
2. When the cat ran under the car, it got squashed. company.(Appositive phrase)
B. Eliminating the dependent word / subordinate conjunction 6. Bewketu has written different fictional books. Such as
1. I didn't want to wait. It is getting time for me to go home. Dertogada, Yoratorad, and Kibur Dingay. (Fragment beginning
2. The cat ran under the car. with a transitional phrase or added detail fragments)
B. Phrase Fragments 7. The class often starts late. For example, yesterday at quarter
This type of fragment lacks a subject (person, place, or thing), a nine instead of at nine sharp.
verb (action/state of being), or both. This often happens when
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

(Fragment beginning with a transitional phrase or added detail 7. The class often starts late. For example, yesterday it began at
fragments) quarter nine instead of at nine sharp.
8. They sold their house. And moved into an apartment. 8. They sold their house. And, they moved into an apartment.
(Fragment beginning with a coordinating conjunction) 9. The student in the office is late.
9. The student in the office.(Missing predicate) 10. The student asked for a late slip.
10. Asked for a late slip. (Missing subject) Task 11
Methods of correcting a phrase fragment:
Direction: Identify the specific type of error and correct the
A. Attaching the phrase to a nearby independent clause
sentences.
1. Dawit skips lunch every day to go swimming.
2. She worked hard every day trying to keep up with her boss’s 1. Since sentence fragments may be short or long.
demands. Or (Trying to keep up with her boss’s demands, she Error Type: ________________________
worked hard every day.) Correction: _______________________
3. Hileni talked for two hours elated by the company’s success.
4. They kept dialing the boss’s phone number with no luck. 2. A fine young woman. Loved to hear about sentence errors.

5. The prize was awarded to Sara, the best worker in the Error Type: ________________________

company. Correction: _________________________

6. Bewketu has written different fictional books, such as
3. I spent almost two hours. Trying to find a clinic.
Dertogada, Yoratorad, and Kibur Dingay.
Error Type: __________________________
8. They sold their house and moved into an apartment.
B. Changing the phrase to an independent clause by adding a Correction: ___________________________
missing subject, a predicate or both
4. Tesfaye asked for a loan. Which he promised to pay back in
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

two weeks. Error Type: ___________________________

Error Type: __________________________ Correction: __________________________
7. He failed a number of courses before he earned his degree.
Correction: ______________________________
Among them, English, Economics, and Logic.
5. Thousands of young people gathered in protests. Or helped Error Type: _________________________________________
distribute pamphlets to distant areas. Correction:
Error Type: ____________________________
1.3.4 Dangling Modifier
Correction: ___________________________
Dangling modifier fault occurs when the modifier modifies
nothing in the sentence or seems to modify a word to which it is
3. To accomplish your work successfully. You should use your not logically related. The result of such sentences has usually an
time wisely. unintended meaning.

Error Type: __________________________

Correction: _________________________ Examples:
4. I love to cook and eat Ethiopian food. Especially 'Kitfo' and
1. While smoking a pipe, my dog sat with me in the house.
'Tihilo'.
Error Type: __________________________ (In the above sentence, the modifier 'smoking a pipe' modifies the
illogical subject the 'dog'.)
Correction: ___________________________
2. Driving through the mountains, several monkeys were seen.
5. Neglected by her friend. Selina felt lonesome.
Error Type: ___________________________ (In the sentence above, the modifier 'driving through the
mountains ' modifies nothing although it seems to modify '
Correction: ____________________________ several monkeys', to which it is not logically related'.)
6. She took appetizers. Then, found that her appetite is better
3. To be a juggler, exercises in rhythm must be practiced.
than last week.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

(In the above sentence, the modifier ' to be a juggler' modifies the 3. I threw my book in the trash with the missing pages.
illogical subject 'exercises')
Ways of correcting misplaced modifier errors:
Ways of correcting dangling modifier errors: A. Placing the modifier as close to the word it describes
A. Placing the logical subject within the opening or right 1. We were told the concert would begin at midnight.
after the opening word group
(At midnight correctly modifies the time that the concert begin)
1. While I was smoking my pipe, my dog sat with me in the
house. (Placing the subject within the opening word group) OR 2. He arrived only this morning.

While smoking a pipe, I sat with my dog in the house. (Placing (Only correctly modifies the time that he has arrived rather than
the subject right after the opening word group)
the arrival itself)
2. Driving through the mountains, we saw several monkeys.
(Placing the subject in the closing word group) 3. I threw my book with the missing pages in the trash.
3. To be a juggler, one must practice exercises in rhythm.
(With the missing pages correctly modifies the book)
B. Expanding the dangling phrase into a subordinate clause

2. When we drove through the mountain, we saw several

monkeys. Task 12

1.3.5 Misplaced Modifier Direction: Identify the specific type of error and correct the

Misplaced modifier fault occurs when the modifier placed too far sentences.
away from the word it modifies as to cause confusion.
1. They listened for advice the teacher.
Examples:
Error Type: ______________________
1. We were told at midnight the concert would begin. Correction: __________________________
2. He only arrived this morning. 2. To qualify for the position, a rigorous examination must be
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

passed. 1.3.6.1 Subject-Verb Agreement Error

Error Type: _________________________
Subject-Verb Agreement Error occurs when the subject of the
Correction: __________________________
sentence should not agree with the verb.
3. Spending time at night, the car was repaired by Selam.
Error Type: _____________________________________ A. If the subjects are joined by either...or, neither..., and not
Correction: only... but also, the verb agrees with the nearest noun
4. Bahir Dar is one of the fast growing cities in Ethiopia, which
was established only fifty years ago. Examples:

Error Type: _________________________

1. Not only the students but also the teacher attends the
Correction: __________________________
conference.
5. Before exploring the desert, our water supply was replenished.
Error Type: _____________________ 2. Either the boy or the girls are capable of solving the problem.
Correction: __________________________
3. Neither the teacher nor the students smoke cigarette.
6. Cleaned and polished, Sara proudly viewed her car.
Error Type: _______________________ B. If two nouns are modified by 'each' or 'every' and
Correction: ________________________ connected by 'and', a singular verb must be used
7. The farmer in our region almost earned 10 million birr.
Examples:
Error Type: ________________________
Correction: _______________________ 1. Every man and every woman has equal right.

2. Each boy and each girl has the right to speak their ideas.
1.3.6 Faulty Agreement: Subject-Verb and Pronoun
Antecedent Agreement Errors
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

C. If the sentence begins with either / neither / each / every + 1. He is the only one of the councilmen who is opposed to the
one + of + plural nouns, a singular verb must be used plan.

Examples: 2. People, who do a job well, seem to feel better about

themselves.
1. Neither of the students is willing to study.
3. He is one of the best baseball players that have come from
2. Every one of my brothers is married.
Texas.

D. If subjects are joined by together with, in addition to,

F. If two nouns suggesting different ideas joined by ‘and’, a
accompanied by, as well as, with, and along with, the verb
plural verb must be used
agrees with the first subject
Examples:
Examples:
1. Kidus and Bini are my sons.
1. Aster, with her friends, is going to the cinema.
2. My brother and his friends are watching TV.
2. Seifu, as well as his friends, is listening to local music.
3. An egg and a banana are required for the ceremony.
E. When a relative pronoun who, which, and that are used as
a subject, they take singular verb if the word they stand for is G. If two singular nouns are referring to the same person or
singular and plural verbs if the word they stand for is plural thing, then a singular verb must be used

Examples: Examples:
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

1. My father and friend is seriously sick. (My father and friend J. We use a number of + plural subject + plural verb but the
refers to one person) number of + plural subject + singular verb

2. Bread and butter is served with every meal. Examples:

H. When plural nouns expressing quantity, distance or time, 1. The number of girls taking mechanical drawing has doubled
a singular verb must be used this year.

Examples: 2. A number of girls are taking mechanical drawing this year.

1. Ten years of teaching experience is a long period. (Time) K. When a word such as 'here', 'there', and in questions
'who', 'which', 'what' and 'where' precedes the subject, a
2. 200 dollars is the price for the ticket. (Quantity)
verb agrees with its subject

3. 10 miles is too far to walk. (Distance)

Examples:

I. Plural titles of individual books, stories, plays, movies,

1. There is a foreigner in our class.
television programs, musical compositions, and magazines
take the singular form of a verb 2. There are only a chair and a table left for auction.

Examples: 3. Where are they going to sleep?

1. The New York Times is read nationwide. 4. Here are the tickets for tonight’s football games.

2. Great Expectations is my favorite book. L. When indefinite pronouns such as 'everyone', 'everybody',
'everything', 'no one', 'no body', 'nothing', 'any one',
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

'anybody', 'anything', 'someone', 'somebody', and 'something' 1. A considerate doctor explains things to a patient so that the
patient will understand their illness. (Inconsistency in number
is used as a subject, then singular verb must be used
and person)

Examples: Correction: A considerate doctor explains things to a patient so

that the patient will understand his/her illness.
1. Everybody has his / her own solution to the race problems.
2. Almaz watched the show. He liked it. (Inconsistency in
gender)
2. Someone has taken my book.
Correction: Almaz watched the show, and she liked it.
3. Everyone wants to see that movie.
1.3.7 Faulty Parallelism

M. When indefinite pronouns such as 'many', 'few', and 'both' Faulty parallelism occurs when there are non-parallel
constructions in a sentence. Examples:
is used as a subject, then plural verb must be used
Non-parallel (not balanced) Parallel (balanced)
Examples:

1. Elleni likes dancing, swimming and Elleni likes dancing, swimming and
1. Few students are attending the conference.
she likes reading. reading.

2. Both Senait and Haftay are friends.

2. Single life offers more freedom of Single life offers more freedom of
1.3.6.2 Pronoun Antecedent Agreement Error choice; more security is offered by choice; marriage offers
marriage.
Pronoun Antecedent Agreement Error occurs when pronouns more security.
should not agree with its antecedent in number (singular or
plural), in person (First, second, or third), and in gender
(masculine or feminine). An antecedent is a word or group of
words to which a pronoun refers to.

Examples:
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Task 13 Correction: ____________________________

Direction: Identify the specific type of error and correct the
5. To read a foreign language is easier than speaking it.
sentences.

Error Type: _________________________

1. Tadelech and her younger sister is studying Computer
Science. Correction: ____________________________
Error Type: _____________________________
6. A dog and a cat is seldom friends.
Correction: _____________________________

2. Neither he nor his friends is happy about the result. Error Type: ___________________________

Correction: _________________________
Error Type: ______________________________

Correction: ______________________________ 7. When Iran suffered a great earthquake, they asked other
nations for help.
3. Fractions can be changed to decimals, and decimals can change
to fractions. Error Type: __________________________

Correction: ______________________
Error Type: ____________________________

Correction: __________________________ 8. If each of us pitch in, we can finish this job in an hour.

4. Everybody in the theater were getting up and leaving before Error Type: ______________________

the movie ended. Correction:_________________________________________

Error Type: _____________________________ 9. I like people that calls me Honey.

 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Error Type: _____________________________ • Identify structural parts of a paragraph

Correction: ___________________________ • List down characteristics of a good paragraph

• Differentiate types of paragraph and techniques of its

10. My cousin and friend help me in writing the paper. development

Error Type: ________________________ • Write a meaningful paragraph using different methods

Correction: ______________________
Task 14 tA44
11. A number of students reads Arabic.
1. What is a paragraph?
Error Type: _______________________
2. What are the parts of a typical paragraph?
Correction: ______________________

12. The number of absences increase every morning. 2.1 Paragraph and its parts

Error Type: _____________________ A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one topic or
idea. A typical paragraph has a topic, topic sentence, supporting
Correction: ______________________
sentences, and a concluding sentence.

