METTU University; Dep’t of English Languages and Literature

Sentence and its Structure

1.1Sentence and its components
Sentence is a linguistic structure which is made up of words that are arranged in a logical order
so as to give a complete thought. Any sentence has two main parts: the subject and the predicate.

Subject is the component of a sentence about which something is stated by the predicate. It is the
element that does something or something is done in a sentence. It can be a person, a thing, a
place, and so on.

Predicate is the component of a sentence which says something about the subject. It may consist
of only a verb or a verb and a complement.

Example: Eagles hunt their food.

In this sentence, the word ‘Eagles’ is the subject whereas the phrase ‘hunt their food’ is the
predicate of the sentence. The structure ‘their food’ is the complement of the verb.

Complement is a structure that completes the meaning of a verb. It can be a word or a phrase.

Example: I came.
The dog barked.
In these sentences, the subjects are ‘I’ and ‘The dog’ and the predicates are ‘came’ and
‘barked’ respectively. The predicate in each sentence is made up of only verb.
Let us take the following sentence as an additional example:
He put the book on the table.
In this sentence, the subject is ‘He’ and the predicate is ‘put the book on the table’.
A sentence can consist of a single subject and a single predicate.
Single Subject Single Predicate
Example: Eagles hunt their food.
I came.

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METTU University; Dep’t of English Languages and Literature

He put the book on the table.

The tea tastes good.
Snakes are kinds of reptiles.
They went early in the morning.
Are snakes kinds of reptiles?
A sentence can have a compound subject (more than one subject) and a single predicate.
Single Predicate
Example: Eagles and owls hunt their food.
Compound Subject Aster and Almaz are working on the exercise.
Lions and tigers are always fighting.
A sentence can have a single subject and a compound predicate (more than the predicate).
Compound Predicate
Example: Eagles hunt and eat their food.
Single Subject I added some sugar in the tea and drank it.
They sang and danced well in the party.
A sentence can also have a compound subject and a compound predicate.
Compound Subject Compound Predicate
Example: Eagles and owls hunt and eat their food.
Almaz and Aster ate their breakfast and went out for work.
The normal order of the subject and the predicate, in English sentence, is that the subject comes
first and the predicate follows.
Subject Predicate
Example: My father is a teacher.
My mother is a nurse.
She laughed at him.
She and he laughed at the man.
The night was very cold.
The people sang and danced well at the party.
They found their cow near the river.

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In some cases, the order can change and this is in the case of emphasis and question.
Predicate Subject
Example: Here lies the truth.
On the table was a pile of papers.
Around her neck was a beautiful necklace.
Here are two messages.
Are snakes reptiles?
Have you finished copying the notes?
In these sentences, the predicates precede the subjects. However, when the subjects and the
predicates are put in their normal order, each sentence has the following corresponding version:
The truth lies here.
A pile of papers was on the table.
A beautiful necklace was around her neck.
Two messages are here.
Snakes are reptiles.
You have finished copying the notes.

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METTU University; Dep’t of English Languages and Literature

Exercise
In the following sentences, identify the subject and the predicate decide whether each
component is single or compound, and identify their order.
1. Where did all the students go?
2. Drinking coffee has a stimulating effect.
3. Do not be late.
4. Did you put the book on the table?
5. The teacher did not allow late comers to enter into the class.
6. My sister is studying English.
7. Solomon and Alemu are coming.
8. Solomon is washing and arranging the cups.
9. Solomon and Alemu are washing and arranging the cups.
10. Please, give this book to him.
11. Have you seen him here?
12. Tamirate and I finished doing the exercise.
13. The committee voted him as a chairperson.
14. Our school is planning to conduct research on different issues.
15. The teacher devoted much of his time in lecturing.
16. The road is under construction.
17. Finally, I got the solution to the problem.
18. His father designed and built their house.
19. He has become a good actor.
20. Many people attended the match.
21. The dog chased and ate the sheep.
22. The dog and the hyena chased the sheep.
23. The dog and the hyena chased and ate the sheep.
24. They argued against the motion.
25. They argued against the motion and went out.
26. She reads and writes fast.

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27. Here comes Mengistu.

28. We stayed there and welcomed them.
29. Almaz and Samuel studied chemistry.
30. I wrote a letter and mailed it this morning.
31. Did you see Kebede and Alemu at the party? You saw Kebede and Alemu at the party.
32. They won the game and received the prize.
33. Should Asfaw come and see you?
34. He peeled and ate the orange.
35. This time, global warming is becoming the most serious problem.
36. Have you ever been here?
37. I can prepare delicious food from egg and butter.
38. In the center of the river lies the crocodile.
39. Working hard is a good habit.
40. Come in.

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1. 2 Types of Sentence: Functional and structural classification of a sentence

A. Functional classification of a sentence
Sentences can be divided into four types: statement, interrogative, command and exclamatory.
This classification is based on the function each sentence has.

Statement: this is also called declarative or assertive sentence. Its function is to make a
statement of facts or information. It ends in full stop. It can be in affirmative or in
negative form. It is the most frequently used sentence in daily communication.

Example: We are taking Sophomore English in this semester.

I am hungry.
I like swimming.
We need some information about how to do the exercise.
They cannot come on tomorrow.
The book is very expensive.
He knows how to write a report.
I did not bring my notebook.
Interrogative: this is also known as question sentence. Its function is to ask question. It ends in
question mark. It can be in ‘Wh’ or ‘Yes/No answer’ question form.

Example: Are you hungry? (Yes/No answer question)

What is your name? (‘Wh’ question)
Have you finished doing your homework?
Did you see him yesterday?
Have you understood the lesson?
How much is the cost?
Where are you living?
Should I go now?
Has she gone to Addis?
What about your class?

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Imperative: this is also called command sentence. It is used to give command, order, suggestion,
request, and so on. It ends in full stop. In certain cases, depending on the context, it
can end in exclamatory mark.

Example: Look at the blackboard.

Come in please.
Let us go out for a walk.
Give me your pen please.
Be quiet. (Be quiet!)
Sit down. (Sit down!)
Come. (Come!)
Move. (Move!)
Go out. (Go out)

Exclamatory: this is a sentence that is used to express strong emotion like anger, surprise,
happiness, and so on. It ends in exclamatory mark.
Example: How a good time we had!
How interesting was the party!
What a bad luck!
What a show!
What a surprise!
How interesting the story is!
How difficult the question is!
How clear the instruction is!
How beautiful field is!
How amazing!
What a day!

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Exercise
Identify the function and the type of each sentence, in the following list.
1. Are you a teacher?
2. Revise your notes before the test.
3. How you seen the model car?
4. His father is a teacher.
5. How tasty it is!
6. What a wonderful man you are!
7. Having something is better than having nothing.
8. What is your favorite food?
9. I do not what to go there.
10. Surprising!
11. We need the room badly.
12. Is she your sister?
13. Sorry!
14. See your principle.
15. Are we going to take a test on tomorrow?
16. Where are you teaching?
17. Study hard.
18. Turn the music down.
19. We need change!
20. Class starts on next Monday.
21. Watch out!
22. I waited a lot here.
23. Is she not happy?
24. Are you ready?
25. Oh!

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26. What a lovely day it is!

27. Do not be late.
28. I cannot attend the meeting as I am very busy.
29. Are you sure?
30. When is the test for Sophomore English?
31. You do not know this!
32. Do not you know this?
33. It is tomorrow.
34. What a frustrating news you are telling me!
35. Go there!

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B. Structural classification of a sentence

Sentences can also be divided into four types. This is based on the structural complexity which a
sentence has. These are: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex
Simple sentence: this is a sentence that consists of only one main clause.

Example: Eagles hunt their food.

Hyenas chase cows.
Selamawit is reading her notes.
Are you a student?
I bought a good book.
It may consist of a single subject and a single predicate.
Example: Eagles hunt their food.
Hyenas chase cows.
It may consist of a single subject and a compound predicate.
Example: Eagles and owls hunt their food.
Hyenas chased and ate cows.
It may consist of a compound subject and a single predicate.
Example: Eagles and owls hunt and eat their food.
Hyenas and lions chased and ate cows.
Almaz, Samerawit and Aster are presenting and defending their research work.
We are working hard so as to score good grades in the course.
We cannot attend the meeting due to bad weather.
Additional Examples:
The storm destroyed the crops in the filed and washed away the soil.
We could not go out because of the heavy rain.
Despite his illness, he came to class.
Shall I give you an example of a simple sentence?

Compound sentence: this is a sentence that consists of at least two main clauses joined by a
coordinating conjunction, a semi-colon or a conjunctive adverbs.

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Example: Solomon likes going out for a walk but his brother likes staying at home.
Stories entertain people but riddles amaze people.
I studied hard; I scored a good grade.
I walked quickly; hence, I arrived in time.
I studied heard; however, I did not score a good grade.
It is time, so we should go.
He is poor, yet he is generous.
Come here and do the work.
She smiled but she did not talk to me.
I must study hard; otherwise, I will fail in the test.
He did not study hard; concequently, he failed in the test.
It is raining; moreover, it is very dark.
I should go to my office early for I have an urgent work to do.
Complex sentence: this is a sentence that consists of a main clause and at least one dependent
clause. Subordinating conjunctions are very important in the formation of
this sentence.

Main Clause Dependent Clause

Example: I will go with you as soon as I finish my work.
I will go with you although I did not finish my work.
I will go with you if I finish my work.
I am studying very hard so that I can score good grade.
He behaved as if he were an actor.
She is wearing her overcoat as it is very cold.
This is the university where we are learning.
I remember the day when I first entered into the university.
We must go quickly as we have a lot to do.
They had studied hard before they took the test.
I saw him while he was walking in the street.
He makes friends wherever he goes.

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Because it was raining, we could not go out for a walk.

They will come here provided that they have enough time.
Whenever I read her stories, I enjoy them.
Plants grow on condition that it rains.
After we had joined the university, we had no time to enjoy.
I cannot forget the difficulties which I encountered.
I will go with you as long as you invited me something at the cafeteria.
I am reading the book which I bought last week.
We will take a test which accounts of 40%.
I read a book and wrote a report about it because it was very interesting.
Compound-complex sentence: this is a sentence that consists of at least two main clauses and at
least one dependent clause. This sentence has a feature of
compound and complex sentences.

Main Clause Mail Clause Dependent Clause

Example: I read the book and I wrote a report about it because it was very interesting.
The class was over but the teacher did not go out on time because he wanted to
take attendance.
After we joined the university, we had no time and we did not enjoy ourselves.
When we go to a cafeteria, Jawar prefers to drink milk but I prefer to drink
coffee.
I started to read the book; however, I could not finish it since I was very tired.
Despite the fact that he was very sick, he came to class to take the test for the
test accounts of 30%.

Exercise

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METTU University; Dep’t of English Languages and Literature

Identify whether each sentence, in the following list, is simple, compound , complex,
compound-complex or complex-complex sentence and analyze it into its constituents; that is,
into phrase, dependent clause and /or main clause.
1. Have you done the exercise that I gave you yesterday?
2. You will succeed if you work hard.
3. The man knocked and entered into the class.
4. The man knocked at the door but he did not enter into the class.
5. The man knocked at the door but he did not enter into the class as the class was locked.
6. The class started as soon as the teacher arrived.
7. Exerting all his efforts, Haile Gebreselassie always wins any running competition.
8. I bought a book which contains many storied because I like reading stories.
9. After the teacher had finished his lecture, we all went out from the class.
10. After the teacher had finished his lecture, we all went out from the class and rushed into
the library.
11. While I was coming to school, I saw the lion which killed my cow.
12. The door had already been locked when I arrived there.
13. When I arrived there, the door had already been looked and I went back to my home.
14. The door had already been locked when I arrived there because I was very late.
15. Run fast; otherwise, you will lose the medal.
16. My friend and I went out for work early in the morning.
17. We have to wait for them or we have to leave a message to them because it is time for us
to go.
18. He was very sick; still, he came to class.
19. You will feel discomfort if you go to Sahara as it is very hot.
20. Haile Gebreselassie, who disappeared for some years from the 10,000 meters running
track, appeared in Beijing Olympics and did a fatherly role to the other athletes in the
competition.
21. Since he has been working very hard for four mouths, he is sure to pass the examination
which will be given next week.
22. Give him my address in case he asks you.
23. We sang songs and danced happily at the party.

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24. My father, my mother and my sister came to school, attended the ceremony and went
back to home.
25. I left early in the morning from Addis Ababa; I wanted to arrive at Bahir Dar early in the
afternoon.
26. If you want to see him, you must have an appointment a week in advance so that he can
give you adequate information.
27. Bekoje is special place at which many of our famous athletes were born.
28. Having his breakfast, he went out early.
29. No matter how muddy the campus is, every one of us is always in time for his/her duty.
30. The campus is very muddy and dusty; however, every one of us is always there to carry
out his/her duty.
31. We arrived late; we missed the first class.
32. I lost all my soft documents due to computer virus.
33. In spite of his high position, he is doing nothing.
34. The meeting was postponed because of his absence.
35. However hard they tried, they could not win the competition and take the medal.
36. Did you go there in order to see him?
37. The reason why he did not come is still unclear.
38. We are working on the exercise which is about sentence structure.
39. Despite the fact that we walked fast, we could not catch the bus.
40. Despite our fast walking, we could not catch the bus.
41. Samerawit, who is living in Addis Ababa, has come to Bahir Dar for a visit since last
week.
42. You should have the habit of reading your paragraph when you finish your writing.
43. Did you get the book that you lost in the room?
44. I did not get the book that I lost in the room as I was very late.
45. The time for the meeting is approaching, so we cannot wait for you.
46. Why do not you go back and revise your notes if your teacher does not come to class?
47. I have the kind of pen that you have.
48. Addis Ababa, which is the capital city of Ethiopia, is a better place to live in.
49. They will stay there until it stops raining.

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50. Asfaw, Mulugeta and Zelalem washed their car and went to the party.
51. I saw the man who gave me the book which is full of stories.
52. They will have finished doing their assignment by this evening.
53. I did not know your absence.
54. Am I not your best friend who is always with you?
55. We are revising the exercise in order that the test will not be difficult for us.
56. Chewing chat which is widely practiced in Ethiopia is a harmful practice.
57. The principal punished late comers so that they will be in time for next period.
58. Nelson Mandela, who is a man of great endurance in the struggle, is the father of blacks’
liberty.
59. Are you still there waiting for rubbish things?
60. Are you tired of doing this exercise which tests your understanding of sentence structure?

1.3 Common Sentence Faults

Sentence faults are the errors that sentences can have when they are constructed. If a sentence
has an error, then it can result in confusion on the part of the reader. Hence, sentences that we
write must not have any kind of error and we writers must be sure of this. We have to be sure
about the grammatical accuracy of our sentences by checking them after our writing. In this
module, the faults that are commonly committed by writers and the possible mechanisms of
improving faulty sentences are presented in the following manner:

Fragment: this is an incomplete structure but punctuated as if it is complete. It is a structure that

lacks a subject, a predicate or both. Because it is incomplete, it cannot convey
complete information. Hence, fragments must be avoided in our writing.

The common kinds of fragments include:

Phrase fragment: it is a phrase structure but punctuated as a compete structure.
Phrase Fragment (a verbal phrase fragment)
Example: Having worked throughout the day. They went to their home.
Revision: Having worked throughout the day, they went to their home.

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METTU University; Dep’t of English Languages and Literature

Phrase Fragment (an adverbial phrase fragment)

Example: For the past four years. We have been studying English.
Revision: For the past four yeas, we have been studying English.
Phrase Fragment
Example: Many readers admire ‘Fiker Eskemekaber’. A book written by Haddis
Alemayehu. (a noun phrase, as an appositive, fragment)
Revision: Many readers admire ‘Fiker Eskemekaber’, a book written by Haddis
Alemayehu.
Phrase Fragment (an infinitive phrase fragment)
Example: Abebe is working fast. To arrive there soon.
Revision: Abebe is walking fast to arrive there soon.

Dependent clause fragment: this is a dependent clause standing alone.

Dependent Clause Fragment (an adjectival clause fragment)

Example: The new book is mine. Which is on the table.
Revision: The new book which is on the table is mine.
Dependent Clause Fragment (an adverbial clause fragment)
Solomon always succeeds. Because he always works hard.
Revision: Solomon always succeeds because he always works hard.
Dependent Clause Fragment (a noun clause fragment)
I understood. What you told me.
Revision: I understood what you told me.

Main clause fragment: this is a main clause structure but lacks either a subject or a complete
verb.
Fragment
Example: Jemal is a very clever student. Studies hard.

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In this example, the second structure lacks definite subject. Hence, it is meaningless. It can be
improved and made meaningful in any one of the following ways:
Revision: Jemal is a very clever student. He studies hard. (improving the structure by
adding a subject to the fragment)
Revision: Jemal is a very clever student because he studies hard. (by making the fragment
structure dependent on the other structure)
Fragment (a structure lacking a complete verb)
Example: Aster working hard.
Revision: Aster is/was/has been/ had been/will be/ will have been working hard. (by
adding a complete verb to the fragment)

Exercise
In the following list of paired structures, identify the incomplete structure, revise and make it
meaningful.
1. Almaz felt ill and left the theatre. Before the end of the movie.
2. He was highly paid. When he was here.
3. My profession interesting.
4. As all of us were busy. The meeting was postponed for next week.
5. While he was doing his homework. I entered into the room.
6. Some English courses are very interesting. For example, Sophomore English.
7. I went to the market. To buy some items.
8. I saw him in the office. Working on the computer.
9. What you doing here?
10. We went out for a walk. As it was a bright evening.
11. He working very hard to pass the test.
12. When you ready, I will call you.
13. The bird flying over the roof.

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14. Whatever grows in the field. Drought affects.

15. However hard he tried. He is not successful.
Run-on sentences: these are also known as fused sentences. These are sentences that run
together one after the other without any demarcation with an appropriate end
mark in between them.

Example: The weather was disappointing we canceled the party.

There are two different ideas stated in this structure which is wrongly constructed.
Revision: The weather was disappointing. We canceled the party.
(by using an end mark in between the two structure or ideas)
Revision: The weather was disappointing; we canceled the party.
(joining them by using a semi-colon)
Revision: The weather was disappointing, so we canceled the party.
(by joining them with a coordinating conjunction)
Revision: The weather was disappointing; therefore, we canceled the party.
(by joining them by using a conjunctive adverb)
Revision: We canceled the party for the weather was disappointing.
(by joining them by using a coordinating conjunction)
Revision: We canceled the party because the weather was disappointing.
Because the weather was disappointing, we canceled the party.
(joining them by using a subordinating conjunction and making one of them
dependent on the other)
Example: This module contains important points we should revise it carefully.
Revision: This module contains important points. We should revise it carefully.
(by separating the two ideas by an end mark)
Revision: This module contains important points, so we should revise it carefully.
(by joining them with a coordinating conjunction)
Revision: This module contains important points; we should revise it carefully.
( joining them by using a semi-colon)
Revision: This module contains important points; hence, we should revise it carefully.
( joining them by using a conjunctive adverb)

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Revision: We should revise this module carefully because it contains important points.
Because this module contains important points, we should revise it carefully.
Exercise
Use an appropriate mechanism to revise each structure in the following list.
1. Samson went to bed early he was very tried.
2. Do you have extra pen I lost mine.
3. We should avoid run-on structures when we write they confuse the reader.
4. Have you seen the model car Japanese invented it.
5. I know whose house it is I do not want to tell you the owner’s name.
6. I received a present it was from my friend in London.
7. I have no driving license I can drive.
8. Read the instructions carefully start to answer the questions.
9. Take a rest for some minutes you look tired.
10. I like Sophomore English very much the course covers some of the basic aspects of
English.
11. Run fast you will loose the medal.
12. Sentences are basics for text development we should write structurally accurate setences
in our writing.
13. She likes swimming she always goes to the pool.
14. I am writing a module it has four parts.
15. We preferred to stay at home they went out for a walk.
Comma splice: this fault happens when two or more main clauses are separated by comma.
Do not use comma to separate main clauses.

Example: The weather was disappointing, we canceled the party.

Revision: The weather was disappointing. We canceled the party.
(by using an end mark in between the two structure or ideas)
Revision: The weather was disappointing; we canceled the party.
( joining them by using a semi-colon)
Revision: The weather was disappointing, so we canceled the party.
(by joining them with a coordinating conjunction)
Revision: The weather was disappointing; therefore, we canceled the party.

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( joining them by using a conjunctive adverb).

Revision: We canceled the party for the weather was disappointing.
( joining them by using a coordinating conjunction)
Revision: We canceled the party because the weather was disappointing.
Because the weather was disappointing, we canceled the party.
(joining them by using a subordinating conjunction and making
one of them dependent on the other)
Example: This module contains important points we should revise it carefully.
Revision: This module contains important points. We should revise it carefully.
(by separating the two ideas by an end mark)
Revision: This module contains important points, so we should revise it carefully.
(by joining them with a coordinating conjunction)
Revision: This module contains important points; we should revise it carefully.
(joining them by using a semi-colon)
Revision: This module contains important points; hence, we should revise it carefully.
(joining them by using a conjunctive adverb)
Revision: We should revise this module carefully because it contains important points.
Because this module contains important points, we should revise it carefully.
(joining them by using a subordinating conjunction and making one of them
dependent on the other)

Exercise
Use an appropriate mechanism and revise each structure in the following list.
1. I saw the man, he was walking in the street.
2. The rain stopped raining, we started to work.
3. The discussion was boring, most of us did not give attention to it.
4. They are not walking quickly, they may miss the bus.
5. I woke up early, I was late for class.
6. It is raining, it in windy.
7. The tea is hot, the baby cannot drink it.
8. I will do the homework, I have time.
9. She is studying very hard, she can score good result in this semester.

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10. I had studied hard, I took the test.

Faulty reference of pronoun: this is lack of clear and correct reference of a pronoun to its
antecedent. A pronoun must clearly refer to its antecedent.

Example: When Alm az gave her sister the book, she was full of pleasure.
Who was full of pleasure? Is that Almaz or her sister? It is not clear since the pronoun she does
not clearly refer to any of the two antecedents. Hence, the structure has to be revised.
Revision: When Almaz gave her sister the book, her sister was full of pleasure.
Revision: When Almaz gave her sister the book, Almaz was full of pleasure.

Example: Abebe told Getachew that he was not there.

Who is not there? Who is he? Is that Abebe or Getachew? The sentence has no clear meaning
due to unclear reference of the pronoun he. Therefore, the structure has to be revised.
Revision: Abebe said to Getachew, “I am not there.” (It is Abebe who is not there)
Revision: Abebe said to Getachew, “You are not there.” (It is Getachew who is not there)

Exercise
The structures, in the following list, contain pronouns which do not clearly refer to the
antecedents. Revise them so that there will not be ambiguity in meaning of the sentences.
1. The girl told her mother that her hair was not well dressed.
2. The student told to his friend that his book was stolen.
3. When he visited his father, he was very happy.
4. The teacher told the student that his deadline is tomorrow.
5. Alemu told to Abebe that his car was damaged in the accident.
6. Aster gave Samerawit her pen.
7. Whenever Aster visits Samerawit, she likes to talk about her sister.
8. Whenever the cat chases the rat, it disturbs us.
9. After the service buses had unloaded the workers, they left the terminal.

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Lack of parallelism / Faulty parallelism: this is lack of using parallel or equivalent structures
which appear in a pair or in a series manner.

Note: A word is equivalent with another word.

A phrase is equivalent with another phrase.
A dependent clause is equivalent with another dependent clause.
A main clause is equivalent with another main clause.
Equivalent structure must be used in the same sentence.

Example: I am looking forward to meeting you and to hear about the trip.
This sentence consists of a pair of structures but the structures are not in the same form; that is,
one is gerund whereas the other is infinitive. Thus, the two structures must be either in gerund
or in infinitive form.
Revision: I am looking forward to meeting you and to hearing about the trip.
(both in gerund form)
I am looking forward to meet you and to hear about the trip.
(both in infinitive form)

Example: I like to run, to jump and swimming.

In this sentence, three structures are used in series but they are not equivalent. Two of them are
in infinitive form whereas one is in gerund form.
Revision: I like to run, to jump and to swim.
(all in infinitive form)
Revision: I like running, jumping and swimming.
(all in gerund form)

Example: He prefers writing assignments rather than to sit for examination.

This structure consists of two non-parallel structures: gerund and infinitive. Hence, it has to be
revised.
Revision: He prefers to write assignments rather than to sit for examination.
(both in infinitive form)
He prefers writing assignments rather than sitting for examination.
(both in gerund form)

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Exercise
The sentences, in the following list, consist of non-parallel structures. Revise them to maintain
parallelism in them.
1. The rain not only affected the crops but also the trees.
2. The teacher told the students to study a lot, to get a lot of sleep and having some
relaxation.
3. I will go to town to buy some items, shining my shoes and visit my friend.
4. The teacher told us to read reference books, to take additional notes and we are ready to
take the test.
5. We not only like reading but also writing novels.
6. I want to eat food and drinking water.
7. She wants to study a lot, to score high grade and taking the medal.
8. Are you going to fly in July, in August or September?
9. Do you like to buy a book, pen or pencil?
10. I both like bananas and oranges.

Misplaced modifier: this is using a modifier which is not near or close to the word or phrase
which is intended to be modified. A modifier, in a sentence, must be placed
close to the word or the phrase which is to be modified.