 A topic is the general idea of a paragraph. It is what gives the

answer to the question “What is the paragraph about?”
Unit Two: Effective Paragraph Writing

Up on the successful completion of this unit, the students should be able  A topic sentence states the topic or the subject of the
to:
paragraph. It contains the main idea which is developed in the
• Define what a paragraph is and its elements rest of the paragraph. A topic sentence must be a complete
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

sentence, a statement of intent, opinion or a mixture of both.  The concluding sentence summarizes the paragraph and/or
A topic sentence has two parts: Topic and the controlling adds a final comment
idea. The topic tells us the subject (what the paragraph is
Generally, a good way to think of a clear academic paragraph and
about) and the controlling idea makes a specific comment
how it is structured is like a sandwich. The topic sentence is the
about the topic (what the paragraph is going to say about the
top layer of bread, the concluding sentence is the bottom layer,
topic / the writer’s attitude or idea about the topic). In other
and all of the developing details in-between are the meat and
words, the controlling idea shows the reader what the rest of
other goods of the sandwich.
the paragraph will say about the topic; it limits the topic to a
specific area to be discussed in a single paragraph.
Task 15
Example:
A. Locating general (topic) and specific (supporting)
sentences
Topic Sentence = topic + controlling idea

Direction: Look at the pairs of sentences below. Each pair

Caffeine has several harmful effects on health. could be included in a single paragraph. In the space provided
at the left of each sentence, indicate which sentence of the pair
Topic Controlling Idea
is general (G) and which is specific(S).
Topic Sentence
1. a ______ Radiation can be harmful to pregnant women.

 The supporting sentences explain and support what is stated

b ______ One effect of radiation on unborn children is brain
in the topic sentence in detail
damage.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

2. a ______ Dertogada is an Amharic novel by Yismake hours and its comfort.

Worku.
3. Technology spoils the traditional way of life.
b ______ Yismake Worku often writes Amharic novels.
Task 16
3. a ______ My bedroom is very comfortable.
Direction: After you read the following paragraph, identify the
b ______ It is a small room with thick floor covering and topic sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence
light bulb walls. if possible. Then, write your answer on the space provided.

Text A
4. a ______ There are two reasons why Ethiopia is a unique
countries in the world. Problems in Big Cities

All around the world living in big cities creates serious

b ______ First, Ethiopia has a diversified culture. Second, it problems for people. The first problem is air pollution. For
is a birth place of human beings. example, in Addis Ababa, many people have cars and cars are
one reason why the air is polluted. Secondly, traffic is an
important problem for the people living in big cities. Nowadays
B. Identifying the topic and controlling ideas there are more and more cars on roads, and this causes traffic
jams in many parts of the cities. For this reason, many
Direction: Underline the topic and the controlling idea of each inhabitants waste their time in traffic, and they are negatively
affected by this situation. To sum up, air pollution and traffic
topic sentence below.
jams are two important problems that people living in big cities
have.
1. Students who are studying abroad may face many
1.Topicsentence: ___________________________________
difficulties.

2. Controlling idea:__________________________________
2. Working at home is advantageous because of its flexible
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

3.Thesupportingsentences:_____________________________ have a bed, stool and some cooking posts in the room. Most
prisoners slept on blankets or straw on dirt floor in a bare,
4.Aconcludingsentence:_______________________________
windowless cell.

Task 17 3.(T.S)_____________________________________________

Direction: The topic sentences have been omitted from the First of all, you must consider the quality of the university’s
paragraphs below. Read each paragraph carefully. Then, try to
discover what questions the specific sentence is answering. academic program. The university’s size and location should
Next, in the space provided, write the missing topic sentence also be given a careful thought. Finally, you must always be
that would connect all of the specific sentences.
sure to consider the tuition before you decide which university
1.(T.S)_____________________________________________ to attend. In short, a good education is important, so before
choosing a university, the quality of the education given, the
Most of Fasil Kenema fans said they went to the stadium
size, the location and the tuition of a university should be taken
because they felt it would help their team to win the games.
into consideration.
Some of them felt that purchasing tickets during the games
would ensure the financial success of the club and, thus, its 4.(T.S)_____________________________________________
continuance. A few of them explained that going to the stadium
to watch the games enhances our social occasion as well as our Firstly, most people try to keep fit by taking exercise two or
unity. three times a week. For example, they go for a swim, jog in the
local park, or play active games like tennis or squash.
2.(T.S)_____________________________________________ Secondly, people know that being overweight can be harmful
to health; so many people decide to go on a diet to lose weight.
A lucky prisoner might have a room with windows and wooden
Finally, a lot of people use some relaxation techniques to
floor and a small garden outside. Such a prisoner might also
Task 18
BASIC WRITING SKILLS
Direction: Find the position of the topic sentence in the
following paragraphs and underline it. 2.2 What qualities does an effective paragraph have?
reduce stress. To give an example, people do yoga or
1. Babies can now be examined before they are born. This is done
meditation
with to cope with
an instrument which this problem
allows which
doctors to affects theirwhile
see a baby health.it is In general, in order for a paragraph to be effective, it must meet
still
To conclude,
in the mother.
an exercise,
Such examination
a balancedbefore
diet and
birthamay
relaxed
eventually
life certain requirements. It must discuss one topic only, it must adopt
decrease theimportant
style are all number offor
children who die in their first year of life.
our health. an order, and it must provide enough supporting details so that
2. Have you noticed that people are more eager these days to get the point of the paragraph is clearly communicated to an
into movie theaters than into libraries? And have you noticed that audience. In other words, it must have unity, coherence, and
the TV Guide has replaced Pilgrim’s Progress in the honored spot completeness.
beside the family Bible? It seems that movies and television are
2.2.1 Unity
replacing books as sources of entertainment and information.
Perhaps the reason is that watching the action of a story is much Paragraph unity means that one paragraph is about only one main
more convenient than reading the story and imagining the action. topic. That is, all the sentences must tell the reader about one
Also the variety of programs on television today, including main topic. If your paragraph contains a sentence or some
comedy, drama, documentaries, and nature films, provide much sentences that are not related to the main topic, then we say that
of the information that once could be found only in books. the paragraph "lacks unity," or that the sentence is "off topic". To
check a paragraph for unity, ask yourself the following question:
3. Warmth from the old gas heater penetrates the living room as
Grandmamma and I sit in our flannel gowns and talk about (a) Do all of the sentences on target in support of the idea
everything we can think of. To warm us on the inside, we drink expressed in the topic sentence?
hot cocoa and eat fresh baked tea cakes. The sounds of our
Sample Paragraph on Unity
rocking chairs keep time with the music of the rain drizzling on
the tin roof. When we finally decide to go to bed, we hurry across Taking a few to outline before beginning to write the final essay
the cold floor on our bare feet and climb into the bed, already is central. Though outlining may seem to take time away from
warmed by electric blanket. There we spend the night in deep,
peaceful sleep. Grand mamma’s house is the perfect place to
spend a rainy winter night.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

writing, such planning is an essential part of writing a good

smiles a lot and is an exceptional student.
paper. It will produce writing that has thought behind it, writing
that does not go off the point. Taking a few moments to outline Answer:___________________________________________
an essay will impress the instructor, for he/she will note the
organization that went into the writing. If it should happen that 2. My mother is a businesswoman. Every day she has breakfast

one runs out of time, having a jotted outline will give the student with her family and then goes to work. She has brown eyes and

the opportunity to summarize points not covered. A brief outline, curly brown hair. She works in her office all morning and then

can aid greatly in helping one write a good essay. usually has lunch at a restaurant. She works until 5:00 in the
afternoon and then comes home. She is happy to be at home at
 In the sample paragraph above, the topic sentence is the end of a busy day.
″Taking a few to outline before beginning to write the
final essay is central″, and all the sentences stick to that Answer:___________________________________________

idea.
3. My composition class is in an old building. The classroom
walls are white and the desks and chairs are brown. There are
Task 19 large windows in one wall. The chalkboard is in the front of the
room near the door. My composition class is difficult and I do not
Direction: Each of the following paragraphs contains one
like to write compositions. The room is cool in warm weather and
sentence that does not belong to the topic for that paragraph.
warm in winter. I like my classroom.
Identify the irrelevant sentence and write it in the space provided.
Answer:___________________________________________
1. Leouk is my student. He is from Tigray and speaks Tigregna.
Mekelle is the capital of Tigray. Leouk is tall and pretty. He
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

compared to signs on the road that guide travelers. Here are the
most commonly used transitional expressions:
2.2.2 Coherence
Signals Words
Paragraph coherence means that all the ideas in a paragraph “hold
together". It is the logical or sequential arrangements of ideas. Addition also, in addition, moreover, furthermore, and,
When the supporting information of a paragraph is logically besides, further
organized and smoothly connected, the paragraph has coherence.
Example for example, for instance, as an illustration,
To check a paragraph for coherence, ask yourself the following
namely, specifically
questions:

Contrast but, yet, however, nevertheless, on the other

(a) Does the paragraph have a clear method of organization?
hand, conversely, in contrast, on the
(b) Are transitions and other connecting words used to tie contrary, although, despite, in spite of,
together the paragraph? though, even though

Generally, there are a number of ways to achieve coherence: Comparison similarly, likewise, in the same way, in
through use of transitions, pronouns, and repetition of key words. comparison,

Transitional expressions Result therefore, for this reason, so, as a result,

consequently, thus, accordingly
Transitions are signal words that help the readers follow the
direction of the writer’s thought. They show the relationship due to this,
between ideas, connecting one thought with the next. They can be
Summary in brief, in summary, in conclusion, in
general, generally, to sum up, finally,
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Time first, firstly, second, secondly, third, fourth, problems, loss of trust, and eventually family breakup and
next, then, finally, afterwards divorce. Society as well pays a cost: crime rates go up, and more
security and hospital care is needed which are all paid for by
before, soon, later, during, meanwhile,
taxpayers. Drug addiction is a destructive way to live. Maybe
immediately, subsequently,
more would be done about it if it were looked at not just as a

currently, in the future problem that addicts face alone, but as something that affects
society as a whole.
Place in the front, in the back, at the side,
adjacent, nearby, in the distance,  In the sample paragraph above, the topic sentence is about
how drugs can destroy people's lives, and all the
here, there, on the left, on the right, above,
supporting sentences hold together to that idea through the
below, farther, next
usage of transition markers, pronouns and repetition of

Sample Paragraph on Coherence key words.

Drug addiction is a serious health issue that affects addicts, their

Task 20
families and society. First of all, drug addiction has severe
Direction: Read the texts below and circle the correct linking
physical effects on the addict's body. Drug users can experience word.
many physical symptoms including sickness, fevers, sweats and
In recent years, the Internet has become a great part of our lives.
shakes, loss of appetite, and weight loss. They also face the More and more people have access to it and have discovered
danger of contracting serious diseases such as AIDS, hepatitis, many benefits from using it. To begin with, the Internet offers us
unlimited information and knowledge on just about every topic
and other communicable diseases, not to mention the risk of and access to the Net is easy and fast. (1) In spite of this /
overdose. Families and friends of drug addicts are certainly also Therefore, schoolchildren regularly use the web to research
school projects or to browse just for fun. (2) What is more / For
affected by their addiction. Addiction can lead to serious financial this reason, people can communicate with people all over the
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

world with a system called e-mail. Finally, they can view

products from different countries and use their credit card to do causes.
their shopping from the comfort of your own home. (3) Even
though / However, surfing the Internet is not the best way of b, These are natural and man- made causes.
spending all your free time. Too many hours in front of the screen
can damage your eyes. Studies have (4) on the other hand / also c, Climate change is one of the current global issues.
shown that people who prefer to spend their evenings in front of
d, Its causes can be categorized into two main divisions.
their PCs tend to become antisocial. (5) Besides / As a result,
there are some concerns about security on the Internet (6) e, Deforestation can also be taken as a good example for man-
because / so hackers can easily steal valuable personal made causes.
information such as bank account numbers, etc. In conclusion, I
believe that (7) despite / although their disadvantages, the The correct order: _______________________________
Internet has certainly made life easier and, if used properly, it
may make our lives better, too. 3. a, Beti and I met at Gonder Cinema.