Example: He bought a horse from the farmer with a lame leg.

In this sentence, the modifier is the phrase with a lame leg and the writer’s intention is to modify
the horse but not the farmer. Hence, according to this sentence, it is not the horse which is with
a lame leg but it is the farmer.
Revision: He bought a horse with a lame leg from the farmer.

Example: I almost read half of the book.

The modifier in this sentence is almost and the writer’s intention is to state the portion of the
book that was read.
Revision: I read almost half of the book.

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Example: The rain nearly rained for two hours.

The modifier in this sentence is nearly and the writer’s intention is to explain the duration of
raining.
Revision: The rain rained nearly for two hours.

Example: The woman is my aunt in a blue dress.

The modifier in this sentence is in a blue dress and the purpose is to modify the woman but is
not placed in a close position to the noun woman.
Revision: The woman in a blue dress is my aunt.

Example: She bought an egg from the farmer that was rotten.
In this sentence, the modifier is that was rotten and the intention is to modify the noun egg but
not the man. Because of the misplacement of the modifier, it is the man that was rotten but not
the egg.
Revision: She bought an egg that was rotten from the man.

Exercise
The following sentences consist of misplaced modifiers. Revise them and place the modifiers in
their correct position.
1. I saw Abebe coming through the window to my house.
2. I heard about the announcement on the radio of the job.
3. The woman was driving a car with a long hair.
4. I took the book to my office which I bought for ten birrs.
5. The baby almost slept for one hour.
6. The man built a good house who taught English for ten years.
7. He nearly ran five kilo meters this morning.
8. The man admitted with a sad face about the accident to the traffic police.
9. The doctor told the result with a heart failure to the patient.
10. The woman ran into the bedroom to wake up the children wearing only one slipper.

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Dangling modifier: this is using a modifier which either modifies nothing or seems to modify a
word or a phrase to which it is not logically related. The structure is called
dangling structure.

Example: Riding a bicycle, a dog chased.

This sentence lacks clarity. Who is /was riding a bicycle? Who is/was chased by the dog? Hence,
it has to be revised.
Revision: While I was riding my bicycle, a dog chased me.

Example: Walking in the street, I saw him. (Who was walking? Is that he or me?)
Revision: While he was walking in the street, I saw him.
While I was walking in the street, I saw him.

Example: Checking the paper, errors became clear. (Who was chalking the paper?)
Revision: While we were checking the paper, errors became clear to us.

Exercise
Revise the following dangling structures.
1. Knocking at the door, she appeared.
2. Running to school, the student saw the lion.
3. Reading the book, the idea became clear.
4. When a child, my father took me to school.
5. Listening to the radio, a bomb blast happened.
6. Lying under the shade, the wind blew up the branches.
7. Reading in concentration, sudden noise came inside.
8. Proposing a new plan, the meeting ended.

Shift in point of view: this is shifting or changing from one sentence pattern to another sentence
pattern. This is using sentences with mixed or inconsistent structures. The

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common types of shifts can be shift in subject use, in pronoun use, in

number, in tense, in mood or in voice.

Example: Aster stayed at home and much of her time was spent in washing her clothes.
In this sentence, there is a shift of subject. That is, from Aster to her time. The sentence should
be revised and should have a single subject or same subject.
Revision: Aster stayed at home and spent much of her time in washing her clothes.

Example: After we had washed the dishes, the floor was swept.
In this sentence, there is a shift from the subject We to the subject the floor.
Revision: After we had washed the dishes, we swept the floor.

Example: When you have enough money, one can buy a house.
There is a shift from the pronoun you to the pronoun one.
Revision: When you have enough money, you can buy a horse.
When one has enough money, he/she can buy a horse.

Example: If an individual practices writing regularly, they can become good writer.
There is a shift from singular number individual to plural number they.
Revision: If an individual practices writing regularly, he/she can become a good writer.
If individuals practice writing regularly, they can become good writers.

Example: He sat down and begins to write.

There is a shift from simple past tense to simple present tense.
Revision: He sat down and began to write.
He sits down and begins to write.

Example: Revise the exercise carefully and you should take the test on tomorrow.
There is shift from imperative mood to indicative mood.
Revision: Revise the exercise carefully and take the test on tomorrow.
You should revise the exercise carefully and you should take the test on tomorrow.
Example: After we had washed the dishes, the floor was swept.
There is a shift from active to passive voice.

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Revision: After we had washed the dishes, we swept the floor.

Exercise
The following sentences consist of mixed structures. Revise them so that they can have
consistency in their structure.
1. When you finish your work, a person should take rest.
2. If anyone is interested to join our group, they can join us soon.
3. Laminate your new book and you should use it carefully.
4. Did you do the homework which our Sophomore English teacher gives us?
5. The party was interesting until the wind blows the candles.
6. We went to the party and some activities were given to us.
Incomplete and illogical comparison: this happens when sentences have comparisons which are
unclear or incomplete. Avoid sentences which consist of
incomplete or unclear comparisons.

Example: He is as strong as I. (incomplete comparison)

Revision: He is as strong as I am.

Example: I admire her more than Almaz. (ambiguous comparison)

Revision: I admire her more than I admire Almaz.
I admire her more than Almaz admires her.

Example: Kenya has more national parks than Ethiopia. (Incomplete comparison)
Revision: Kenya has more national parks than Ethiopia has.
Exercise
The following sentences consist of wrong comparisons. Revise them so that they can have
correct and logical comparison.
1. In the city, men’s unemployment rate is becoming higher than women.
2. Ethiopia has more lakes than Kenya.
3. I have more money than Solomon.
4. Samerawit likes to take more coffee than Selamawit.

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5. Riding motorcycles is more dangerous than cars.

6. Drinking coffee is better than tea.
7. Kebede spends more money than Alemu.
8. They are as rich as we.
9. He cannot walk as fast as his brother.
10. Haile Gebresellasie usually runs faster than Target.

Faulty of Agreement: this can be lack of agreement between a subject and a verb, and a
pronoun and its antecedent.

A verb must agree with its subject both in number and in person; that is, a singular subject takes
a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb.

Example: Solomon is studying.

They are coming.
Solomon has a book.
Here comes the man.
Here are the books which we are looking for.

A pronoun, in a sentence, must agree with its antecedent in person (first, second or third), in
number (singular or plural) and in gender (masculine, feminine or neuter).

Example: Aster brought her book to the class.

Students should see their result.
We want to see our advisor.
Following are the different rules of subject and verb agreement:
Rule 1: Compound subjects joined by the conjunctions like and, both…and, not only… but also,
and so on are followed by a plural verb.
Example: Solomon and Aster prefer to go.
I and he are working on the exercise.
Ethiopia and Kenya are neighbors.

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Both Solomon and Aster prefer to go.

Not only Solomon but also Aster prefer to go.
Two subjects joined by and may refer to one person or thing. In this case, the verb must be
singular.
Example: The narrator and actor is coming.
The English teacher and principal of the school is having a meeting.
My brother and teacher is teaching in this school.
However, if each subject is preceded by an article, then a plural verb must be used.
Example: The narrator and the actor are coming.
The English teacher and the principal of the school are having a meeting.
My brother and my friend are teaching in this school.

Rule 2: In a sentence with a prepositional phrase (a phrase that interferes between the subject
and the verb), the verb must agree with the noun preceding the prepositional phrase.

Example: The color of the roof is white.

The students in the class are waiting for the teacher.
The visitors of the zoo are from America.
The area nearby our house is swampy.
Animals with dense hair can resist cold weather.

Rule 3: In sentences with intervening phrases like together with, along with, accompanied by,
as well as, in addition to, and including, the verb must agree with the subject preceding
any of these intervening phrases.

Example: The teacher together with his students is working on the exercise.
The president accompanied by the two ministers is visiting the town.
The teachers as well as the principal are attending the general meeting.

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They including him are coming to visit us.

Rule 4: In sentences containing subjects joined by or, nor, either…or, and neither… nor, the
verb must agree with the subject nearer to the verb.

Example: The teacher or the students are coming.

The students or the teacher is coming.
The teacher nor the students are coming.
The student nor the teacher is coming.
Either the teacher or the students are coming.
Neither the teacher nor the students are coming.
Neither the students nor the teacher is coming.

Rule 5: In sentences containing indefinite pronouns, the verb agrees with the indefinite pronoun
used as the subject of the sentence.

The verb must be singular with indefinite pronouns like anybody, anyone, everyone, none,
everybody, someone, one, somebody, no one, each, either, neither, anything, everything,
nobody, nothing, anybody, and something.

The verb must be plural with indefinite pronouns like several, few, both, and many.

The verb can be singular or plural with indefinite pronouns like some, all, any, and most.

Example: Everything is arranged for the meeting.

Everyone is ready for the meeting.
One of the windows is broken.
Something is better than nothing.
Nothing happened in the house.
Somebody is knocking at the door.
None of them is coming.

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Each student is coming with his/her book.

Every student is working hard.
None of us is eager to see him.
Neither of them is coming.
Either of them is expected to come.
Anyone can take this pen.
Someone is assigned to lead the team.
Nobody knows his coming.
Everybody is right.
No one expects his coming.
Anything which is unclear?
Several students are expected to attend the class.
Many students are expected to attend the class.
Few of the players are tired.
Both of them are right.
All of the players are tired.
All of the water is poured into the jar.
Some of the players are tired.
Some of the water is poured into the jar.
Most of the players are tired.
Most of the water is poured into the jar.
There are no any people is the market.
There is no any water in the jar.

Note: The pronouns all, some, most, and any are followed by singular verb when they are used
with uncountable nouns.

Rule 6: Use a singular verb with a collective noun which is thought as a unit but use a plural
verb with a collective noun which is considered as members individually. Collective
nouns include group, committee, crew, crowd, faculty, majority, family, herd, chorus,
team, orchestra, flock, and so on.

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Example: The group are working on the task.

The group is working on the task.
The committee are discussing on the matter.
The committee is discussing on the matter
The team are doing the exercise.
The team is doing exercise.

Rule 7: Nouns such as police, health, rich, young, poor, and so on are always plural and
followed by plural verb.

Example: The police are investigating the cause of the accident.

The health rarely go to health centers.
The rich are building apartments in the city.
The young are participating in different social affairs
The poor are trying to improve their economic status.

Note: These nouns are followed by singular verb when they are referring to individual people.

Example: The policeman is investigating the cause of the accident.

The healthman rarely go to health centers.
The richman is building in apartments in the city.
The youngman is participating in different social affairs.
The poorman is trying to improve his economic status.
Rule 8: Nouns expressing amount, measurement or weight have plural forms but are considered
as singular unit. Therefore, they are followed by singular verb.

Example: Three hours is a long time for the test.

Ten kilograms is heavy to carry.
Two weeks is needed to finish the work.
Twenty birrs is not enough for lunch.
Twenty kilometers is far to walk.

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Note: If the measurement or amount refers to individual units or parts, a plural verb must be
used.

Example: Two weeks are needed to finish the work.

Twenty kilometers are far to walk.
Twenty birrs are not enough for lunch.

Rule 9: Some nouns ending in s look like plural but they are singular and must be followed by a
singular verb. Such nouns include economics, civics, mathematics, physics, athletics,
ethics, news, gallows, mumps, measles, shambles, politics, social studies, molasses,
gymnastics, and so on.

Example: The news is interesting.

Gymnastics is her favorite exercise.
Mathematics is numeric in nature.

Rule 10: Some nouns such as data, criteria, phenomena, eyeglasses, trousers, scissors, media,
barracks, pliers, shears, slacks, and so on are plural and must be followed by plural
verb.

Example: The data are complicated to analyze.

The criteria are difficult to meet.
I bought trousers which are expensive.
Note: When some of these nouns are preceded by a pair of, the verb must be singular.

Example: A pair of scissors is on the table.

Rule 11: Subjects preceded by many a must be followed by a singular verb.

Example: Many a boy and girl has come to the meeting.

Many a dog and cat is taken care of by the owner.

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Rule 12: Use a singular verb with a noun preceded by the number of but use a plural verb with
a noun preceded by a number of.

Example: The number of students is large.

A number of students are absent today.
The number of Bajajes exceeds the number of Ladas.
A number of Bajajes are imported from India.

Rule 13: Titles are singular and must be followed by singular verb.

Example: Things Fall Apart is a novel written by Chino Ache be.

The United Nations is giving focus on child education.
Romeo and Juliet is a novel written by Shakespeare.

Exercise
Revise the following sentences with faulty of agreement.
1. Rain forests in the tropical area is very dense.
2. The number of people in this area are very large.
3. Students of this school does not learn attentively.
4. On the wall hangs the decorations.
5. Every student should bring their book on tomorrow.
6. Ten birrs are expensive to get.
7. Beneath the table is stacks of decorations.
8. Every animal has their own communication system.
9. Either Samerawit or her brother are coming.
10. Each boy and girl have their own share.
11. Many a boy and girl are attending the party.
12. The players as well as the coach is very happy with the score.
13. One of the boys lost their book.
14. Bread together with cheese are very delicious food.

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15. One of the boys are working hard.

16. The two ministers along with the president is attending an urgent meeting now.
17. Everyone in the class have their seats.
18. Nothing seem true.
19. None of the players were tired.
20. Here is the lost books.
Exercise
I. Identify the kind of fault and revise each sentence in the following list.
1. The first two chapters of the course is interesting.
2. To be healthy, fatty food should be avoided.
3. The president accompanied by the two ministers have been visiting the university.
4. To give is as important as receiving.
5. A well known writer and actor are coming.
6. The students left the room gossiping nosily.
7. No, it do not.
8. Each of the boys have their book with them.
9. Three kilo meters are far to walk on foot.
10. The theatre was very crowded we decided to go out from the hall.
11. A teacher can only teach his/her students, he/she cannot do the assignments to them.
12. When he visited his father, he was very happy.
13. He was studying in concentration. As I entered into the room.
14. This poison attracts the rat with the smell of cheese.
15. Taking lecture notes and to read references are equally important.
16. He is repairing the chair with a nail which was broken yesterday.
17. The police are trying to find the thief, they are wondering in all the streets of the city.
18. We have branch offices in Awassa, Dilla and in Adama.
19. Each of us are ready to go home.
20. After we had heard the lecture, questions were raised.
21. First, the surface should be cleaned, then, put the glue on it.
22. After he had taken a cup of tea, one became active.
23. I got tired, I took a nap.

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24. In reading the poem, the first line is vague.

25. While sailing, a shark overturned our boat.
26. Trying to sleep, the noise was disturbing.
27. There is a photograph in the bed room of an elephant.
28. The test was difficult, many students did not do well.
29. The dog runs fast it intends to catch the sheep.
30. While walking in the dark, I frustrated.
31. The examinees finish nearly the test ahead of the time allotted.
32. Almaz after finishing her work went out for recreation.
33. None of them were right.
34. The teacher along with his students working hard to cover the course.
35. I love to travel especially when you go to abroad.
36. Aster opens the bottle and drank the water.
37. You either must repair the circuit or it has to be replaced.
38. When graduating from the university, my friends gave me gifts.
39. Neither of them finished their work.
40. There are several way to do the exercise.
41. Nobody brought their book to class.
42. Almaz not only wants money but also fame.
43. He likes reading better than to write paragraphs.
44. The woman entered into the bus carrying a baggage.
45. We sold the book to the man that was torn.
46. The coach as well as the players were happy.
47. She has to assume responsibilities for her own decisions and her own duties.
48. We heard a crash in the kitchen but the servant does not explain about it.
49. The weather is hot and it feels muggy.
50. Either of the men will lend you their pen.
51. The manger and owner of the restaurant left their office open last night.
52. Alemu told Abebe that his car was damaged in the crash.
53. The sick man went to hospital with a high fever.
54. To know him is asking him.

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55. Neither the students not the teacher are coming to class.
56. While working in the factory, much money was lost.
57. Neither of them finishes the work.
58. She is carrying the book on her head which she bought from the stationery.
59. Each of the candidates is receiving the award.
60. To protect their hands from any kind of contamination, gloves are usually worn by Doctors.

II. Read each paragraph and edit it or make necessary correction on sentences containing
any fault.
(1)
I am the middle child in my family I wish I were not sometimes. My brother and my sister has an
easier life than I do. My older brother is very responsible, he is like a third parent my sisters and
I have to do what he tells us if our parents are not at home. He also has more freedom than we
do. He can go out on the weekends and stay out late we have to be at home by 10:00 p.m.. While
my brother has more freedom than I do, my sisters have an easier life. They are twins they get a
lot of attention from our parents. My parents don not often spend time with me they spend most
of his time with my sisters. Because I am not the oldest. I do not have the same power as my
brother, I do not get the extra attention either. As a result, I think the middle child are not lucky
at all.

Adapted from Effective Academic Writing (2) by Savage, A. and Mayer, P. (2005)

(2)
The memory of summer vacations at my grandmother’s home always make me happy. I loved
the house very much because it was a beautiful and spacious place all the members of my family
could gather together and enjoy nature. The house were located on a quiet stretch of river under a
clear blue sky. It was a traditional, waterfront home it was built from eucalyptus wood. The tall,
green trees around the house provides shade along the river back. Inside the house, there were
many rooms my uncle’s and my aunt’s families could all come together at the same time. When
we woke up, we hear the sound of singing birds we children always rushed outside to breathe

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fresh air and digging our toes into the sand. In the afternoon, we played in the shade of the trees,
swam in the river, and dig in the gardens. The adults watched us from the patio they could see us
and we could see them. The home was the center place of my family I like to think about it when
I feel lonely.

Adapted from Effective Academic Writing (2) by Savage, A. and Mayer, P. (2005)

(3)
People go to mountains on vacation for two reasons: to ski and enjoying the view. My family
does not ski but we wanted to enjoy the view. In pictures, the mountains was always beautiful.
The flowers were blooming, the sun was shine, and the people were smile; however, our trip to
the mountains was a disaster. As soon as we were arriving at our destination, the sun
disappeared. It was rain. We were stay in a friend’s small apartment. My father went to see the
condition. It was the same; rainy and cloudy. While he was look at the clouds, a little sun began
to shine through the window. We drove to the Jungfrau Mountain so we could take the tram to
the top and enjoy the view. We eagerly got on the tram. It began to climb to the top of the
mountain. However, while the tram was climbing, it becoming cloudy. The tram arrived at the
top of the mountain, and we got out. We were in the middle of a cloud. I thought it was exciting.
We drove back in silence, our last day we went to the airport and then were get on the plane. Just
as the plane was talking off, the sun was begin to shine again.

Adapted from Effective Academic Writing (2) by Savage, A. and Mayer, P. (2005)

(4)
While I was visiting China, I experience a special kind of warmth from the people I came in
contact with. I was always aware of their special quality of friendliness. I have the unique
experience of being in Beijing on the Chinese win their bid to host the 2008 summer Olympics.
On that night, I am one of a million and a half people who poured into the streets to express their
joy and as I could while I sang out the words: “going xi nib a” (congratulations). My words are
always met with big smiles and enthusiastic handshakes. Those parents with kinds on their
shoulders, teenagers, and many others feel as if the rest of the world was welcoming them into

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the global community. Now, I wish them the best, and I am hoping to return one day. If you take
a trip to China, you will experience the same kind of hospitality.

Adapted from Effective Academic Writing (3) by Davis, J. and Liss, R. (2006)

(5)
I was in a rush to get there, I decided to take a taxi. The traffic was so horrible that the driver was
in a bad mood. He closed the door, my new skirt got caught. I tried, desperately, to pull it out but
it ripped. I thought about asking the driver to stop, I was too embarrassed to say anything.
Although I was very upset. I tried to be calm. The ride was much longer than I expected, the air
conditioning was not working. I did not want anything negative to block my mind I was eager to
have the job. I wanted to have good interview and make a strong impression. Since I learned in
school that first impressions are the most valuable.

Finally, when I arrived at the bank, I look at my shirt. The torn edge was hanging and was
covered with dirt. Once inside, I go into the ladies room. Tried to wash my skirt and hold it
together with a safety pin. A few minutes later, I was in the waiting room when the secretary
calls me. I was embarrassed and afraid that I would not get the job because of my sloppy
appearance. The most interesting part was that the manger asked me about what happen to me.
When I tell her the story, she started to laughter she cannot stop. Now, I was sure I would not get
the job. She said, “I will never forget this. I never thought that I will have such a good time
today. You know, when you have to interview a lot of people in one day, it can became very
boring.” Despite this ordeal, she assured me that I had the right qualifications and in the end she
offered me the position.
Adapted from Effective Academic Writing (3) by Davis, J. and Liss, R. (2006)
(6)
Today, people are working long hours and have too many responsibilities. As a result, they had
very little leisure time. If people spend more time with family and friends, they will be happier.
Often parents did not have enough time to spend with their children. Therefore, young children
do not receive the parental attention they need. If parents have more home time, they can play
games with their children and participating in school activities. Furthermore, if workers have
more leisure time, they can go for family vacations. Teenagers have time to communicate with

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their parents. If they do not have many responsibilities. If leisure time increase, family unity will
be stronger and the society as a whole will be beneficial.

Adapted from Effective Academic Writing (3) by Davis, J. and Liss, R. (2006)

(7)
My mother’s cousin owned a hotel, and I worked there as a young man. I enjoyed this work very
much. Met many interesting people. One time a family came to stay in the hotel. They a
daughter, she was my age. We met often and talked about our lives. I invited her to my house to
meet my family. She told us about her life in the United States. We shared our customs with her.
Later my mother told me something unforgettable. She said, “I know that you are going to live in
America.” My mother a very smart woman, she was right. I came to America to search for my
friend. I am still looking.

Adapted from Effective Academic Writing (1) by Savage, A. and Shafiei, M. (2007)

(8)
My sisters are both talented people. Samerawit and Almaz is musicians. Samerawit is a piano
player and Almaz play the guitar. They are students at the School of Performing Arts. Samerawit
and some other girls in her class is guest performers at churches and other events nearly every
weekend. This are good practice for them because they wants to play professionally one day. As
Almaz is younger than Samerawit, she is not ready to perform yet, but she play the guitar very
well. She usually performing at family parties. They works hard. Every day when they comes
home. They are tired but sometimes they play music for us at home. We feels lucky to have such
talented people in our family.

Adapted from Effective Academic Writing (1) by Savage, A. and Shafiei, M. (2007)
References
Bean, J. C. (1988). The McGraw-Hill college workbook (2nd Ed). New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Bergman, A.C. and Senna, J.A. (1986). Health grammar and composition. Lexington:
Health and Company.
Brandon, L. (2001). Paragraphs and essays: Work text with readings. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.

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Davis, J. and Liss, R. (2006). Effective academic writing (3). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Emory, D. (1995). Improve Your Essay. New York: McGraw-Hill.
GLENOCE. (1996 a, b). Writer’s choice: Grammar workbook (9, 10). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Langan, J. (2005). College Writing Skills (6th Ed). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Savage, A. and Mayer, P. (2005). Effective academic writing (2). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Savage, A. and Shafiei, M. (2007). Effective academic writing (1). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Walker, B. L. (2001). Basic English composition. Minnesota: American Guidance
Service.

Unite Two
Writing Effective Paragraphs
Introduction
In this unit, we will look at paragraph building in general or how we write an effective
paragraph. In doing so, we will highlight the structure of the paragraph, types of paragraph, and
techniques of paragraph development. This helps to understand some of the problems we
experience when we write or develop a complete paragraph. Furthermore, we will discuss
activities related with paragraph development.

Objective

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After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 define a paragraph
 explain the structure of a paragraph
 explain feature of a good paragraph
 identify the difference between basic types of paragraphs
 explain the techniques of paragraph development

2.1 Paragraph
In this section, we will try to explain the term paragraph and its components.

Objective
After studying this section you should be able to

 Define the term paragraph

Defining the term paragraph is not easy task because there is three different kinds of paragraphs
each one having different purpose (introductory, transitional and concluding paragraph). But
some scholars define the word paragraph as a group of related sentences that form a distinct unit
developing one major idea. A good paragraph is well organized, properly linked and fully
developed. The important points are also emphasized. The length of the paragraph varies
according to the complexity of the central idea to be developed. A single paragraph has about
one hundred words and seven to ten sentences. Each sentences in a paragraph related to one
another and tied together by logic and grammatical structure. This means good paragraph writing
fulfill unity, coherence and development, length and format.

2. 2 Parts of Paragraph
Topic sentence

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What is the topic sentence?

The topic sentence is often the first sentence in a paragraph. It is the sentence which contains the
central or controlling idea of the paragraph, i.e. it points out the most important aspects of the
topic to be discussed and may state the writers view or attitudes towards it. The rest of the
paragraph develops the central idea in the topic sentence.

What does it do?

It introduces the main idea of the paragraph

How do unite one?

Summarize the main idea of your paragraph.
Indicate to the reader what your paragraph will be about.

Example
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has
an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable
price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education .Students are thought by well trained
teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada’s cities are clean
and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space.
Think about the following questions.

What is the paragraph all about?

What is the subject matter?
What is the purpose of the topic?

According to the paragraph, all the ideas in the paragraph talks about why Canada is the best
country in the world. So, the paragraph topic is as follows.
Topic: there are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world.

Supporting details (sentence)

What are supporting sentences?

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Supporting sentences are sentences which carry the information that supports the purpose and
message of your writing. They come after the topic sentence making up the body of the
paragraph. They give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph. When you
write supportive details you should gave supportive facts, details and examples.