Direction: Rearrange the sentences in each set to create a b, We fell in love and promised to be a spouse.
coherent paragraph. Write the letter of the sentences in their new
order on the lines given. c, They were very angry.

1. a, First you should state your topic sentence clearly. d, Beti phoned to her parents and told them that she is
pregnant.
b, Then you ought to include the important details.
e, And decided not to see her again.
c, Writing a paragraph has its own steps.
The correct order: ______________________________
d, Next check that whether the details have unity with the topic
sentence or not.

e, After that it is important to check if your paragraph is

coherently written and sensible.

The correct order: _________________________________

2. a, Earthquake and volcanic eruption are examples of natural

 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

evidence and right details that work together to explain the

paragraph’s single controlling idea. To check a paragraph for
completeness, ask yourself the following questions:

Task 21 (a) Is there specific evidence to support the opening point?

Direction: Read the following paragraph very carefully. Then, (b) Is there enough specific evidence?

evaluate it in terms of coherence by providing evidences from the

Sample Paragraph
original text.
In the example below, a writer explains how classical ideas of
Getting new friends
pathos can be used to enhance the persuasiveness of a message.

The best way to meet new friends is to take a class. First, all the As you read, consider the details the writer has chosen, and why
people in a class have something in common. They all want to she might have chosen those and not others:
learn about the subject, so there is something to talk about.
Second, everyone sees each other every time the class meets, so
there are many opportunities to get to know others. Third, there Appeals to pathos, or what modern rhetoricians call
are often activities and group projects so students can work emotional appeals, begin by making an audience more
together, and this is the best way to get to know people.
Therefore, being in a class together can create the chance to be open to the message. Aristotle himself suggested this
friendship. approach to persuasion in the speech-making when he

Answer: stated that ″our judgments when we are pleased and

friendly are not the same as when we are upset and
2.2.3 Completeness unfriendly″ (as cited in Horner, 1988: 57). In other
words, Aristotle proposed that writers persuade, in part,
Paragraph completeness means that every idea discussed in the
by affecting the mood of their audience and by making
paragraph should be adequately explained and supported through
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

them better disposed towards the message. To maximize

Sweet Dreams
this effect, writers need to know and identify their
audience. Are audience members all the same age, or a When people have a hard time falling asleep at night, there are
three things that they can do to relax before going to sleep. One
mixed group? What socio-economic group are they of the most pleasant ways to relax is to imagine a beautiful and
likely to be part of? What is their level of education? peaceful place. This requires a creative mind, but it is very
effective. Another common method is to practice deep-breathing
Asking questions like these will help writers to know exercises. These rhythmic exercises are good for getting rid of the
their audience’s hopes and fears, and prepare the tension that causes people to stay awake. A third method is to
listen to relaxing music, especially soft music. Soft music is also
audience to be more sympathetic to the message popular because it helps students study well. Some people have
(Horner, 1987). developed unique ways to help them fall asleep, but these three
methods are extremely effective for the majority of people with
sleep problems.
 In the paragraph above, the writer has selected details
from a text in the form of quotations and summary Answer:

because she is trying to support her explanation of pathos. ____________________________________________________

In doing so, she uses quotes from Aristotle, one of the ______________________________________________

founding fathers of rhetoric, and Horner, a well-respected

PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
modern rhetorician. The kind of details she has provided
4.1: INTRODUCTION
is appropriate and convincing for her purpose.
Write a paragraph! Think a topic, and then build the full
paragraph gradually.
Task 22 Here are parts of a paragraph some hints which you, as a writer,
Direction: Read the following paragraph very carefully. Then, should follow when you try to develop a paragraph. Let us begin
evaluate it in terms of completeness by providing evidences from
with what we consider while writing the introductory sentence of
the original text.
the paragraph.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

sub-topic using appropriate transitions. Supporting ideas,

The opening or introductory sentence sets the tone, and it not examples, and details must be specific to the sub-topic and the
only introduces the topic, but where you are going with it (the transitions should help each sentence to flow one to the next. The
thesis). If you do a good job in the opening, you will draw your work you have made above with details and examples will help
reader into your experience. Put effort up front, and you will reap you keep focused.
rewards. You had better write this sentence in the active voice. It
is much more powerful. Do that for each sentence in the Next do not forget to vary the sentence structure. Avoid
introductory sentence. Unless you are writing a personal repetitious pronouns and lists. Avoid beginning sentences in the
narrative, do not use the pronoun "I." same way (subject + verb + direct object).

Then brainstorm to find the best supporting ideas. The best The ending (summary or) sentence is a difficult sentence to write
supporting ideas are the ones about which you have some effectively; however, you should do your best as to what you
knowledge. If you do not know about them, you cannot do good wrap up your idea as efficiently as possible. You cannot assume
job writing about them. Don't weaken the paragraph with that the reader sees your point unless you write it well. Do the
ineffective argument. Before writing, spend some time being following while writing your conclusion:
creative with the possible thesis and supporting arguments. Put - Restate the introductory sentence with originality.
them down as they occur to you and then try and develop a flow - Do not simply copy the first sentence.
or pattern to the ideas. - Summarize your argument with some degree of
authority because it is with this sentence that you
After writing the introductory sentence, which may be also the leave your reader with no doubt as to your position
topic sentence, and brainstorming possible supporting idea, you or conclusion of logic.
begin to develop the supporting sentences which establish the
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

- Be powerful as this is the last thought that you are c. Jot down possible details that answer questions about the
leaving with the reader. If possible use your best topic sentence,
sentence here as it is the last thought that will be d. Arrange the details in a logical order,
left with the reader. e. Develop these details into complete sentences,
Finally edit and revise your paragraph as in the following f. Read the whole paragraph and check and make whatever
manner: changes you feel will improve your writing. For instance,
- Check your spelling and grammar, you may check for grammar, spelling, appropriate terms
- Examine your whole paragraph for logic; that is, (diction), punctuation, capitalization etc.
avoid gaps in logic or too much detail,
- Review individual sentences, For instance, if you want to write a paragraph on the topic
- Use active verbs (avoid passive constructions and the ‘Problems in Rural Areas of Ethiopia’, your topic sentence could
verb "to be" unless the situation is demanding to be ‘Rural areas in Ethiopia have some major problems’. Some of
use them), the problems may be lack of infrastructure, education and health
- Use transitional words and phrases appropriately, services. Then, using such points you can write the specific
- Be concise, details of the paragraph.
- Vary the length and structure of sentences, Activity 4.1
- Ask a knowledgeable friend to review and comment In the above example, a topic sentence with possible details is
on your paragraph given. Write a complete paragraph by writing complete sentences
Here are also helpful steps for building a paragraph. of the details. You may start with the topic sentence followed by
a. Think and select a topic which is specific enough to write a details like this:
complete paragraph, Rural areas in Ethiopia have some major problems. One of these
b. Write a general statement ( topic sentence ) about the topic, is lack of infrastructure.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

It………………………………………………………………… Sample Expository Paragraph

……………………
A smooch is a quick kiss. The lips of two people press together
2.3 Types of Paragraph
for a short time, just a second. The eyes close briefly while the
Paragraphs can generally categorize into four types based on their closed lips protrude and touch the other set of lips. Smooching is
purpose. These are expository, narrative, descriptive, and not limited to members of opposite sexes, for you can smooch
argumentative paragraphs. However, you should be aware that with anyone. It is considered a sign of affection, not expression of
not all paragraphs fit into the neat categories of these four types deep feeling; or like a warm smile, it’s a gesture of pleasant
of paragraphs. One paragraph may, for example, combine emotion. A smooch is a casual kiss that can be done anywhere
narration and exposition. A quick search around the internet will and still be considered proper. A person mostly smooches with
yield other types, but to keep this simple, it's a good idea to relatives and friends. More intimate kissing is for lovers although
consider just these four. they are occasionally smooch, too. For instance, a husband and
wife may smooch before they go to work in the morning. They
2.3.1 Expository Paragraph
save their passionate kissing for later.

Expository paragraph focuses on conveying information about (Mary McMurray) 2.3.1.1 Development of an Expository

something for the reader. It is based on facts and formal Paragraph

evidences like statistics and documented references. Since

To develop an expository paragraph, one may use definition,
expository paragraph is factual, it is written without emotion and
process explanation, cause and effect relationships,
usually written in the third person. Nevertheless, you can use "I"
classification, and compare and contrast.
in your expository writing if the focus is on external, neutral
descriptions and explanations, rather than personal feelings 2.3.2 Narrative Paragraph
(personal feelings move you into "descriptive writing").
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Narrative paragraph tells a story using a series of events. In other In descriptive paragraph, the writer creates a clear impression in
words, writing a narrative paragraph is a storytelling in a the reader’s mind of a person, place, object, or situation.
chronological sequence. While reading, a reader asks "What "Description" tells us what something looks like, feels like, tastes
happened next?" or "what happened after this?" like, sounds like or smells like ‐ without action or events. It
doesn't explain a relationship or a process beyond oneself; it
Sample Narrative Paragraph
focuses on one's immediate subjective perceptions. Thus,
Summer by the Sea descriptive writing connects the outer world with our inner
feelings. It is usually concerned with creating a verbal picture of
My favorite memory is about my family. It happened a long time
what we experience and feel at one moment, and it will use many
ago before my brother got married and moved out. My parents
rich and vivid adjectives and adverbs.
had seven children. All seven of us piled in one car for a summer
holiday by the beach. We traveled in that crowded car for two Sample Descriptive Paragraph
days! Finally we arrived at a small house near the beach. It had
My Special Treasure
one big room with many beds and another room for eating and
My special treasure is a picture of my mother on her fifteenth
cooking. The kids spent all day outside. We played together in
birthday. This picture was always in my house when I was growing
the water. Sometimes, my mother made a picnic dinner. We sat
up. Years later, when I got married and moved to Bahir Dar, my
on the sand to eat watch the sun go down. One night we brought
mother gave it to me so that I would always remember her. Now it
out blankets and slept by the water. I loved that time. We talked
sits on the table next to my bed. I look at it and imagine my mother’s
and looked at the stars until late at night. This wonderful summer
life on that day. I think she was excited because her eyes are shining
holiday was the best time of my life.
with happiness. Her smile is shy as if she were thinking about a
2.3.3 Descriptive Paragraph secret. She is standing next to a rose bush, and the roses are taller
than she is. She is wearing a beautiful white lace dress and black
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

shoes. Her hair is long and curly. She looks lovely in this peaceful weekend. Second, driving is necessary. Everyone must use a car
place, and I feel calm when I gaze into her eyes at the end of my to go to school or work or the store. I have to drive my children
busy day. This picture of my mother is my most valuable possession. to school, and after school we go to soccer practice or to other
activities. Because there is usually a lot of traffic, I have a lot of
2.3.4. Argumentative Paragraph
anxiety. Third, the cost of living is very expensive. Like many
An argumentative paragraph attempts to convince a reader to families, my family lives in an apartment because we cannot buy
accept the writer’s opinion. It attempts to influence a reader to do a house here. In the future, I hope that I can live in a small town
a certain action or to accept a belief. The writer usually uses with my own house, with friendly people. I want a house, a
should, ought to, better, worse, and must to express opinions. But garden and peaceful life. Maybe if I am lucky, my dream will
it does not mean that an argumentative paragraph is not written come true, and I will move to a small town. In view of that, I
without these words. arrived in a decision that life in a big city is full of challenges as
compared to life in a small town.
Sample Argumentative Paragraph
4.2 Paragraph Development Methods
Get Me Out of Here We can develop an idea in to a paragraph by using varieties of
paragraph development methods. The following section attempts
Although many people say there are great opportunities in a big
to present a detailed discussion of these paragraph development
city, the life here is not good for an individual like me. First,
methods.
people do not have enough free time because they are too busy
4.2.1 DEFINITION
with work and appointments. Parents and their children do not
come home to eat lunch together. Some employees go to work Definition
before the sun comes up and return home after dark. Because of
A paragraph demonstrating this technique will include a
their schedules, families only spend time together on the
definition of the terms or concepts, ideas or things, the class to
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

which it belongs, and the details that differentiate it from other term or concept to some term or idea the reader already knows
members of its class. about or understands.
Example1: Optimism Suppose, for instance, that the topic of a paper you are writing is
‘empathy’ and that the statement you plan to make about it is the
Optimism is the quality enabling people to talk the most hopeful
or cheerful view of matters possible. Basically, optimism comes basis for all good public relations. A reader who does not know
in two forms. One type of optimism occurs when a person finds the meaning of the term empathy will find the paper difficult to
himself or herself in an unfortunate situation and yet does not let understand. To help your reader to follow and to accept the ideas
himself or herself become depressed over what has happened.
Instead, he or she looks for what good there was in, or may come about empathy expressed in your paper, you will need to supply a
out of the situation. The other kind of optimism is how one looks paragraph of definition.
at the future. Although a job or an automobile may not be all a Read the paragraph below and notice that the term “empathy”
person wishes them to be, he or she simply does not quit working
appears in the first sentence and that a definition immediately
or driving. Instead, he or she hopes that in the future he or she
will obtain its occurrence but also by its origins in language older follows the term in the same sentence. The writer has chosen to
than American English. The word optimism came into the follow the definition with a list of several examples of how
English language from the French word optimism which derived
empathy helps in police work, using a simple topical- listing
from the Greek word opts (which means visual) and the Latin
word optimum (which means best). The word optimism can also sequence details. The writer’s purpose in this paragraph is to help
be understood by observing. the reader understand more fully the meaning of the term
“empathy”.