Example:
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has
an excellent health care system. All Canadians have an access to medical services at a reasonable
price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by will trained
teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally Canada’s cities are clean
and efficiently managed. Canadians cities have many park and lots of spaces

Activity 1

Study how the major and minor ideas are organized in the passage below. The out line of the text
is done for you but before looking at the out line try to find out the major and minor idea of the
text. Under line the major ideas with a double line and minor idea with single line.

The developmental paragraph contains three parts: the subject, the topic sentence and the
support. The subject is what you will write about. It is likely to be broad and must be focused or
qualified for specific treatment. The topic sentence contains both the subject and the treatment-
what you will do with the subject. It carries the central idea to which every things else in the
paragraph is subordinated. The support is the evidence by which a topic sentence is developed.
The developmental paragraph, there fore, is a group of sentence, each with function of
supporting a controlling idea called the topic sentence.

Now, compare your outline with the outline below.

Outline.
1. developmental paragraph include subject, topic sentence and support (major idea)
 subject is what you are writing about

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 topic sentence include subject and treatment

 topic sentence developed from supports and carry central idea
 support serves four forms of expression: narration, description, exposition and
argumentation
Now, attempt the following activities

Activity 2
Write the topic and details for the paragraph below in the space provide.

Although smoking has been a popular habit for centuries, it has always had its enemies. Some
American Indians advised young braves not to smoke too much because tobacco would cut their
wind in a hunt or in battle. King James I. of England called smoking “a branch of the sin of
drunkenness, which is the roof of all sins.” Ben Jonson, the play Wright, said smoking was
“good for nothing but to choke a man and fill him full of smoke and embers. “Popular slang
called cigarettes “coffin nails” long before the medical evidence on the harm from smoking was
complete. Now every package of cigarettes and every advertisement for cigarettes must carry
warning from the surgeon general that smoking is in, curious to health.

1(Topic) _______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Details
A____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
B. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
C. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
D.___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
When you have done the activity, compare your answer with the model answer given at the end
of the unit.

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Activity 3
Read the following paragraph and identify whether it has topic sentence or not. If it has no topic
sentence, write a sentence that expresses the main idea of this paragraph.

A tennis player needs a good forehand. A forehand is used when the ball comes to a right-handed
player’s right side. The player also needs aback hand. A back hand is used when the ball comes
to the player’s left side. These two strokes are the ones that a tennis player uses most often

A) Has a topic sentence ________________________________________________

B) Has no topic sentence _______________________________________________

Activity 4
Read each set of sentences below. Decide which one would work best as the topic sentence of a
paragraph. Write the letter of your answer.
1. A/ A topic sentence has two main jobs

B / A topic sentence express main idea

C / A topic sentence prepares readers for anew idea
Answer:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

2. A/ some students go to the university right after high school

B /Student have decisions to make

C / Some students choose to work after graduation
Answer:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. A / Car owners must check their oil
B / Car owners must check their air pressure in the tires
C/ car owners need to do regular checks

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Answer:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. A / Villagers must burn dirty
B / Villagers must buried dead things
C / Villagers need to keep their surrounding clean
Answer:
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Activity 5
Look at how each topic suggests a topic sentence or how to make topic sentences from the
topics.

Example: possible topic sentence

The fire department our local fire department helps
The community

Camping Before you go camping you

Will need some equipment

Television Television is one of the

Chief miracles of science

Based on the sample given above, write a topic sentence on each of the following headings.
a. music I like
b. my family
c. The way I feel today

Topic sentence:
a. __________________________________________________________________

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b. __________________________________________________________________
c. __________________________________________________________________

Closing sentence in a paragraph

What is the closing sentence?

The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph. Its function is to restates the main idea
of the paragraph. When you write the closing sentence by restating the main idea of the
paragraph, use different words.

Example
Drug addiction is a bad habit. These days it is popular among the young people. It needs to be
considered seriously. Young boys and girls become addicts to this habit. We know that at the
Olympic Games athletes and players become disqualified because of drug taking. This habit
makes a person’s body weaker. Proper counseling and guidance at the right time can have our
young boys and girls from this evil. To day many countries and individuals are involved in drug
trafficking. These can be stopped by imparting the right kind of education and passing and
enforcing stringent laws.

The underlined sentence in the sample paragraph shows the closing sentence of a paragraph.

Activity 6
Based on the above sample paragraph write the topic sentence and the closing sentence for the
paragraph below in the space provided.

The use of electricity is in numerable. Science has cured us of many diseases. There is hardly
any disease to day which can be called incurable with the exception of AIDS. In engineering
never and never mechanism are being invented and used to lighten the burden of man. These
have contributed to the economic development of the countries. Thus science has served man in
several ways. He should make use of this in a proper way.

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1. Topic sentence
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

2. Closing sentence:
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

2.3 Characteristics of a Good Paragraph

Produce written text. In this section you look at the basic features of a good paragraph and learn
how to write effective paragraph and

Objective:
Up on completion of this section you be able to
- write a well unified paragraph
- organize ideas in to logical order
- write well developed paragraph

To write effective paragraph, you need to achieve three salient features of effective writing:
unity, coherence and adequate development. A good paragraph should fulfill these three basic
characteristics. If the paragraph lacks one of the three features, it is said to be UN effective
paragraph.

2.3.1 Unity
A paragraph in which each supporting sentences contributes to the main idea is said to have
unity. This means a paragraph should have a clear main idea and all the sentence of the
paragraph relate to the idea or work together to make a unified paragraph remains focused on the
main idea and do not include un related ideas. A paragraph achieves unity if they support a
controlling idea. If your paragraph contains a sentence or some sentences that are not related to
the main topic then we say that paragraph “lacks unity” or that sentence is “off topic”.

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Example:
My father spent the first years of difficult child hood in Addis. His father deserted the family,
leaving a wife and five small children .At the age eight, my father was the oldest. His mother had
to take in washing and had to clean house for rich people just to keep her family together. My
father cleaned up yards for fifty cents an hour when he was ten. He got appear route when he
was thirteen and had to crawl out of bed at four in the morning, five days a week , winter and
summer, to deliver the paper before break fast. He gave all the money he made to his mother for
family expenses. Because they could not afford doctors, my father was left partly deaf by a child
hood disease.

This paragraph is good example of a unified paragraph because every detail explains or
illustrates the general statements made in the topic sentence

Activity 7
Read the following paragraphs. Look for one sentence that is off the topic and write the sentence
on the space provided and why it does not belong.

A) Summer is the best time of year for the vocations .Children does not have to go to school.
Freedom from classes allows time for sleeping late on sunny morning. Usually the pleasant
weather is suitable for out door hobbies: tennis, running, gardening or just lying lazily in the
field. Some times, spring is also a good time for vocation in summer, the beaches and the
mountains have many activities for tourists. Vacationers can swim, explore, to hours on end. It is
no wonder that vocations sports do big business in summer

B) Regular exercise keeps a person fit. People who exercise feel better and probably live longer.
Exercise also helps people to maintain a healthy weight. It stimulates the heart and lungs. After a

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person exercise, he or she will probably be sore and tired. Every one should try to exercise every
day.

Para: A.________________________________________________________________
Why? _________________________________________________________________
Para: B. _______________________________________________________________
Why? _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Activity 8
Below are jumbled sentences. Find out the correct order and write a unified paragraph.
A) It is little wonder that both the business communities are impressed by the responsibilities of
young people.
B) Even in school, teenagers are given certain responsibilities.
C) Today’s teen-agers have a great deal of responsibility.
D) More fortunate teen-agers have adequate allowances and many have steady part time jobs.
E) Many have their driver’s license and some even have their own cars.

Answer
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2.3.2 Coherence
Coherence in writing means that all the ideas in a paragraph flow smoothly from one sentence to
the next sentence (logically flow of idea). In coherent paragraph thoughts and pieces of
information follow one after the other, connected in ways that are easy for readers to see and

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understand. When the supporting information of a paragraph is logically organized and smoothly
connected, the paragraph has coherence. We can achieve coherence by:
 carefully arranging the information in a paragraph
 using pronouns that referring to the known that have already been identified
 repeating important words or phrases
 using parallel structure and
 Using transitional words or connectors like those listed below in the table.

First For example On the one hand,

Second For instance On the other hand
Third As an other How ever…
This example But…
these In conclusion, also
finally, to
summarize

Generally, the main rule for coherence in paragraph is to keep developing ideas by expanding on
words or thoughts expressed in the first sentence and the succeeding sentences.

Example:
My home town is a famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the
Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is 175 feet
wide are many willow trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In
autumn the leaves of these trees fall and cover the river banks like golden snow. Second, on the
other sides of the town is Wheaton hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it
is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous, because there are some firm rocks a long the sides
that can be used as stairs. There are no trees a round this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky
and can be seen from many miles away. The third amazing feature is the big old tree. This tree

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stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about two hundred years old. These three land marks
are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place.

The underlined structures in the above paragraph are the connectors which help to organize the
main part of the paragraph and to keep the logical flow of idea in a paragraph.

Activity 9
Complete the following adapted paragraph by using the words given below it.
The planet Jupiter has several interesting features.(1)______________it has thirteen or fourteen
satellites, four of which are as large as our own moon. Jupiter is (2) ______________the biggest
and fastest moving planet in the solar system. Its volume is thirteen hundred times greater than
that of earth, (3)_____________ Jupiter requires fewer than ten hours to rotate.(4)
___________________un usual feature of Jupiter is that it is the only planet known to radiate its
own heat. One of Jupiter’s most fascinating features (5)____________,is its great red spot.
(6)__________scientists were puzzled by the tremendous size of the spot, by its changing shape
and color and by its habit of rotating more slowly than the rest of the planet.
(7)______________in 1974, photographs taken during the space probe revealed that the great
red spot is, in fact, an enormous drifting storm.
(Brown, 1984)
Then For decades also however For example
Another yet first fall in addition Moreover

Example 2
Our apartment needs a lot of fixed up .first, we’ve got to fit the leaky root before the September
rains come. Next we need to patch the big holes in the bed room walls and then strip the peeling
off the walls. Then we can repaint the apartment. After the walls are painted, we can work on
repeating the linoleum squires in the kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later the living room
carpet needs shampooing, and we should replace that old heavy backed sofa. Then we won’t be
embarrassed to have company over once in a while. (Tyner, 1987)

Activity 10
Complete the following table using the information given in the above paragraph.

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Component of the The idea in the sentence

paragraph
Topic sentence
The first situation
The second situation
The third situation
The fourth situation
The last situation

Activity 11
Below is a disordered paragraph. Find the correct order of the sentence and rewrite the passage
using appropriate connectors.
A. they can do difficult problems in math’s
B. they can even change big city traffic lights
C. keep informational records
D. computers do many things to help us
E. computers are the most wonderful products of modern science
F. many people fear that computers can create unemployment
G. this day we want work to be done fast and effectively
H. We do not need to be too much worried about the introduction of computers.
Activity 12
The following short paragraphs are not well organized (it lacks linking words). So using
appropriate connectors rewrite the coherent paragraph

1. Abebe studied the pitcher carefully. It was his turn to bat. A solid hit would bring in the
winning run. He stopped up to the plate. His eyes followed the ball right until it met his
bat. He knows he helped win the game.
2. Senait watched the waves coming in. she looked around for her parents. She saw them.
She decided to hold their hands .The ocean looked too rough to day.

2.3.3 Adequate Development

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The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentences) should be discussed fully and adequately.
This means the main idea of well developed paragraph is expressed in a sentence that is usually
placed at the beginning. The main idea is then developed by each sentence and the supporting
details. Finally a sentence at the end states a conclusion. But the paragraph is not fully developed
if it is that short.

Methods used to make a paragraph well developed are:

 Use example and illustrations
 Cit data (facts, evidence, details etc)
 Use story
 Define terms in a paragraph
 Compare and contract
 Evaluate causes and reasons
 Examine effects and consequence
 Analyze the topic
 Describe the topic

Example:
The wood pecker is a remarkable bird. Its extremely strong bill enables it to drill through the
bark of a tree for in sect food or to hollow out a tree for a nest. The wood pecker can drill with
tremendous speed. In a single second, twenty times. The wood pecker also has great endurance.
It can continue its rapid drumming for almost an hour. If any other bird tried to peck wood with
the speed and intensity of the wood pecker. It would probably die of exhaustion within minutes.
The above paragraph a sample of a well developed paragraph because the topic sentence is
expressed clearly and the main idea is developed by using the supporting details. Also the
summary or conclusion is stated.

Activity 13

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Use the following out lines below and write a five sentence complete paragraph which has a
topic sentence. End your paragraph with summary or conclusion.
 An encyclopedia gives general information
 A dictionary gives word meanings
 A dictionary also gives word histories
 An atlas contains maps

2.4 Kinds of Paragraph

Overview
In order to build up on what you have learnt in the preceding section you will have more practice
on written text analysis. You will be reading written texts so that you might be able understand
the way they are organized. How ever, the activities in this section are new because they focus
on varies types of paragraph structure but in this part you will deal with written text that are
structure based on classification.

Objective
Up on completion of this section, you will be able to:
 Transfer information from written texts to a note frame work
 Identify the classification paragraph indicated in written texts
 Write complete sentence that show category classification
Classification paragraph
Classification paragraph is an arrangement of information in to group or categories in order to
make clear the relation ships among members of the group. The following words can help you to
write a good classification paragraph:
is a kind of belongs to is a part of
can be divided into is grouped with
is a type of? is related to
falls under

Now read the paragraph below and study how classification paragraph is structured.

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Example
The human blood type can be grouped under the A B O system. According to this system there
are four specific blood type A,B,AB, and O people with blood type ‘A’ carry antigen ‘A’ in their
red blood cell and anti body ‘B’ in their plasma people with blood type ‘B’ carry antigen B and
antibody ‘a’. people .People with blood type ‘AB’ carry both antigen’ A’ and antigen ‘B’ but
neither of the antibodies .Those with blood type’O’ have both antibodies but neither antigen. All
this may sound confusing, but categorizing blood by the ABO system has saved numerous lives.

In the sample paragraph above:

What is the topic sentence? (You can use the space below to write your answer)

In the sample paragraph given the under lined sentence/ phrase are good indicators of the
classifications.

Activity 14
Attempt the following activities and identify the phrases or sentence that are used as expression
of classification, first under line the phrases or sentences ,then proceed to complete the note
frame work. The first one has been done for you

Sample 1
Sports can be classified in to three categories. Those in which people participate may be
individual or in teams. The first, category may divide in to two groups. The first consist of the
sports in which one person competes against one another person: an example of this is judo. The
second group comprises the sports in which a number of individual competes against each other,
for example athletics. An example of the second category of sports, that is, sport that is normally
played in teams is foot ball. The third category that is, sports which can be played by individuals
or teams can be divided in to two groups like the first. In other words in one group there are
sports such as tennis in which one individual or team plays against another and in the other there
are sports in which several individuals or teams compete against each other for example towing.
1. _______________________________ 6. ___________________________

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2. _______________________________ 7. ___________________________
3. _______________________________ 8. ___________________________
4. _______________________________
5. _____________________________

Activity 15
Questions
1. What is the topic sentence of the paragraph?
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What are the three categories of sports?
a. __________________________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________________________________
c. __________________________________________________________________

3. why this paragraph is a classification paragraph

___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Cause and Effect Paragraph

Overview
 as the continuation of the written text analysis of the preceding sections in this section
you will be introduced one type of organization that is based on cause and effect
relationship.
Objective
Up on the completion of this section you will be able to:
 identify the cause and effect relation ship shown in written text
 transfer information from written text to a note frame work
 write the complete sentence that show the cause- effect relation ship based on the
given text.

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Cause and effect

Cause and effect relationship is concerned with why things happen (cause) and what happens as
a result (effect). It shows the relation ship between two statements; i.e., one element results from
the other. The appropriate transitional words and phrase to blend details smoothly are: because,
due to, one cause is, an other is, since, for, first, second (cause) and consequently, as result, thus,
resulted ,there for, one result is, and so on (effect).

Read the paragraph below and study how the cause and effect relationship is identified.

Climate affects the culture of a country. Men must learn to live within the limitation of their
environment such as climate. Life in tropical countries is less strenuous and more casual than it
is in a temperate one. Men work shorter and less vigorously in a hot climate in order to conserve
their energy. Men in the temperature zone live longer. At any the wisest ones must learn to
respect the demand of nature.

Note the out line given here

Cause Effect
Climate affects culture of a country
Topical climate less strenuous and more casual
Not climate men work shorter and
Temperate zone less vigorously to conserve energy
men live longer

In the sample given above the phrases or sentences is a good indication of cause and effect
relation.

Activity 16
Read the following paragraph and identify the cause effect relation ship complete the note frame
work given below it.

As population has in creased the available living space has be come in adequate and man finds it
difficult to dispose of the waste. It is thrown every where. Especially in big cities we find roads

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have become dumping grounds for waste. We do not have an efficient clearing system and as
result the waste collected for days begins to give bad smell and the gas gets in to the air and the
gas gets polluted. This results in a number of diseases.

Cause Effect
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
6. 6.

Identify the cause and effect relation ship discussed in the paragraph below and complete the not
frame work

Dowery is a social evil which has assumed serious proportions of late. To day it is confined to
money and other economic goods which a girl brings to her husband in marriage. Dowery was
given by the girl’s father according to his ability in older days; but to day it is extracted from him
by force. If he does not give, the in- laws make the girls life miserable. She is torched. This
results in her committing suicide. In some cases she is killed by her in- laws by burning and yet
we call our selves civilized people.

Cause Effect
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.

Now, can you write a paragraph on the topic you are interested in based on cause and effect
relation ship? Make an out line where you clearly indicate the cause and effects. Then decide the
effect markers you are going to use and write meaningful sentences.

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Outline
Cause Effect
A. _____________________________ A.______________________
B. _____________________________ B. ______________________
C. _____________________________ C. ______________________
D. _____________________________ D. ______________________
E. _____________________________ E. ______________________

Sentences
1.____________________________________________________________________________
2.____________________________________________________________________________
3.____________________________________________________________________________
4.____________________________________________________________________________

Compare and Contrast Paragraph

Overview
In the writing activity that follows, you will be learning to compare and contrast people, things,
places, and so on. When we compare and contrast people, things, and so on, we identify their
similarities and differences. It is in this line that the useful expressions and examples are given.

Objective
Up on the completion of this section you will be able to:
 Write some expression of comparison and contrast
 Write your own compare and contrast paragraph

In compare and contrast paragraph you write about the similarities and differences between two
or more people, place, things, or ideas. The following words can help you to write a good
compare and contrast paragraph

Similarities: is similar to, both, also, too, as well, etc.

Differences: the other hand, different from, while, unlike, how ever, in contrast, etc.

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Read the text given below and study closely how compare and contrast is identified

Example
Abebe and lemma are identical twins but they are quite difference people. Abebe never eat meat
and lemma never drinks milk. Lemma likes the film and he goes every Sunday with his girl
friend. Abebe doesn’t like films and never watches the film. When his brother goes to sport field,
Abebe, stays at home and does his assignment. Lemma never does his assignment. He always
copy from his friends.

Similarities: Abebe and lemma are identical twins.

Difference: in all cases they are different (quite different).
Expressions that are used in the paragraph to indicate similarities and difference are:
Identical twins =for similarity
Never, like /doesn’t like= for difference

Activity 17
Read the following texts and identify the comparison and contrast discussed.

A) In collage and university courses the objective and the essay exam are contrasting methods of
evaluation commonly used to measure a student’s grasp of subject matter. The objective test
usually consists of a large number of unrelated questions that require the student to demonstrate
mastery of details. It often leads to rote memorization of isolated fact during the pre-test period
of study. Since the questions on the objective test are presented in true- false or multiple choice
form the students may be encourage to guess answers for which he/she has no accurate
knowledge. The essay exam, on the other hand, usually consists of a few broadly stated questions
that require the student to organize his or her response in essay form. Such questions force the
students to give proof of information but there is far greater necessity for the student to

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demonstrate analytical and compositional skills. Mere guessing at answers is reduced to a

minimum. Although the objective test and the essay exam have similar goal the assessment of a
student’s academic achievement the techniques of the two types of examination differs
significantly.

B) Two of the major religions of the world are Christianity and Islam. Although seemingly
different, the two faith share several fundamental beliefs and practices. Both worship the same
deity, whom the Christians term God and the Moslems call Allah. For knowledge of his faith and
for inspiration, the Christian turns, to his holy book, the bible. The Moslem too has a holy book,
the Korean, which guides his prayers and gives meaning to his life. The Ten Commandments and
the Sermon on the Mount provide a code of ethics for the lives of all christens. Similarly, all the
Muslims subscribe to the Hadith and the five pillars of faith for daily guidance. Such basic
similarities in code and conduct illustrate the shared heritage of Christianity and Islam.

Questions
1. Identify the difference between the above two paragraphs
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. List down the words (linking words) used in order to show the differences in the first
paragraph
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. List down the linking devices (expressions) used to indicate the similarities between the
two religions.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Definition Paragraph

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Overview
As the continuation of the written text analysis of the preceding sections, in this section you will
be introduced one type of organization that is based on definition paragraph.

Objective
Up on the completion of this section you will be able to:
identify how a key words are used to organize definition paragraph
.Identify how definition paragraph is written
write definition paragraph.

Do you find yourself drawing designs or silly picture when you talk on the telephone? Many
people doodle while talking on the telephone or sitting at a meeting .Doodling is away to occupy
your hands when your mind is else where. To doodle originally meant to play abagpip.May be
people once thought that playing a bagpipe was a mindless, silly way to pass time.
In the above definition paragraph the writer use, the under lined explanatory phrases or
sentences to define “Doodle”

The writer’s purpose in this paragraph is to inform.

Activity 18
Read the following text and answer the question that follows it.

Dressing refers to the sterile, or germ- free, material applied directly to a wound, while bandage
refers to the materials that covers the dressing several l types of bandage s are commonly used,
depending on the injury to be treated .A roller bandage is rolled strip of gauze or other cloth.
Triangular bandage is a three –cornered bandage about 54 to 60 inches long across the base .An
adhesive bandage is a combination of dressing and bandage, such as Bend aid. What ever kind of
bandage is applied it must be secured firmly enough to control bleeding but not so tightly as too
cut off circulation.
(Adapted from Emory, 1995)

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I. Do the following activities.

1. What explanatory phrases are used to define Dressing?
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What explanatory phrases and sentences are used to define bandage?
II. Write a definition paragraph on one of the following topics. You may need to refer to books
for the ideas and not for the language to be used: the space is provided for you below.
a. Sport
b. Literature
c. Love
d. Education

Paragraph:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Illustration paragraph
Overview:
In this section you look at how other writers organize written texts and by so doing you will learn
how to organize and produce written text based on illustration.

Objectives:
By the end of this section you will be able to:
 identify how illustration paragraph is organized
 transfer information from the written text to note frame work
 identify key terms used in the text

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Illustration is one of the techniques of text development through which writer develops the main
idea of the text by giving specific examples. It helps to put general or abstract thoughts in to
specific examples. In developing illustration paragraph exemplifiers, such as “namely”, “that is
“, “for instance”, “for example”, and so on are used.

Read the paragraph below and study how illustration is identified.

Sample I
I did not sleep well last night. I tossed and turned in bade for hours. I would get hot and throw
the covers off and then get cold and throw them again .I would fall asleep for an hour and then
walk up, and it would take me hours to fall asleep again. I was in bade for eight hours and
probably got about three hours of sleep.

As you can see from the above paragraph, the topic sentence or the main idea of the paragraph is:
I did not sleep well last night.
The exemplifiers used in the paragraph are the underlined phrases that give tangible examples.
These are:
 got hot and old
 fell a sleep and woke up
 slept only three

Sample II
Adjectives can be words of power. Writers try to choose the exact adjectives that express
meaning sharply and clearly. Careful writers avoid adjectives such as nice and bad which have
little meaning. The best adjective is one that points a clear picture. An adjective with a specific
meaning is a word of power.

The topic sentence (the main idea) of the above paragraph is:

Exemplifiers used are:

 nice and bad adjectives
 adjective paints clear picture

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 adjective with specific meaning

Activity 19
Read the following texts and identify the illustration discussed and the activities. First under line
the examples used to develop illustration paragraph. Then proceed to complete note frame work.
Write the linking words used in a text.

Modern literature deals with real social issues. We dare say so because we have enough evidence
to support this fact. To begin with, many contemporary novels of Africa and India depict the
lives of ordinary people struggling against diversity. Next, poetry from South American and
North America speaks out against social and economic operation. More over, modern European
drama enacts the fate of working man in his drab confrontation with life. Further more, films,
popular songs and folk drama from all around the world, tell the story of the little man and his
battle against the plants of impersonal cooperation, remote governments or aggressive neigh
boring nations. It is clear from the above illustration then the contemporary literature in many
parts of the world deals with the social issues of the day.
1. The topic sentence of the text above
________________________________________________________________________
2. Examples used to develop illustration paragraph.
_______________________________ _____________________________
_______________________________ _____________________________
3. Linking or transitional words or phrase used in the illustration paragraph.
_____________________________________ ______________________________
_____________________________________ ______________________________
_____________________________________ ____________________________

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Answer key

Activity 1
Major idea: Developmental paragraph contain subject, topic sentence and support.
Minor ideas: subject is what you are writing about.
- Subject must be broad, qualified for
- Topic sentence contains subject and treatment.
-Topic sentence carries central idea
-Support is evidence from which topic sentence is developed

Activity 2
1. Topic: smoking has always had its enemies.