One way to make a term or idea clearer is to answer the question Example 1:

‘What does the term or idea mean?’ To answer this question, you Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person’s

can give a sentence defining the term or idea, followed by point of view. It is a great asset in police work. By practicing

examples. Or you can try to answer the question by relating the empathy, police officers can avoid being closed- minded. It will
help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

incident. Empathy eliminates bias and, instead, it introduces Example 2: How to be a Good Friend
tolerance, understanding and sympathetic human relations.
To be a good friend, an individual has to spend time working on
Example 2:
his or her friendships, or they will eventually fade. When two
The paragraph below defines a term, explains it a bit, and then
people first meet, they both need to be sure they are acting in
gives examples of it. After reading the paragraph, see if you can
good manor, so they don’t fright the other away. After they meet
answer the following questions that follow.
and start talking a few times, they will start getting to know each
other, calling each other, and spending more time with each
Emblems are gestures or body motions that mean the same as
other. That is how a friendship begins. After they call each other
words or phrases. Just as we learn the meanings of words, we
“friends”, the friendship has to be made through the effort of
learn the meanings of emblems in our society. One common
more than just one person, so each has to do his or her own part.
emblem in many places is the thumbs-up signal, which often
Friendships shouldn’t take a lot of money but they do take a lot of
expresses success or hope. Other emblems are shrugging of the
time and care. Friends should always listen to what the other has
shoulders, which can mean "I don't know," or “who cares” and
to say, and then should give advice only when asked for it. No
nodding the head to communicate "yes" or “no”.
matter how much friends are alike, everyone has differences, so a
What term is being defined? ----------------------------------------
friend should be able to accept their differences. After being a
Which sentence gives the definition? -----------------------------
friend to a person for a long period of time, one might get tired of
Which sentence explains something about the term? -----------
hearing repeated problems every day, but a good friend will
(B) Process Explanation always be there for his or her friend no matter what.

A process analysis paragraph explains a step-by-step process or

procedure of how to make or do something.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

4.2.2 Exemplification tee shirts stamped with the name of the group on stage. College
An example is a specific illustration of a general idea. An students can wear the name of their college on the shirt. Some
exemplification paragraph uses specific examples to illustrate a popular tee shirts advertize a brand of beer, like ‘Dashen’, or a
point made in the writing .It also explains or clarifies a general sports goods company like Adidas. Other tee shirts have political
statement or idea- the topic sentence – with one or more specific slogans like “Unity with Diversity”. Other people also wear tee
examples. Personal experiences, classroom discussions, shits which reflect their religious background. For example,
observations, conversations and reading (for example, material while some Christians wear tee shirts on which “I Belong to
from newspapers, magazines or the internet) can all be good Jesus!” is printed, some people from Muslim backgrounds also
sources of examples. How many examples you need depends on wear shirts with “Alhamdulillah!” From this one can understand
your topic sentence. A complicated, far-reaching statement might that what is written or pictured on tee shirts is as varied as the
require many examples to convince readers that it is reasonable. people who wear them.
A simple, more straightforward statement would require fewer As illustrated above, an example paragraph is one that uses
examples. The following paragraph uses examples to make the specific examples to illustrate a point made in the writing. An
point that how people with different backgrounds and ages wear example can be a fact, a historical example, a statistic, an event
different types of tee shirts: or a behavior.
1. Fact
People of various background and ages wear different kinds of A fact is an idea understood as true or real by the community and
tee shirts. Musicians, for example, wear ragged tee shirts when not to be disputed. It is a fact that the earth circles the sun, that
they perform on stage. Restaurant workers wear tee shirts that chocolate has caffeine, that people get heart playing some sports.
mark the name of the restaurant they work in. children, teens, 2. Historical Example
parents and elderly people wear tee shirts on which almost This example involves retelling a historical event or relating a
anything can be pictured. At concerts, for instance, fans can buy piece of historical information .these examples can trace a
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

progression of events for a causes and effect paragraph or show Computer software programs come in a variety of types each
how the present is a reflection of the past. You could use different offering different functions to users. The programs most often
people from history to illustrate about leaders or criminals or used are word processors. These programs can produce letters,
people who helped others without much reward. reports, articles, announcements as well as other documents.
3. Statistic Another kind of computer program is the database, which allows
A statistic is a number that results from analyzing information: it the users to sort all kinds of information in a variety of ways. You
is often an average or mean. Statistics are complicated and can be might put on a database a library catalog, all the business
misused, but statistical analysis is a valuable tool to prove a point, products in inventory, or all the names and addresses of students
especially with academic writing. attending a school. Another kind of program is the
4. Event communications program, which allows the user to connect to the
An example can be one specific event you might mention the date Internet and to send electronic mail to others. If you can access
and time of the event, or if part of common knowledge, mention the Internet, you can search thousands of databases, files, and
the name of the event and gives some details. Web sites for information. You can access university libraries,
5. Behavior company Web sites, government information agencies.
Specific behavior of an individual person or animal can also be In this sample paragraph three main examples of computer
used as an example to prove a point. If you want to say that dogs software programs are given: word processors, data bases, and
can sometimes be annoying, refer to specific behaviors: they communications programs. Within each main example are more
chew every thing in sight , dig up gardens, get hair or fur allover specific examples that further explain and illustrate the writer’s
furniture, make a mess at their eating place, bark at the wrong ideas.
times( usually at 3:00 am) .each behavior is one example that Examples are often introduced by transitions like the following:
adds detail to the writing . For example to illustrate
Here is a sample example paragraph: For instance such as
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

As an illustration including something else. When using this pattern, the writer would need to
Characteristics of a Good Example answer these questions for his or her readers:
1. Relevance - How is (something) similar to (something else)?
- Does the example relate specifically to the point being - How is it different from (something else)?
made? In a paragraph a wrier may be discussing two or more topics.
- Will the reader understand your reasons for including the These could be two objects, events, places, persons, or ideas, or
example? some aspects of these. Usually the writer will want to discuss
- Does the reader understand the connection between your their similarities only, or their differences only, with in a single
generalization and the example used? paragraph. The paragraph is called a comparison paragraph when
2. Accuracy it describes similarities and it is called a contrast paragraph when
- Is your example accurate? it describes differences.
- Are you being honest about your facts and statistics? Some writing topics will ask you to consider the relationship
3. Sufficient Details between two things, for example, your hometown (that is, the
- Have you used enough examples to prove your point? town where you were born or grew up) and your university town.
- Have you included enough detail for the reader to Such topics may allow you to organize your paragraph either
understand your point ? around the similarities between these two subtopics (for example,
- Have you included details that answer the questions: who, between your hometown and your university town) or around the
what, where, when, why and how, to create a clear and differences between them. If you write about the similarities, the
complete picture in the readers mind? paragraph will be a comparison paragraph. On the other hand, if
4.4.3 Comparison and/or Contrast you want to write about the differences, your paragraph will be a
A writer uses this pattern when he/she wants to make something contrast paragraph.
clearer to his/ her reader by showing how it is like or unlike
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

This lesson will show you some ways in which you can structure The above paragraph is a comparison paragraph which discusses
sentences to write a comparison or contrast paragraph. We will about the similarities between two towns. Look how the ideas in
first look at comparison paragraph and then briefly look at this paragraph are organized. As usual, the topic sentence is at the
contrast paragraph. beginning of the paragraph. After that, the paragraph continues
Sample Comparison Paragraph 1 by discussing one point of similarity between the towns of Bahir
Consider the following paragraph. Dar and Awassa, namely, their population. Specific details are
Bahir Dar and Awassa have several things in common. First, given to support the statement that “both are big urban
both are big urban communities. For example, Bahir Dar has a communities.” Following this, the paragraph briefly discusses a
population of only about 250,000 people. Similarly, Awassa second point of similarity between the two towns, that is, their
consists of about 235, 000 local residents. This population swells geographic surroundings. Here, the paragraph also gives
to 246, 000 people when the college students are attending supporting details to illustrate their similarity, namely, they are
classes. A second way in which these two towns are similar is “both located in urban areas.”
that they are both located near to water bodies. Bahir Dar is This comparison paragraph is structured (organized) according to
situated around Lake Tana. In the same way, Awassa lies near to the points of similarity between the two towns. This particular
Lake Awassa. Thirdly, these two towns are similar in that both paragraph discusses only two points of similarity, but of course
contain university campuses. Bahir Dar, for example, is a home we can imagine a paragraph that gives three, four, or even more
to Bahir Dar University, which is famous for its educational, points of similarity. This paragraph, for example, might continue
business and engineering programs as well as for its annual in this way.
sport contests. Likewise, Awassa possesses the beautiful campus ….Thirdly, both of these towns are similar in that both contain
of Debub University, which is well known for its health and university campuses. Bahir Dar, for example, is a home to Bahir
agricultural engineering programmes and also for its yearly Dar University, which is famous for its educational, business and
sport festival. engineering programs as well as for its annual sport contests.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Likewise, Awassa possesses the beautiful campus of Debub TOPIC My (a) Bahir Dar and (b) Awassa are similar.
University, which is well known for its health and agricultural SENTFNCE
engineering programmes and also for its yearly sport festival. POINT # 1 Both are big urban communities.
DETAIL (a) Bahir Dar has about 250,000 people.
We can place the points of similarity and their supporting details DETAILS Awassa has about 235, 000 local residents
in a table in order to see more clearly how this short paragraph is (b)  It has about 11,000 college students.
organized: POINT # 2 Both are located near to water bodies.
Comparison Paragraph -- Organized by Similar Points DETAILS  Bahir Dar is situated around Lake Tana.
(Point-To-Point Organization) (a)
DETAILS  Awassa lies near to Lake Awassa.
(b)
POINT #3 Both towns contain university campuses
DETAILS  Bahir Dar is home to Bahir Dar University.
(a)  This university is famous for its
educational, business and engineering
programmes.
 It is also famous for its annual sport contest.
DETAILS  Awassa contains Debub University.
(b)  This campus is famous for its health and
agricultural engineering programmes.
 It is also famous for its yearly sport festival
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Example: TOPIC Bahir Dar and Awassa are similar