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Details:
A. Tobacco would cut young braves breathing.
B. Smoking is the root of all signs.
C. Smoking stops the breathing of man filling him with smoke and embers.
D. Cigarette is coffin nails.

Activity 3
A. Has no topic sentence.
B. Answers will vary. A sample topic sentence is:
Two strokes are basic to the game of tennis.

Activity 4
1. A 3.C
2. B 4.C

Activity 5
Topic sentence (answer will vary)
A. music that gets me moving is music worth listening to .
B. I came from large family.
C. To day I feel like shouting for joy.

Activity 6
Topic sentence:
1. The use of electric city is innumerable.
Closing sentence:
2. Man should make use of science in a proper way.

Activity 7
Off sentence:
A. Some times spring is also a good time for vacation.
Because, this sentence is unrelated sentence to the topic (it tells about different topic)

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B. After a person exercises he or she will probably be sore and tired.

Because, this sentence tells some thing negative about exercise but the paragraph is about
the benefits of exercise.

Activity 8
Correct order
1. C 2.E 3.D 4.B 5.

Paragraph
Today’s teen-agers have a great deal of responsibility. Many have their driver’s licenses, and
some even have their own cars. More fortunate teenagers have adequate allowances, and many
have steady part- time jobs. Even in schools teen-agers are given certain responsibilities. It is
little wonder that both the business communities are impressed by the responsibilities of young
people.

Activity 9
1. Firs of all 4. Another 7. then
2. Also 5. how ever
3. Yet 6. for decades

Activity 10
Topic sentence: our department needs a lot of fixed up.
First situation: fix the leaky roots before September rain.
Second situation: patch big holes in the bed room walls and strip peeling of the walls.
Third situation: repaint the apartment.
Fourth situation: replacing the linoleum squares in the kitchen that are loose and cracked.
Last situation: we want be embraced to have company.

Activity 11
Correct order
1. E 2.D 3.C 4.A 5.B 6.F 7.G 8.H

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 continued key answer for activity 11

Paragraph
Computers are the most wonderful products of modern science. They can do many things to help
us. For example, they keep informational records. Also they can do difficult problems in math.
Further more, they can even change main city traffic lights. How ever, many people fear that
computers can create unemployment. This day we want our work to be done fast and efficiently.
There fore, we do not need to be much worried about the introduction of computers.

Activity 12
1. Abebe studied the pitcher carefully. Now it was his turn to hit. A solid hit would bring in
the winning run. First he stopped up to the plate. Then his eyes followed the ball right
until it mates his bat. Immediately, he knew he helped win the game.

2. Senait watched the waves coming in. Then she looked around for her friends. At last, she
saw them; finally, she decided to hold their hands. The ocean looked stormy and violent.

Activity 13
Answers will vary. The sample paragraph is given.
We can find many references at the library. An encyclopedia gives general information.
A dictionary gives a word meanings and word histories. Maps contain different models.
The reference room of the library provides us all these resources and others.
Activity 14
1. can be classified
2. divided in to two groups
3. consists of
4. second group comprises
5. second category
6. third category
7. can be divided in to two groups
8. in one group

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Activity 15
1. topic sentence :
Sports can be classified in to three categories.
2. A. sports in which one individual and a number of individual (judo & athletics) compete.
B. sport played in teams (foot ball).
C. sport played by individuals or team (tennis & rowing).
3. it sorts things in to categories.

Activity 16
I
Cause Effect
1. Population increase 1. available living space in adequate
2. Disposal of waste 2. man finds it difficult
3. Waste 3. roads are damping
4. Lack of clearing system 4. bad smell
5. Gas 5. air polluted
6. air pollution 6.number of disease
II
Cause Effect
1. Dowery 1. Social evil
2. Dowery given by girls father 2. Extracted by force
3. In law 3. Make girls life miserable (torched)
4. Torch 4. Committing suicide
5. Her in laws 5. Girl’s killed

III. Open ended question

Activity 17
1. a) The first paragraph is an example of contrast paragraph.
b) The second paragraph is an example of comparison paragraph.
2. Contrasting
-Since

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- On the other hand

-Such
-Although
- Different
3. Two
 both
 too
 similarly
 such basic similarities

Activity 18
I. words, phrase or sentence used in definition paragraph
1. Dressing “refers to”
2. “Refers to” material covers dressing
 a roller bandage is rolled strip of cloth.
 a triangular bandage is a three -covered bandage.
 Adhesive bandage is a combination of dressing and bandage.

II. Writing a definition paragraph

 open ended answer

Activity 19
1. Topic sentence:
Modern literature deals with real social issues
2. Example used to develop illustration (in the given paragraph)
 contemporary novels of Africa and India
 poetry from south and North America
 modern European drama
 films and popular songs and folk drama from all around the world
3. Linking or transitional words used:
 to begin with next

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 moreover furthermore

Reference
Alamirew G/mariam. (2005). College writing skill. Addis Ababa University: Addis
Ababa University Press.
Brown, C.A. et al. (1984). Grammar and composition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Brandon, L. (2001). Paragraphs and essays: Work text with readings. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Emory, D. (1995). Improve your essay. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Marius, R. and Wiener. (1988). College Handbook (2nd Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Solomon Gebre-Ghiorghis. (1991). Writing for academic purpose. Addis Ababa
University: np.

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Walker, B.L. (2001).Basic English composition. Minnesota: American Guidance Service.

Unit Three
Academic Essay Writing

Unit objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss why essay writing is so important;

 have an understanding of the qualities of a good essay-writing
 use critically the main criteria of good essay-writing;

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 recognize the basic technical and stylistic considerations involved in writing.

 get acquainted with and write four different types of writing
 Be familiar with and use various techniques to develop texts

3. 1 Essay

 An essay is a specific argument that has a theme, logically expressed from start to finish.
 An essay is an exercise in the handling of relevant ideas, which are clearly expressed.

Five Qualities of Good Writing

What is good writing? This is not an easy question to answer. Many very different kinds of
writing are considered "good" and for many different reasons. There is no formula or program
for writing well. However, there are certain qualities that most examples of good writing share.
The following is a brief description of five important qualities of good writing. The qualities
described here are especially appropriate for academic and expository writing.

 Writing should have focus: An essay should have a single clear central idea. Each
paragraph should have a clear main point or topic sentence.
 Writing should have development: Each paragraph should support the central idea of
the paper. Individual sentences should support the main point of the
paragraph.
 Writing should have unity: Every paragraph in an essay should be related to the main
idea. Each paragraph should stick to its main point.
 Writing should have coherence: An essay or paper should be organized logically, flow
smoothly, and "stick" together. In other words, everything in the writing should
make sense to a reader.
 Writing should have correctness: A paper should be written in generally correct
standard English, with complete sentences, and be relatively error-free.

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One additional quality, not part of this list, but nevertheless, very important, is creativity. The
best writing is that which carries some of the personality, the individuality of its author. Follow
the above guidelines, but always strive above all to make your writing uniquely your own.

3.2 Planning Your Essay

There are three main types of paragraphs in an academic essay: introductory paragraphs, the
body paragraphs and the concluding paragraphs. These types of paragraphs are located in the
introduction, the middle or body of the essay and in the conclusion, respectively. Each of these
types of paragraphs fulfils a different function for the reader You will generally be expected to
present an essay built on the framework of an introduction, a middle and a conclusion. These are
explained below, as they are important factors in how you collect and collate your information.

The introductory paragraph(s) provides the reader with any necessary background information
before leading into a clear statement of the writer's point of view. The point of view, or thesis
statement, is a brief but very specific statement of the position the writer will take in the essay.
The introductory paragraph may also present an overall plan of the way the essay's argument will
be developed, as well as any limits the writer will place on the topic.

The introduction sets the scene of the essay and places the topic in context. It will also suggest
one or two key points or problems the question raises and give an indication of how you intend
to tackle it. This will provide the framework upon which you will build the essay. It is
important you stick to this framework, and do in the essay what you say you are going to do in
the introduction. Do not let thinking about the introduction stop you from working on your
essay, as you can always write the introduction at the end. Keep it short if possible.

The middle, or main section, is where you write about the main and subsidiary points raised by
your interpretation of the question. It is where the bulk of your evidence is placed, and where
you write your critical analysis of the issues and points connected with the topic. The paragraphs
here all flow logically from the introductory paragraph. They expand on the thesis statement and
each in turn is clearly focused on a single issue with plenty of supporting detail or evidence from

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concrete and relevant examples, or from the reading which the writer uses to support the point of
view. Arguments by other writers against the point of view taken by the essay writer should also
be presented (and argued against) in the body paragraphs. The body paragraphs carefully build
up the writer's point of view in detail.

The paragraphs in the main section should flow logically in line with the development of your
argument. Group sentences relating to one area of your argument into paragraphs. When you
move on to a different area, start a new paragraph. Link each new paragraph to the previous one.
Make sure that you do not jump to a completely unrelated area of your discussion. This will help
you have a coherent structure to your essay.

The conclusion summarizes the points made, repeats the overall point of view, and explains why
the writer took the position held. It ties together the main points, and draws the reader’s
attention to the links and the implications set out in the main body of the essay. It reminds the
reader of what you set out to answer in the introduction.

Note: The concluding and introductory paragraphs are usually best written last when the writer is
clear about the point of view and the structure of the entire essay.

Structure and Clarity

 Paragraphs should flow logically so that your essay is cohesive, and develops a line of
argument. Do an ‘inventory’ of your paragraphs, and note the main aspect of each. Ask
yourself if the order and content of each develops in a logical sequence. Each paragraph
should be connected to the one preceding it, and the one succeeding it, by a short
introductory sentence.

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 Try to avoid writing overly long sentences. The longer the sentence, the greater the risk of
your point being lost. The risk of using poor grammar and comprehension also increases.
 Do not ask questions within the main body of your essay. Good essays should not require the
reader to think of the answers to the question that you are writing about.
 A short essay, which sticks to the point, is preferable to a long, rambling essay. You should
only include relevant material in your essay.

Proofreading

 Proofread your work a number of times after you have finished your essay.
 Ask someone else to read your work, as you may not spot a mistake you have made.
 Read and understand any feedback your tutor gives you. This will help with your future
essays, and will highlight areas where you may need further support.
 When proofreading concentrate on checking for one aspect at a time, i.e. punctuation,
spelling, structure.

A good essay always:

 Develops a clear and sound argument

 Provides supporting evidence for the arguments made
 Illustrates an understanding of the subject by commenting on other people’s ideas and views,
and ‘pulling them together’
 Uses appropriate evidence and relevant examples
 Draws conclusions without simply repeating what has gone before
 Is well structured and has given consideration to ‘the reader’
 Is written with well-constructed sentences and paragraph

The Thesis Sentence

Put very simply the thesis is main idea of you essay. It specifically states the purpose of the essay
so that the reader will know what to expect. Your whole essay will be focused on expanding
upon the thesis: every sentence and every paragraph will refer back to the thesis idea. The thesis
statement must assert your point, suggest your evidence, and structure your argument, all in one.

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This is necessary for a good reason. If you can summarize your paper in one sentence, you’re
more likely to have a tightly-constructed, concise, and readable essay.

While thinking to write your thesis you can consider using the following formula:

Thesis = X should/should not Y because a, b, c. Or Thesis= topic+ opinion + reasons

Example: Smoking should be banned because it causes addiction, produces cancer and costs the
society immeasurable amount of money.

Activity 1: Write thesis statements using the following topics.

1. My favorite artist

________________________________________________________________

2. Teaching profession

________________________________________________________________

3. Learning in the summer program

________________________________________________________________

Find a general topic for your paper, and then narrow it down.

The first step in writing an essay is finding a topic you enjoy. The next step is to narrow your
topic into a single view or theory that you will explore and explain.

Don’t be afraid of controversy.

In an argumentative essay, a thesis is a declarative sentence that takes a stance. If you feel
strongly about a social issue and you believe you can back it up, then go ahead and do it. Just be

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sure you back up your stance with facts and not opinions. Don’t use cruel or insulting statements,
just the facts.

Be aware that there will always be someone who disagrees with your stance. That’s what makes
life interesting. That’s also what makes essays interesting!

Don’t be ambiguous.

You may decide to take a stance, but you can’t find facts to back up your argument. If so, you
might be on the right track, but you just need to focus a little more.

For instance, you might want to argue that music classes should be mandatory for all students.
You may believe this, but can you back it up?

First, do a little research. You may find evidence that children who study music at a very young
age tend to do well in math and science later in life. Based on this research, you may want to
narrow your thesis to reflect this more narrow argument.