Based on the above diagram of whole-to-whole organizational SENTENCE
style, look how the following paragraph is organized. Bahir Dar SUBTOPIC BAHIR DAR
and Awassa have several things in common. First, Bahir Dar has #1
a population of only about 250,000 people. It is situated around DETAILS
Lake Tana. It is a home to Bahir Dar University, which is famous ABOUT 1) Bahir Dar is a big town.
for its educational, business and engineering programs as well as BAHIR DAR - It has about 250,000 people.
for its annual sport contests. Awassa also consists of about 235, 2) Bahir Dar is situated around Lake Tana.
000 local residents. This population swells to 246, 000 people 3) Bahir Dar is home to Bahir Dar University.
when the college students are attending classes. It lies near to - This university is famous for its educational,
Lake Awassa. As for Bahir Dar, Awassa possesses the beautiful business and engineering programs.
campus of Debub University, which is well known for its health -It is also famous for its annual sport festival.
and agricultural engineering programmes and also for its yearly SUBTOPIC# AWASSA
sport festival. 2
As you see, after the topic sentence, this paragraph first discusses DETAILS 1. Awassa is big town
the relevant details about Gridlock and then presents the details ABOUT - It has about 235,000 people.
about Subnormal, as with the paragraph above, we can illustrate AWASSA 2) Awassa is situated around Lake Awassa.
this paragraph’s structure in the following way: 3) Hwassa is home to Debub University.
Comparison Paragraph – Organized using Whole-To-Whole - This university is famous for its health and
Organization agricultural engineering programmes
1. -It is also famous for its yearly sport festival.
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Comparison conjunctions the paragraph. That is, at each similar point, the paragraph first
In the above paragraph you will see various conjunctions that discusses Bahir Dar and then it discusses Awassa keeping the
contribute to paragraph coherence. We can look at the above same order through out the paragraph prevents the reader from
paragraph again to see what conjunctions are: getting confused. Also notice how the conjunctions (similarly, X
Bahir Dar and Awassa have several things in common. First, is similar in that….) are placed near each similar point.
both are big urban communities. For example, Bahir Dar has a These are not the only ways to give coherence to a comparison
population of only about 250,000 people. Similarly, Awassa paragraph. There are other conjunctions, too. Here is a list of
consists of about 235, 000 local residents. This population swells comparison conjunctions you can use:
to 246, 000 people when the college students are attending Short conjunctions
classes. A second way in which these two towns are similar is Like alike resembles
that they are both located near to water bodies. Bahir Dar is as…..
situated around Lake Tana. In the same way, Awassa lies near to just like likewise also same …. ,
Lake Awassa. Thirdly, these two towns are similar in that both too.
contain university campuses. Bahir Dar, for example, is a home just as equally similarly
to Bahir Dar University, which is famous for its educational, similar both
business and engineering programs as well as for its annual Longer Expressions
sport contests. Likewise, Awassa possesses the beautiful campus In the same way
of Debub University, which is well known for its health and X is similar Y in that (they)…..
agricultural engineering programmes and also for its yearly X and Y are similar in that (they)…..
sport festival. Like X, Y [verb]….
This paragraph, of course is organized according to similarities. In like manner
Notice how the order of the similarities is the same through out One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)…..
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Another way in which X is similar to Y is (that)….. Hamusit is located on landmass and has no surrounding water
Organizing Contrast Paragraph body, where as Tana Island lies on Lake Tana and is surrounded
As mentioned above, a contrast paragraph discusses the by water.
differences between (at least) two things. You can organize Here are some common transitions showing contrast.
contrast paragraphs in much the same way that you can organize However on the other hand different
comparison paragraphs, that is, you can organize them either in contrast as opposed to differently
according to points of similarity or according to sub topic. Here is instead unlike differs
an example of such a paragraph organized by subtopic. Notice the Here are some more contrast conjunctions that you can use:
contrastive expressions in bold letters. Short conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions
Hamusit and Tana Island are both villages that are near to Bahir in contrast, even though + ( sentence )
Dar; however, they are noticeably different in many aspects. For by contrast, although + (sentence)
example, the physical size of each village is different. Hamusit is , but where as+ (sentence)
large, having an area of 114 square miles, whereas Tana Island , yet unlike + (sentence)
is only about a tenth of the size of Hamusit, having an area of nevertheless while + (sentence)
only about 12 square miles. Another difference is in the size of Comparison-Contrast Paragraph
the population of each village. Hamusit has about 4000 people The writer may wish to develop a combined comparison/contrast
living in it, but Tana Island has less than 100. The two villages pattern within the same paragraph, i.e., the writer may wish to
also differ in the weather condition that each posses. For discuss both the similarities and the differences between two
example, Hamusit is a dry village and receives an average of 18 objects, persons, places, events ,aspects, etc., within one
millimeters of rain per year. However, Tana Island is found at a paragraph. With this type of paragraph, however, there is no rule
moisten area and receives an average of 44 millimeters of rain or regularity about which should come first. The first step what
per year. In addition, the location of the two villages is different. the writer should do is identifying the two subjects he/she is
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

comparing or contrasting. Sometimes the writer may wish to meat, cookies, cheese and so forth. You might group drinks in to
begin with discussing similarities, and other timers he/ she may beverages, alcohol, and soft drink. Or you might put the original
want to begin with discussing differences. Whatever the writer groups such as those prepared in home, and in factories. Or each
wanted to discuss first, he/she begin by telling his/her reader that can be classified, for example, soft drinks, can be further
he will be discussing similarities as well as differences. classified as: Coca Cola, Sprite, Pepsi, Fanta, Mirinda, Seven-Up,
4.4.4 Classification Mineral Water and so on.
Classification is the process of putting a large number of items or Example 1
behaviors into smaller, well-defined groups. Each group’s Blood cells are classified into three: red blood cells, white blood
members or items share similar traits or characteristics that are cells and blood platelets. The first types of blood cells are red
unique; no other group has the same traits. The writer should put blood cells. Red blood cells make up almost 45 % of the blood
similar looking or acting items or behaviors into the same group volume. Their primary function is to carry oxygen from the lungs
and describe one group’s unique traits, behaviors, attitudes, or to every cell in the body. Red blood cells are composed
other characteristics. predominantly of a protein and iron compound called hemoglobin
Many classification systems are already in place; for example, that captures oxygen molecules as the blood moves through the
movies are classified by genre: Western, Romance, Science lungs, giving blood its red color. The other types of blood cells
Fiction, and Thriller; subjects in school are classified by are white blood cell. They make up about 1% of blood, and they
discipline: Science, Mathematics, English, and Home play a vital role in the body’s immune system—the primary
Economics. Since this categories, already exist, they do not defense mechanism against invading bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
present much challenge to the reader. In English classes, it is parasites. They often accomplish this goal through direct attack,
more fun and creative to come up with your own topic and which usually involves identifying the invading organism as
classification system. For example, if a hotel prepares various foreign, attaching to it, and then destroying it. The third types of
foods, you might group them by type of food: vegetables, fruits, blood cells are the platelets. They are the smallest cells in the
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

blood, and they are designed for the process of coagulation, or category that actually do not belong there. You will need to
forming a clot, whenever a blood vessel is broken. As soon as an reexamine your traits list.
artery or vein is E 1. The classifier approaches a body of unorganized material with
Note: the intention of organizing it for some purpose. Different
Like the other paragraphs, first you will develop a topic sentence purposes will result in different classifications. For example,
which is convenient for classification. After finding a topic to people can be classified according sex, age, income, IQ, marital
classify, establish the central, unique characteristic of each status, blood types, and so on. The classifier’s purpose determines
category .This is a criterion used for selection, the one main idea how he is going to classify the material.
that helps you put every thing into its proper category. For 2. The purpose determines the principle of selection to be used in
example if you were to classify a box of mixed tools you picked deciding which items are to be placed in which class. The
up at a garage sale, how might you sort them? You could sort by principle of selection must be maintained for all main classes,
• Type: hammers, saws, screw drivers, nails, screws, wedges, though a different principle may be used in going from main
miters, drill bits and so on; thus “type” could be the central classes to subclasses. For example, after people have been
unique characteristic. classified by sex, the sex groups may be subdivided into age
• Size: bigger pieces of equipment (hammer, saw, miter), smaller groups. Age then becomes the principle of selection in the
tools (screw drivers, wedges), and tiny pieces used to build other subgroups.
things (nails, screws); thus “size” could be the central unique 3. Items are grouped within a class as they are seen to be alike in
characteristic. some characteristic which is essential to the principle of
You could also sort them by type of metal or weight or age (if selection. Thus all words showing change toward narrower
you collect antique tools). If, while you are sorting, you find that meaning go in one group; all showing change toward wider
something can fit into two categories, then you haven’t refined meaning go in another. The essential characteristic is what
your categories well enough, or you have listed traits in one
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

distinguishes one group from another, and is called class is, what caused it to become what it is now. Or they may need or
characteristic. want to know the effects of the idea or event-- that is, the results
or consequences. In other words, the readers will want the writer
5. In an ideal classification all items should fit into some class, to give the answers to one or both of these questions: What
and no items should be left over. Unclassified items suggest a caused the event or idea? What effects or consequences does
flaw in the classification. If items cannot be classified, they are event or the idea have? The writer should then include in his/her
put in a class of exceptions, like the exceptions to the rules of paper a paragraph that has a cause pattern or effect pattern or a
English spelling. Obviously, the more exceptions there are, the combined cause/effect pattern. The supporting sentences will then
less useful the classification is. A pollster seeking to find out answer one or both of these questions about the event or idea.
whether people are generally satisfied with the present Cause Paragraph
administration would be unhappy if half of those polled had no Here is an example of a writing topic asking for causes of a
opinion. particular phenomenon.
6. If a class is divided into subclasses, it must have at least two. These days, the spread of deserts across the world is
Whether a class should be divided into subclasses depends on the increasing in alarming rate.
material being classified. Some classes of classification may not You will get the details in the following paragraph. Notice that
require subdivisions, but some other classes do. But it would be the first sentence identifies the topic- desertification is expanding
illogical to have only one subgroup of a class. If there are not at so large- and that all the supporting sentences describe the causes
least two subclasses, no subdivision is necessary. of this phenomenon described in the first sentence. In other
4.4.5 Cause and Effect words, if the topic sentence introduces an effect, the supporting
At times making an important idea or event fully understood in sentences all describe causes for the described event in the topic.
writing may require the writer to offer information which readers The paragraph below illustrates the cause pattern.
may need or want to know what led up to the event or idea--that
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

These days, the spread of deserts across the world is increasing desertification is expanding so large - is given in the opening
in alarming rate. There are many reasons for this occurrence. sentence. Notice, too, that the supporting sentences give the
First, the clearing of vegetation cover to get new land for farming causes for why desertification is expanding.
resulted in rapid loss of forests. This depletion of forests
degraded wild life and soil. Second, the rapid growth of Effect Causes
population made peoples to push cultivation into areas that were (topic sentence) (supporting sentences)
entirely unsuitable for agriculture. These activities of man on These days, the spread of There is clearing of vegetation cover
highly sensitive and delicately balanced ecosystem led to a deserts across the world is to get new land for farming
progressive decline in the vegetation cover. Third, the pastoral increasing in alarming rate.
nomads are the other protagonists in the tragedy for the fact that [There are several reasons for
far more animals are building up than the system can maintain, this]
i.e., the number of animals is increasing beyond the potential of These days, the spread of The rapid growth of population made
land. Finally, the progressive destruction of the third world’s deserts across the world is peoples to push cultivation into areas
stock of trees for the existing demand for firewood and timber as increasing in alarming rate. that were entirely unsuitable for
building material is accelerating soil erosion and reducing its agriculture.
capacity to feed and employ people. If forests continue to be These days, the spread of The number of animals is increasing
depleted in such ways, it is inevitable that the problem deserts across the world is beyond the potential of land.
aggravates and our globe will be affected by desertification much increasing in alarming rate.
much higher than the present. These days, the spread of There is destruction of trees for source
deserts across the world is of energy and constructions.
The diagram, below, shows the model cause paragraph is increasing in alarming rate.
organized. In this diagram you should see that the topic –
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Activity 4.3 The Misuse of Credit Cards

If the following topic sentences are developed, the students can 2. While credit cards are convenient and easy to use, the misuse
form cause/ effect paragraph of credit cards can lead to serious problems. Today, many
• The place where children grow may determine their future. consumers are spending beyond their ability to pay. This often
leads to serious financial difficulties or even personal bankruptcy.
• How you behave in a society will determine your
One of the reasons for consumer over-spending is aggressive
acceptance in that society. promotion by credit card companies. Fancy commercials and
• The way a teacher treats his/her students can have a great advertisements are everywhere and they create the image that
using credit cards is easy and trendy and gives people class.
effect on students’
Instead of worrying about payment with high interest rates, card
users tend to get carried away and find immediate satisfaction in
Task 23
fulfilling their desires. Incredibly, many people seem unaware
Direction: In each of the following paragraphs, state the writer’s that credit cards are not free; people may not feel like they are
purpose, and the method of development used. spending money, but they are creating debts that have to be paid.
They often lose track of how much they are spending. And they
My Digital Camera don't realize how quickly many little purchases can add up until
they receive their next credit card bill. To avoid problems with
1. I have a new digital camera, and I am very excited about using credit card debt, people need to become educated in personal
it because it has so many unique features. It has automatic focus.
financial management.
People do not have to wait a long time for me to take their
picture. In addition, its lens is powerful and thus I can photograph
Purpose: _____________________________
a person and scenery with clear pictures. Another feature allows
me to delete blurry pictures. I save a lot of money because I do Method of Development: ____________________________
not have to print ugly pictures. I am very excited about my new
camera because it is convenient, and I can take interesting Performing an Ollie
pictures with it. I expect to have a lot of fun with it.
3. Being able to Ollie on a skateboard—jumping in such a way
Purpose: _________________
that the skateboard sticks to your feet—is not as hard as most
Method of Development: _______________________ people think, as long as you learn some basic steps. The first step
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

is the positioning of your feet. Your back foot should be on the makes him or her sound in the know. The third one is the
tail of your board. Meanwhile, your front foot should be just ″Bargain Hunter″. The Bargain Hunter clearly believes that when
behind the screws of the front trucks (wheels). You should be having a design committed to his or her skin for life, getting the
standing mostly on your toes, with your heel and toes pointed lowest price is the top priority. He or she often has a "friend"
outwards. Once your feet are in proper position, start to bend from some disreputable source. What all these people don't seem
your knees to approximately ninety degrees and prepare to jump. to realize is that tattooing is a serious art form that artists dedicate
There are three things you now need—the three C's: comfort, their lives to learning and executing. A little respect and some
control, and confidence. Now kick down and back with your back manners would be appreciated.
foot so that the board pops into the air. Immediately afterward,
slide the front foot up towards the nose to level out the board. Purpose: __________________________
Finally, bend your knees again and prepare for impact. The only
Method of Development: ____________________________
step remaining is practice and lots of it. So, if doing an Ollie
doesn't sound so tough, wait until you actually try one. Instructors Role in Preventing Cheating

Purpose: _____________________________ 5. Instructors should take measures to prevent students from

cheating on exams. To begin with, instructors should stop reusing
Method of Development: _____________________________
old tests. A test that has been used even once is soon known on
Tattoo You the student grapevine. Students even manage to find a copy of the
test itself. Instructors should also take some commonsense
4. Having worked in a tattoo studio for the past year, I have come precaution at test time. They should make students separate
to recognize three types of annoying customers that invariably themselves-by at least one seat- during an exam. Last of all,
stroll through the door. The first is the ″Time Waster″. Generally instructors must make it clear to students that there will be hard
the Time Waster is not serious about getting a tattoo on time penalties for cheating. One of the problems with our school
rather he or she wastes the artist's time with a barrage of inane systems is a lack of discipline. A person even suspected of
questions. The next type of annoying client is the ″Know-it-all″. cheating should be forced to take an alternative exam in the
This client usually has a friend with a tattoo, and therefore instructor’s office. As cheating is unfair to honest students, it
considers himself or herself to be experts on the subject. He or should not be tolerated.
she contradicts the artist on everything, and insists on using
words he or she heard in a movie because he or she thinks it Purpose: _______________________
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

Method of Development: ___________________ aptness or felicity. People attain happiness whenever we are
being contended or satisfied or pleasured on something or
Synthetic Oil Vs Conventional Oil someone. Happiness is an expression when people are smiling
because they are delighted, glad, or lucky. Happiness is present
6. Drivers who want the best protection for their engines will find
when someone is happy. Happiness is the best thing that people
that synthetic oil offers several advantages over conventional oil.
can share and superior to all.
First of all, it's better year round. Synthetic oil flows freely at all
temperatures and circulates immediately at start up. Conventional Purpose: ________________________
oil thickens at low temperatures and takes time to warm up.
Synthetic oil is also more stable at high temperatures, making it Method of Development: ___________________________
more dependable in hot weather. Second, synthetic oil is much
cleaner than conventional oil. It contains the finest detergents,
Barefoot Boy
rust inhibitors, and other additives that reduce friction and make
the engine run smoother and cleaner. Third, and perhaps most 8. I had a scary experience when I was a young boy. One evening
important, is that synthetic oil lasts longer. Conventional oil must while my parents were eating dinner, I was playing barefoot in
be changed every three months whereas synthetic oil can last up the yard with my toys. Even now I still remember the perfume of
to six times longer. Even though synthetic oil is much more the flowers and the moisture of the grass. While I was sitting on
the grass and playing with a truck, I looked up at the sky, and my
expensive, it's worth the extra cost if you value the life and
attention was distracted by the beauty of the stars. Then I felt
performance of your engine. something cold and smooth slide over my feet. I stayed perfectly
still, but I looked down at my feet. Then I saw a snake slowly
slithering over my toes. I felt terrible and afraid, so my heart beat
very fast. After the snake moved away, I screamed to my parents
Purpose: _________________________
for help, and they captured the snake and took it away. The
Method of Development: ________________________ experience frightened me, and I never went outside barefoot
again.
Happiness
Purpose: _______________________
7. Happiness is a mental or emotional state of well-being Method of Development: _______________________
characterized by positive or pleasant emotions ranging from
contentment to intense joy. It is the state when you feel joy,
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

2.2.2.4 Sequencing paragraphs or essays. The following paragraph, for example, is

Suppose you have many notes about your ideas for a writing narrative. (The details are arranged in chronological order)
assignment. How do you put all these ideas together in a logical First: The most terrifying day in my life came in July of 1946.
way that will make sense to the reader? The sentences should I was washing lunchtime dishes in our
follow each other in the most sensible order for developing the farmhouse in middle Georgia when my husband
main idea of the paragraph. This process of putting things in their unexpectedly appeared at the door." Appeared"
proper order is called paragraph sequencing. is the best word that I can
There are several possible orders for sequencing: chronological Second: think to use, because he was not walking but
sequencing, spatial sequencing, generality sequencing, and crawling, dragging his left leg. I got out of him
sequence in importance. as quickly as possible that he had bitten by a
A. Time order (chronological order) copperhead of some three feet, a snake large
In telling about an event the clearest way to present the moment enough for its venom to be fatal. We lived thirty
is to give the details in chronological order. You should use this miles from the nearest hospital, I did not have a
sequence for related details or examples when you want to state driver’s license (and
them in the time order in which they occur. In other words, you Third: , in fact, had never driven a car), but my husband was
will list the earliest details first in your paragraph and the latest or dying before my eyes. I pushed/ pulled him into
most recent details toward the end of your paragraph. This is a the back seat of our Chevrolet and pointed the
very common sequence for a series of events. The details in a car toward Atlanta.
paragraph of this kind tend to answer such questions as what Example 2
happens first. And then what happens last? Paragraphs that relate Sunday was a long day. I had to get up at 5:00 am to
either a series of incidents or steps in a process often follow such attend an Easter sunrise service .Then I had duties at
chronological order; in this way is mostly used in narrative the church the rest of the morning. In the afternoon,
 BASIC WRITING SKILLS

I visited the Manor Rest Home and talked to shut– Bridging thoughts through transitions, idea connectors, move the
ins who seldom has visitors. Then I went to my reader from place to place.
aunt’s for dinner and played cards with Uncle Connecting words – connecting through time
Herman until about 9:00 pm. Then I drove up in to
the hills with my family for a special Easter Yesterday Today Tomorrow Then In the past Thereafter
midnight chapel service in the pines. We stayed in a Former Latter In the first place In the next place Further
mountain cabin with ten other people that night and Previously When at last meanwhile Later on Afterward
did not get to sleep until after 2:00 a. m. I was Years ago Earlier Before Next First Second Third Suddenly
exhausted after twenty-one hours of activity. Now Sometime later Once Often
 Basic Writing Skills EnLa 1012

B. Spatial Order painting on the right is of the town’s high

If you want your readers to be able to picture a scene or school, and on the left is a watercolor of the
object you are describing, you could use a spatial sequencing town’s city hall. There are several other works
of details. This sequence describes a scene or object by of art in the main body of the building. As you
going from one part of it to another in an organized. For face the archway on the left, you discover
instance if you intended your details to describe a building of pieces of pottery enclosed in a glass case. A
some kind you might want to sequence the details so that ceiling mural appears over the archway, and
you went from the bottom to the top of the building by on the right a wall hanging has been hung.
answering such questions as what is on the first floor ? the The entire library is filled with works of art.
second floor ? the third floor? and soon, until you had Example 2:
covered all the floors .or you might wish to go in the The kitchen was living room, dining room, and cooking
opposite direction ,beginning at the top and proceeding down room. There were two long narrow windows in one wall. An
, floor by floor, to the lowest floor. Or you might describe iron coal range was recessed in another wall. Above the
the same building by going from side to side; answering stove the recess was made of coral-colored bricks and
questions like what is on one side of the building? the creamy white plaster. It had a stone mantelpiece and a slate
section in the middle ? the other side of the building ? And, hearthstone on which Martha could draw pictures with
of course ,you could move in any direction in side the chalk. Next to the stove was a water boiler which got hot
building; left to right , north to south, up to down, side to when the fire was going. Often on a cold day, Martha came
side, near to far, or whatever. in chilled and put her arms around the boiler and pressed
Example 1: her frosty cheek gratefully against its warm silveriness. Next
As you enter the library, you are greeted by to the boiler was a pair of soapstone washtubs with a
paintings on each side of the door. The wooden cover. The partition could be removed and the two

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 Basic Writing Skills EnLa 1012

thrown into one for a bath tub. It didn’t make a very good writing people when you mean college students or taxi drivers,
bath tub. Sometimes when Martha sat in it, the cover banged you are not asking yourself this important question: am I
down on her head. The bottom was rubble and she came out identifying what I am referring to as specifically as I should? The
of what should have been a refreshing bath, all sore from following list shows how little effort it takes to become more
sitting on what wet roughness. Then there were four faucets specific.
to contend with. No matter how the child tried to remember Example 1
that they were inflexibly there and wouldn’t give way, she General Specific More
would jump up suddenly out of the soapy water and get her Specific
back whacked good on a faucet. Martha had a perpetual Vehicle car Toyota,
angry welt on her back. Cressida
Expressions which help to answer the details question “where?” Religion Christianity Roman
such as: Catholicism
Over On top (of) Building hotel Sheraton
Under On bottom (of) Hotel
In front of Along side (of)
Behind Outside (of) Example 2
Near Inside (of) General: The vegetables were prepared.
Far Specific: We chopped the tomato, diced the carrots, and sliced the
C. Generality Sequencing onions.
1. Specific-to-General: Specific terms give more information than Specific: We steamed the carrots and baked the Idaho potatoes.
general ones. For example, surgeon implies doctor, but doctor Example 3 (At paragraph level).
does not identify a person as a surgeon. If you find yourself

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 Basic Writing Skills EnLa 1012

If a paragraph begins with specific details involving many layers others to open up and say what is on their minds.
of details and examples and if it is closed with a These are the qualities of good mediators.
general statement at the end, it is reasonable to say 2. General-to-Specific
that the paragraph is organized from specific-to- When writing about a topic that involves many layers of details,
general. you can start the paragraph with a general statement, followed by
In Arab countries, where women do not have equal rights, men supporting details and examples that become more and more
commonly cut in front of women at ticket window. In Britain specific.
and the United States, where “first come, first served” is almost Example 1 When a paragraph begins with a general statement and
an obsession, many businesses have customers take numbers to followed by specific details, it is logical to say the
ensure that “first come’ is really “first served.” By contrast, in paragraph is organized from general-to-specific.
southern Europe, where people don’t like businesses regulating
their behavior, lines are disorderly, with lots of pushing and Dreams are common events during sleep. Dreams occur during
shoving for the best position; the strongest or most aggressive rapid eye movement sleep. During these rapid eye movement
win. This shows that the way people wait in line reflects sessions, the body is paralyzed to prevent harm coming to the
cultural values about fairness. sleeping person from unconscious muscle movements that occur
Example 4 in response to the images in the dream. Rapid eye movement
They should be good listeners. They should also sessions sleep takes place about every 90 minutes.
be good talkers, since they have to sum up and Example 2
restate what both sides say. They have to promise In the future, a young woman trained to be an engineer will not
to keep private what is said at a mediation only improve her own life but may also make our country
session. They also need to be able to encourage a better place for everyone. She may, for instance, devise a
new kind of automobile engine that does not require

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gasoline at all. That would make our country less exterior and sunroof. You must decide which sequencing method
dependent on other nations for oil imports. Her invention is best for your purpose and audience.
would also serve the cause of world peace, because our Example:
country truly free from pressure by other countries would Suppose you wanted to write a paragraph for this topic sentence:
be stronger politically, economically, and militarily and When I returned to my old neighborhood, I was sad to see how
would be better able to resist threats to world peach. She many things had changed.
also involves in any activities of the society as many -Mr. Lewis, my old history teacher, had died in a car accident.
women engineers of today step through factories’ corridors -Mike’s Pizzeria, a local hangout, was destroyed in a fire.
in greater numbers than ever before. -The park bench where I spent hours reading was gone.
D. Sequence in Importance From the incidents, because it seems to be the most important
You generally sequence the points by their importance; you would best be first in the paragraph, it would be best discussed
should use this sequence when you want to give several details or first in the paragraph.
examples and wish to start your paragraph with the most important Example:
or more interesting ones. You may do this in order to attract the Our department needs lots of fixing-up. Though it may be difficult
attention of your readers at the very start, especially readers who to fix-up all of them at the same time, we have got to fix the leaky
may be impressed for time or who may be uninterested in your roof first before the September rains come. Next, we need to
subject. patch the big holes in the bed room walls and then strip the peeling
To start with the least important and to lead to the most important , paint off the walls. Then we can repaint the apartment. After the
for example, a comparison of two cars might start with the engine walls are painted, we can work on replacing the linoleum squares
and its importance , then work outward to the passenger in the kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later, the living room
compartment, its dimension and comfort, ending with the sporty carpet needs shampooing, and we should replace that old

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swaybacked sofa. Then we won’t be embarrassed to have Unit Three: Effective Essay Writing
company over once in a while. Up on the successful completion of this unit, the students should be able
Of course, only the writer himself could determine which was to:
most or least significant. • Define what an essay is and its elements
The writer can follow the opposite approach, for example, the
• Identify structural parts of an essay
least important ones come first in the paragraph, the important
• List down characteristics of a good essay
next and the most important details come last. This arrangement
allows you to build up your reader’s interest gradually (to create • Differentiate types of essay and techniques of its development
suspense if it is in fiction writing), with your final details • Write a meaningful essay using different methods
providing a climax.
3.1 Essay and its Parts

A paragraph develops only one idea. Similarly, an essay, which is

a piece of writing with several paragraphs, is also about one topic.
Often, topics are too complex and too broad to be developed in a
single paragraph. In this case, you have to divide the topic into
several paragraphs, one for each major point. Writing an essay
isn't more difficult than writing a paragraph except that an essay is
longer. The chart below shows you how the parts of a paragraph
correspond, to the parts of an essay.

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Paragraph Essay

INTRODUCTION
Topic Sentence General Statements + Thesis
Statement
CONCLUSION
Concluding Restatement of the main points;
Sentence final comment
BODY PARAGRAPH 1
SUPPORTING DETAIL Topic Sentence +
1 Supporting Details
I. THE THESIS STATEMENT
(+conclusion)
The essay is controlled by one main idea which is called the thesis
BODY PARAGRAPH 2
statement. The thesis statement is similar to the topic sentence in
SUPPORTING DETAIL Topic Sentence +
paragraph, but it is broader and gives a general idea about the
2 Supporting Details
subject of the whole essay. It is usually the last sentence of the
(+conclusion)
introductory paragraph. Each of the topic sentences in the body
paragraph should relate to the thesis statement. Essay writer, thus,
always remember that a thesis statement:
A. must be a complete sentence
BODY PARAGRAPH 3
 The benefits of the computer. (not a thesis statement rather
SUPPORTING Topic Sentence + Supporting
it is title)
DETAIL 3 Details (+conclusion)
 The computer can help students do research in many ways.
(thesis statement)

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B. cannot be a question on our environment in general. (not a thesis statement

 What are the advantages of credit cards? (not a thesis because it has two subjects and you cannot develop both of
statement) them successfully in one essay.)
 Credit cards are convenient to use for two main reasons. F. must be precise and clear. Vague words like fun, important,
(thesis statement) wonderful, terrible should not be used because they do not give
C. should not be a detail or an example clear information
In Ethiopia, dressing a traditional cloth is the symbol of national  A hobby is fun. (how?)
pride. (not a thesis statement)  Smoking is unhealthy. (why?)
There are different beliefs about dressing a traditional cloth around (These are not thesis statements)
the world. (thesis statement)
D. may state or list how it will support an opinion  A hobby can be an extra source of income.
 Television has a bad influence on children for three reasons.  Smoking is unhealthy because it can cause several different
(thesis statement) diseases.
 The choice of food we eat during our New Year's festival in (these are thesis statements)
Ethiopia is influenced by tradition and religion. (thesis G. often includes specific aspects of what you will discuss.
statement)  Smoking is unhealthy because it can cause several different
E. contains a single topic / one main subject diseases. (More general)
 Radioactive waste from nuclear power has several  Smoking is unhealthy because it can cause narrowing of the
destructive effects on people, on plants and on our arteries, heart problems and lung cancer. (This is better
environment in general. (thesis statement) because the writer gives more specific information about the
 Radioactive wastes from nuclear power and burning of fossil causes that lead to being unhealthy.)
fuel have several destructive effects on people, on plants and  Analysis of a good thesis statement

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The thesis statement is made up of two parts: the topic and the 3. There are four major reasons for absenteeism among students in
specific points you want to make about your topic. These specific the preparatory classes including over sleeping, traffic problems,
points may be given in such a way that the organization of the being ill, and boredom.
composition is made clear. 4. Teenage smoking is caused by personal insecurity, a desire to
Example: be like adults, and peer pressure.
1. The burning of fossil fuel has several destructive effects on 5. The status of women in Ethiopia has improved remarkably in
people, on plants and on our recent years in the areas of economic independence, political
( A) (B) rights, educational opportunities and social status.
environment in general.
Direction: Write the thesis statements for the topic sentences
(A) = Topic (B) =
given.
specific points
1. Thesis: __________________________________
Task 24 a. First of all, watching TV has the value of relaxation.
b. In addition to being relaxing, television is entertaining.
Direction: Divide the following thesis statements into their parts.
c. Most importantly, television is educational.
Can you tell how many body paragraphs there will be in the
2. Thesis: ____________________________________
essays?
a. One reason is people cannot find employment in their
1. The main causes of traffic accidents in Ethiopia are the attitude hometowns.
of Ethiopian drivers, the poor state of the roads, and the poor b. Another reason is they want better education opportunities.
condition of vehicles. c. Most importantly, they feel safer in a city where there are
2. Several things make me adore Gonder: its friendly atmosphere modern health facilities.
and people, the cheap prices and its convenient location.

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II. THE INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH  Read the introductory paragraph below. Notice how the
The function of the introduction is to serve as a "map" of the sentences gradually move from the general topic of
essay, outlining to your reader the main argument and points technology to the specific of two areas that have been changed
which you develop in your essay. Most introductions begin with by personal computers.
an orientation in the form of a brief general statement that leads We live in the age of technology. Every day, new technology
the reader into the topic showing how the specific topic relates to appears, ranging
bigger issues or to the discipline field. This is followed by your from mini-CD's that contain entire encyclopedias to giant space
thesis statement, which is your concise response to the essay telescopes that can send photographs of distant stars back to
question. earth. Of all the new technological wonders, personal
 The introductory paragraph is like an inverted pyramid () computers have probably had the greatest influence
General Statement on the daily lives of average people. Through
More specific computers, we can now talk to people in any
More specific country, research any topic, work, shop,
More specific bank, and entertain ourselves.
Thesis Statement Personal computers have
especially revolutionized
 In general, a good introduction accomplishes three purposes: communication and
1. It attracts the reader's interest. business practices
2. It provides the reader with background information. in the past
3. It includes the Thesis Statement, which focuses the reader's twenty
attention on the main idea of the essay. years.

Task 25

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Direction: Use the thesis statement below and write a general  The body paragraphs should have coherence and unity. The
statement for the introductory paragraph. order of your paragraphs should be the same as the order in
the thesis statement.
1. Watching television is valuable educationally as it provides
 As your sentences need to flow smoothly, your paragraphs
cultural, social and political knowledge.
need to flow smoothly too. This can be achieved through the
III. THE BODY PARAGRAPHS use of transitions.
Body paragraphs are the heart of the essay, because their function Example:
is to explain, illustrate, discuss or prove the thesis statement. The  Thesis statement: "I love Ethiopia because it has historical
number of body paragraphs may change depending on the thesis and natural beauty."
statement.  1st body paragraph, topic sentence: "The first reason why I
 Each body paragraph discusses one aspect of the main point. like Ethiopia is its historical beauty."
 Each body paragraph begins with a topic sentence that states  2nd body paragraph, topic sentence: "The other reason of
the point to be detailed in that paragraph. my love for Ethiopia is its natural beauty."
 The controlling idea in the body paragraphs should echo the IV. THE CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH
central idea in the thesis statement. The final paragraph of an essay is the conclusion. In this
Example: paragraph you tell the reader that you have completed the essay.
This is achieved by either writing a summary of the main points
 Thesis statement: "There are many advantages of living in
discussed in the body of the essay or by rewriting the thesis
the school dorm."
statement in different words. Then you add your final comments
 The topic sentence of each paragraph should be about ″one
on the subject. Since this is your last opportunity to make your
advantage of living in the school dorm.″
point, you should write a strong, effective message that the reader
 Topic sentence 1: "The first advantage of living in the school
will remember.
dorm is ....... "

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The concluding paragraph does three things: 1. Smoking is unhealthy because it can cause heart and lung
1. It signals the end of the essay. disease; moreover, it is expensive.
2. It summarizes the main points. (but not just repeating your a. In brief, buying cigarettes is a bad idea.
words, analyzing your ideas and supports.) b. In brief, smoking affects your health, and it is also a waste of
3. It leaves the reader with the writer's final thoughts on the money.
subject. c. In brief, smoking is a bad habit.
To signal the end of an essay, use a conclusion transition signal Here is an outline and the concluding paragraph of an essay:
such as in conclusion, in summary, to summarize, in brief, or in
Thesis Statement
short. Then, either summarize the main points of the essay or
Watching television is not a waste of time since it educates,
rewrite the thesis statement:
entertains and stimulates.
Example:
Topic Sentences of Body Paragraphs:
Thesis statement: Personal computers have especially
1st: it is a valuable educational tool.
revolutionized communication and business practices in the past
2nd: it provides entertainment to cheer us up.
twenty years.
3rd: it provides something our family can have in common or
Concluding Sentences: In brief, the computer age has arrived,
discuss.
and it is changing our lives. Computers have made communication
Conclusion
and doing business faster and more convenient, and they have
Critics of television will continue to put down the "goggle box".
greatly increased our access to information.
However, because of its educational value, its entertainment value,
Task 26
and its provision of things we can discuss together, families are
Direction: Read the following thesis statement. Choose the best
going to continue watching television for a long time, so should
concluding sentence for it:
others. Indeed, watching television is a good way to spend one's
time.

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3.2 Types of Essays

Direction: Write the concluding paragraphs using the following Essays can be divided into the following general types according
thesis statements and topic sentences for the body paragraphs. to their purpose; many essays involve more than one type. These
(A)Thesis Statement: are argumentative, expository, descriptive, and narrative essays.
Communication in a foreign language can create some
3.2.1 Argumentative Essay
embarrassing misunderstandings.
Topic Sentences of Body Paragraphs: An argumentative essay is one that attempts to persuade the
1st : Mispronouncing words can lead to real embarrassment. reader to the writer's point of view. The writer can either be
serious or funny, but always tries to convince the reader of the
2nd: Misunderstanding what someone says to you can create validity of his or her opinion. The writer approach is to take a
amusing problems. stand on an issue and use evidence to back up your stance, not to
explore an unresolved topic. It attempts to influence a reader to do
3rd: Misusing vocabulary can really make you blush. a certain action or to accept a belief. The writer usually uses
Conclusion:________________________________________ ‘should’, ‘ought to’, ‘better’, ‘worse’, and ‘must’ to express
opinions. But it does not mean that an argumentative
(B)Thesis Statement: paragraph is not written without these words.
In order to make a good impression at a job interview, you should
Sample Argumentative Essay
prepare well for the interview.
Topic Sentences of Body Paragraphs: The writer of the following essay is arguing that murderers should
be sentenced to life imprisonment instead of the death penalty.
1st: The first thing you should do is plan your answers to the
possible questions that the interviewer might ask.
2nd: Then you should carefully plan and prepare what you are
going to wear.
3rd: Finally, you should make sure that you arrive on time.
LIFE SENTENCE FOR MURDER
Conclusion:________________________________________

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expensive to keep murderers in jail and it would be cheaper to

execute them. However, capital punishment can also be very
In some places, murderers get life sentences for their crimes. In
expensive. The courts are very careful before they execute people,
others, they get the death penalty. There is a lot of disagreement
so there are many court hearings before they decide to execute
about how murderers should be punished. However, I believe that
them. Sometimes the hearings continue for years. The government
people should get life sentences for murder, not the death penalty.
has to pay for the court hearings, the criminal's lawyer, and many
One reason I support life sentences for murder is that death is not other expenses. It is clear that capital punishment is not always
the worst punishment. It is worse to have to sit in jail for the rest cheaper than life in prison.
of one's life. Life imprisonment is hard. Prisoners never get to do
In conclusion, there are many good reasons to give life sentences
what they want. All they can do is think about their crimes. They
to murderers instead of the death penalty. Life sentences are an
know that they will never be able to get out of prison. Therefore,
effective punishment, they give criminals a chance to change, and
life imprisonment is an effective punishment.
they do not involve a lot of expensive court hearings. For these
Another reason is that sometimes people change. Same people reasons, I think that life sentences are a better punishment for
commit murder when they are addicted to drugs or have other bad murder than the death penalty.
influences in their lives. With time, people can change in jail.
Many convicted criminals start studying or learn about religion Useful Phrases to Write For and Against Essays

when they are in jail. Some of them start to really think about what To list points: one major advantage/disadvantage of, a further
they did wrong. They even try to help other prisoners by teaching advantage, one point of view in favor of/against, in the first place,
or counseling them. However, change is not possible if they are first of all, to start with, secondly, thirdly, finally, last but not
dead. least, etc.

Some opponents of life sentences for murder say that it is too

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To add more points to the same topic: what is more,

clocks, calculators and much more.
furthermore, also, in addition to, besides, apart from this/that, not
to mention the fact that, etc. (3) However / Even though, there are also a number of
disadvantages. Firstly, doctors always warn people against them,
To make contrasting points: on the other hand, however, in spite
(4) so / because using mobile phones too much can lead to health
of, while, nevertheless, even though, although, despite, it can be
problems such as brain disease. They are (5) on the other hand /
argued that, one can argue that, etc.
also very annoying in cinemas or at the theatre when people forget
To conclude: to sum up, all in all, all things considered, in to switch them off. Another problem is that they are always being
conclusion, on the whole, taking everything into account, above updated. (6) Therefore / Despite this, it is necessary to buy a new
all, as was previously stated, etc. one every couple of years. Finally, it is quite expensive to use the
service.
Task 27
In conclusion, I believe that (7) although / despite they have
Direction: Read the texts below and circle the correct linking
some disadvantages, mobile phones can be very useful. But we
word.
mustn’t forget that there are also some problems involved.
Within the last few years mobile phones have become an
important part of our society. They have certainly changed our 3.2.2 Expository Essay

lives.
The function of the expository essay is to explain something to the

Using a mobile phone has many advantages. First of all, it is reader by giving directions or instructions, or to acquaint your

convenient because you can carry it with you wherever you go. (1) reader with knowledge about how to complete a task or how

As a result / Besides, it can be very useful in emergencies, for something is done. You are demonstrating your own knowledge

example, if your car breaks down. (2) What’s more / For this and explaining with facts, not your opinion. It is very important

reason, they are not just phones; you can use them as alarm that your tone be reasonable and that your presentation be factual

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and believable. Generally, it conveys factual information about a prefer to be near my family, or in another part of the country? The
subject; makes a report, explains how to do something, answers to these questions will help you make the best choice.
compares/contrasts two things, people, places, events, and
Second, you should consider size. Perhaps your high school
presents problem/gives a solution. Look at the sample expository
experience will affect your choice of colleges. If you attended a
essay organized below that explains how to choose the right
small high school with a low teacher-student ratio, you may be
college.
accustomed to small class sizes and knowing your fellow students
Sample Expository Essay extremely well. On the other hand, if you attended a large high
school, you may be used to new faces and larger classes.
Look at the sample expository essay organized below that
Remember, the attention you receive will be affected by the size
explains how to choose the right college.
of the student population.

Choosing the right college

Finally, in order to choose the right college, you should take the

One of the most important decisions young adults make is where time to decide what you would like to study. Although most

to go to school. Your college education will affect the rest of your colleges offer many of courses, some schools specialize in certain

life, so you should weigh your options carefully. The “perfect” fields and subjects or offer a wider selection of classes. For

school may not exist, but I believe there are three factors that are example, if you are interested in studying medicine, did you know

integral to choosing the right college: location, size, and that the University of Gondar has one of the best medical

curriculum. You can narrow down your search based on these departments Ethiopia?

criteria.
Choosing the right college will require some effort. After you have

First, you should consider location. Some questions you should decided the location, size, and curriculum you prefer, do some
ask yourself include: Do I prefer to live in a city, the border, or a research. Learn about different colleges from your guidance

rural area? Do I want to live in a temperate or colder climate? Do I

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counselor, the Internet, or from the colleges themselves. As with Sara and I have always worn our hair the same way—long and
any important decision, make sure your choice is an educated one. straight, with bangs. We have the same dark eyes and big smile,
and we both have one curved tooth on the right. We both love the
3.2.3 Descriptive Essay
color green, hate eating fish, and think mayonnaise is disgusting.

Descriptive essay tells what a person, place, thing, or event is We play the violin, and every year we compete with each other for

like. Paint a picture in words of something. Portray it so that the position of first violin in the school orchestra.

reader can picture it in her/his mind. In descriptive essay, the

In some ways, however, we’re totally different. Sara always wears
writer creates a clear impression in the reader’s mind of a
fashionable hats, which I think is really weird. She thinks it’s
person, place, object, or situation. "Description" tells us what
strange that I like jazz music. Some people say that our biggest
something looks like, feels like, tastes like, sounds like or smells
difference is that Sara is in a wheelchair. She was in a car accident
like ‐ without action or events. It doesn't explain a relationship or a
when she was very young, and her backbone was badly injured.
process beyond oneself; it focuses on one's immediate subjective
To me, however, the real difference between us is that Sara has
perceptions. Thus, descriptive writing connects the outer world
courage and determination. She has never let being in a wheelchair
with our inner feelings. It will use many adjectives and
slow her down, and she’s almost never angry or unhappy about
adverbs.
what happened to her.

Sample Descriptive Essay

Therefore, when I look in the mirror, I see myself— Ruth —but I

Not Quite the Same also see Sara, a better version of me.

When most people want to see what they look like, they look in a 3.2.4 Narrative Essay

mirror. I don’t need a mirror to see myself, though. I can just look
Narrative essay tells a story using a series of events, just like a
at my identical twin sister, Sara. narrator in a play. In other words, writing a narrative essay is a
storytelling in a chronological sequence. It is best used to

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illustrate the "personal developmental path" a person (often couple of minutes the teacher came over. She smiled and
yourself) has taken to reach a particular point in his/her life. A
introduced herself, and two more students joined us. Although
narrative must have a conflict that is overcome. This is the core
of any narrative form of writing, be it a paragraph, an essay, or a they were both older than me, they didn’t seem to be ashamed
story). In an essay, it usually means a single incident/anecdote,
about not knowing how to swim. I began to feel more relaxed and
where the narrator experiences some brief challenge that is met
and (hopefully) survived. This "overcoming" should in turn lead to confident.
some form of understanding. Simply describing or explaining
one's surroundings is not a narrative. You need a (brief) We got into the pool, and the teacher had us put on brightly
establishment of setting, an explanation of the challenge, and the
resolution of this challenge. In other words, you need a plot. colored water wings to help us stay afloat. One of the other
students, Merry, had already taken the beginning class once
Sample Narrative Essay
before, so she took a kickboard and went splashing off by herself.
Learning experience
The other student, Jerry, and I were told to hold on to the side of
Learning something new can be a scary experience. One of the the pool and shown how to kick for the breaststroke. One by one,
hardest things I’ve ever had to do was learn how to swim. I was the teacher had us hold on to a kickboard while she pulled it
always afraid of the water, but I decided that swimming was an through the water and we kicked. Pretty soon Jerry was off doing
important skill that I should learn. I also thought it would be good this by himself, traveling at a fast clip across the short end of the
exercise and help me to become physically stronger. What I didn’t pool.
realize was that learning to swim would also make me a more
confident person. Things were not quite that easy for me, but the teacher was very
patient. After a few more weeks, when I seemed to have caught on
New situations always make me a bit nervous, and my first with my legs, she taught me the arm strokes. Now I had two things
swimming lesson was no exception. After I changed into my to concentrate on, my arms and my legs. I felt hopelessly
bathing suit in the locker room, I stood fearfully by the side of the uncoordinated. Sooner than I imagined, however, things began to
pool waiting for the teacher and other students to show up. After a

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feel “right” and I was able to swim. It was a wonderful feeling -

like flying, maybe - to be able to shoot across the water.

Learning to swim was not easy for me, but in the end my
meticulousness paid off. Not only did I learn how to swim and to
overcome my fear of the water, but I also learned something about
learning. Now when I am faced with a new situation I am not so
nervous. I may feel uncomfortable to begin with, but I know that
as I practice being in that situation and as my skills get better; I
will feel more and more comfortable. It is a wonderful, free
feeling when you achieve a goal you have set for yourself.

Task 28

Direction: Choose one of the topics below and write a unified,

coherent and complete argumentative essay.

1. Advantages and disadvantages of globalization

2. Influence of movies
3. Reading fiction is a waste of time

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