Do re-visit and re-write your thesis, when necessary.

Your thesis sentence should be flexible, until you are finished with your research and your
writing. It is not unusual for writers to revise the thesis sentence several times. As you research
your topic, you may be frustrated to find some fascinating research that fits just outside the
boundary of your topic. The best approach is to collect all the information you can, first. Then
sort the facts into categories—either on paper or in your head. These categories will become your
paragraphs.

Narrow and revise your thesis as you go. Once you’ve completed your essay, check a final time
to see that your thesis fulfills the following roles.

 It makes a clear and specific statement.

 It indicates the direction of your thoughts.

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 It sets a stage.
 It provides structure.
 It is supported by the body paragraphs.

How to Write an Essay

An essay is a literary composition that expresses a certain idea, claim, or concept and backs it up
with supporting statements. It will follow a logical pattern, to include an introductory paragraph
(make the claim), a body (support), and a conclusion (summary of statements and support).

Luckily, you can learn to craft a great essay if you can follow the standard pattern and write in a
clear and organized manner.

Introduction

The introduction is the first paragraph in your essay, and it should accomplish a few specific
goals.

1. Capture the reader's interest

It's a good idea to start your essay with a really interesting statement, in order to pique the
reader's interest.

2. Introduce the topic

The next few sentences should explain your first statement, and prepare the reader for
your thesis statement.

3. Make a claim or express your opinion in a thesis sentence.

Your thesis sentence should provide your specific assertion and convey clearly your point
of view.

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Body

The body of the essay will include three or more paragraphs, each limited to one main idea that
supports your thesis. You should state your idea, then back it up with two or three sentences of
evidence or examples.

Offer evidence to support this statement:

Include a few more supporting statements with further evidence, then use transition words to
lead to the following paragraph.

The last paragraph will be your conclusion.

Conclusion

The final paragraph will summarize your main points and re-assert your main claim. It should
point out your main points, but should not repeat specific examples.

Once you complete the first draft of your essay, it's a good idea to re-visit the thesis statement in
your first paragraph. Read your essay to see if it flows well.

You might find that the supporting paragraphs are strong, but they don't address the exact focus
of your thesis. Simply re-write your thesis sentence to fit your body and summary more exactly.

By doing this, you will ensure that every sentence in your essay supports, proves, or reflects your
thesis.

3.3 Kinds of Essays

Dear colleagues, imagine that you've received your assignment, and now you're ready to decide
on a topic. You may not have a choice about the type of essay you’ll write, since this may have

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been determined by the assignment. If you do have a choice, however, you can find a type that
will best fit your personality.

Do you like to argue? If so, it can come in handy for this assignment! You might want to choose
to write a persuasive argument.

Perhaps you are gifted with great descriptive capabilities, instead. Do you enjoy using colorful
language to describe or explain things? You could write a narrative of something interesting that
took place, or perhaps you could try writing a factual account of a certain topic.

Whatever you decide to do, you'll find your assignment much more enjoyable (and readable) if
you suit your topic to your own personality type.

Common essay types include the following:

Expository essay gives information such as an explanation or directions.

Persuasive/argumentative essay Makes a claim or takes a position and backs it up with

statistics, expert opinions, and other evidence. You may review an opposing review and explain
why it is wrong and you are right.

Descriptive essay Explains the “what, why, how, when, and where’s” of a topic. For example, a
descriptive essay about a tree would explain what it’s made of, why it grows, when it grows, and
so on.

The main purpose of description is to create a clear impression in the reader’s mind of a person,
place, object, or situation.

Narrative essay Tells a story in a sequence of events. There should be some point, lesson, or
idea gleaned from this narrative to make the essay meaningful.

Expository Essays

Expository means, a statement, or rhetorical discourse intended to give information about or an

explanation of difficult material. Expository essays present information in a way as to persuade,

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explain, inform, or get the reader acquainted with knowledge. Its purpose lies in putting forward
other people’s views with fairness and absoluteness. Expository Essay is subject-oriented and
contains facts and information using little dialogue. It presents a subject in detail, and elucidates
it by analyzing it, leading to discussion oriented writing to convey information or make the
reader understand the difficult parts through explanation.

Expository essays also have a distinct format.

 The thesis statement must be defined and narrow enough to be supported within the
essay.
 Each supporting paragraph must have a distinct controlling topic and all other sentences
must factually relate directly to it. The transition words or phrases are important as they
help the reader follow along and reinforce the logic.
 Finally, the conclusion paragraph should originally restate the thesis and the main
supporting ideas. Finish with the a statement that reinforces your position in a meaningful
and memorable way.

Never introduce new material in the conclusion.

Descriptive Essay - A Writing That Provides Detailed Description

An essay needs to be correctly segmented while giving details, and the sub-messages relayed in
the different paragraphs. One can use the visual skills and words relating to sound, taste and
smell as well the appropriate tone that makes the essay effective.

A Descriptive Essay is a short piece of writing that provides a detailed description of a person,
thing, place, object, experience, or memory. This essay also highlights the observations of human
or natural environment, it uses imaginary and sense impressions through descriptive language.

It is the most structured form of writing that is associated with the ability to transfer emotion to
the reader through the use of words. It provides the readers with a mental picture of what it is
like to be there and enumerate point by point details such as the story and keeps the reader
interested in the plot and theme of the event described.

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In a Descriptive Essay, writing must always be directed towards the reader and also one must
give the reason for describing something or someone. Giving an introduction or a backdrop
provides the correct settling for the rest of the essay. One can also use the visual skills and words
relating to sound, taste and smell as well the appropriate tone that makes the essay effective.

The tone of the essay should be built such that there is one strong effective emotion that is set in
the introduction itself that prepares the reader for stronger emotions to follow. As the
introduction urges the reader to enter a particular world, the body of the essay must ensure that it
does not ask the reader to make a hasty retreat. In the conclusion, you must be drawn into the
emotions which play integral part on the essay.

We can consider that a Descriptive Essay can be subjective or objective by nature. The outcome
can determine the kind of emotion that needs to be awakened in the reader. The subjective essay
has a personal touch while the objective approach is precise in approach.

The essay needs to be correctly segmented while giving details, and the sub-messages relayed in
the different paragraphs depending on the content so that the essay has coherence and is
meaningful. This therefore can be the most effective and coherent descriptive essay to write.

How should you write your description?

If there's one thing you should remember as you write your descriptive essay, it's the famous
saying: show don't tell. But what's the difference between showing and telling?

Consider these two simple examples:

 I grew tired after dinner.

 As I leaned back and rested my head against the top of the chair, my eyelids began to feel
heavy, and the edges of the empty plate in front of me blurred with the white tablecloth.

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The first sentence tells readers that you grew tired after dinner. The second sentence shows
readers that you grew tired. The most effective descriptive essays are loaded with such showing
because they enable readers to imagine or experience something for themselves.

As you write your descriptive essay, the best way to create a vivid experience for your readers is
to focus on the five senses: sight, sound, smell, touch and taste.

When you focus your descriptions on the senses, you provide vivid and specific details that show
your readers rather than tell your readers what you are describing.

Argumentative Essay

The function of an argumentative essay is to show that your assertion (opinion, theory,
hypothesis) about some phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more truthful than others'. The
art of argumentation is not an easy skill to acquire. Many people might think that if one simply
has an opinion, one can argue it successfully, and these folks are always surprised when others
don't agree with them because their logic seems so correct. Argumentative writing is the act of
forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the case in
discussion; the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as true, from facts or
principles known, admitted, or proved to be true. It clearly explains the process of your reasoning
from the known or assumed to the unknown. Without doing this you do not have an argument,
you have only an assertion, an essay that is just your unsubstantiated opinion.

Notice that you do not have to completely prove your point; you only have to convince
reasonable readers that your argument or position has merit; i.e., that it is somehow more
accurate and complete than competing arguments.

Argumentative writing also known as persuasive essay, utilizes logic and reason to show that one
idea is more legitimate than another idea. It attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point
of view or to take a particular action. The argument must always use sound reasoning and solid
evidence by stating facts, giving logical reasons, using examples, and quoting experts.

When planning a persuasive essay, follow these steps

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1. Choose your position. Which side of the issue or problem are you going to write
about, and what solution will you offer? Know the purpose of your essay.

2. Analyze your audience. Decide if your audience agrees with you, is neutral, or
disagrees with your position.

3. Research your topic. A persuasive essay must provide specific and convincing
evidence. Often it is necessary to go beyond your own knowledge and experience.
You might need to go to the library or interview people who are experts on your topic.

4. Structure your essay. Figure out what evidence you will include and in what order you
will present the evidence. Remember to consider your purpose, your audience, and
you topic.

The following criteria are essential to produce an effective argument

 Be well informed about your topic. To add to your knowledge of a topic, read
thoroughly about it, using legitimate sources. Take notes.

 Test your thesis. Your thesis, i.e., argument, must have two sides. It must be
debatable. If you can write down a thesis statement directly opposing your own, you
will ensure that your own argument is debatable.

 Disprove the opposing argument. Understand the opposite viewpoint of your position
and then counter it by providing contrasting evidence or by finding mistakes and
inconsistencies in the logic of the opposing argument.

 Support your position with evidence. Remember that your evidence must appeal to
reason.

The following are different ways to support your argument:

Facts - A powerful means of convincing, facts can come from your reading, observation, or
personal experience.

Note: Do not confuse facts with truths. A "truth" is an idea believed by many people, but it
cannot be proven.

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Statistics - These can provide excellent support. Be sure your statistics come from responsible
sources. Always cite your sources.

Quotes - Direct quotes from leading experts that support your position are invaluable.

Examples - Examples enhance your meaning and make your ideas concrete. They are the proof.

Sample argumentative essay

Animal Testing

Every day, thousands of people are saved from painful diseases and death by powerful medical
drugs and treatments. This incredible gift of medicine would not be possible without animal
testing. Despite these overwhelming benefits, however, some people are calling for animal
testing to be banned because of alleged cruelty. This essay will examine arguments for and
against animal testing.

Those against the use of animal testing claim that it is inhumane to use animals in experiments. I
disagree completely. It would be much more inhumane to test new drugs on children or adults.
Even if it were possible, it would also take much longer to see potential effects, because of the
length of time we live compared to laboratory animals such as rats or rabbits.

Opponents of animal testing also claim that the results are not applicable to humans. This may
be partly true. Some drugs have had to be withdrawn, despite testing. However, we simply do not
have alternative methods of testing. Computer models are not advanced enough, and testing on
plants is much less applicable to humans than tests on animals such as monkeys. Until we have a
better system, we must use animal testing.

A further point often raised against animal testing is that it is cruel. Some of the tests certainly
seem painful, but the great majority of people on this planet eat meat or wear leather without
any guilt. Where is their sympathy for animals? Furthermore, animals clearly do not feel the
same way as humans, and scientists are careful to minimize stress in the animals, since this
would damage their research.

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I agree that we need to make sure that animals who are used for testing new products have the
minimum of suffering. However, I am convinced that animal testing is necessary, and that it will
continue to benefit humans in new and wonderful ways.

Narrative Essay

As a mode of writing, the narrative approach, more than any other, offers writers a chance to
think and write about themselves. We all have experiences lodged in our memories, which are
worthy of sharing with readers. Yet sometimes they are so fused with other memories that a lot
of the time spent in writing narrative is in the prewriting stage.

When you write a narrative essay, you are telling a story. Narrative essays are told from a
defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific and often sensory
details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs
are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the
opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph.

Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story. When the writer
uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of storytelling: plot,
character, setting, climax, and ending. It is usually filled with details that are carefully selected to
explain, support, or embellish the story. All of the details relate to the main point the writer is
attempting to make.

To summarize, the narrative essay

 is told from a particular point of view

 makes and supports a point

 is filled with precise detail

 uses vivid verbs and modifiers

 uses conflict and sequence as does any story

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 may use dialogue

Once an incident is chosen, the writer should keep three principles in mind.

1. Remember to involve readers in the story. It is much more interesting to actually

recreate an incident for readers than to simply tell about it.

2. Find a generalization, which the story supports. This is the only way the writer's
personal experience will take on meaning for readers. This generalization does not
have to encompass humanity as a whole; it can concern the writer, men, women, or
children of various ages and backgrounds.

3. Remember that although the main component of a narrative is the story, details must
be carefully selected to support, explain, and enhance the story.

Conventions of Narrative Essays

In writing your narrative essay, keep the following conventions in mind.

 Narratives are generally written in the first person, that is, using I. However, third
person (he, she, or it) can also be used.

 Narratives rely on concrete, sensory details to convey their point. These details should
create a unified, forceful effect, a dominant impression. More information on the use
of specific details is available on another page.

 Narratives, as stories, should include these story conventions: a plot, including setting
and characters; a climax; and an ending.

3.4 Methods of Text Development

Methods of development are patterns of organization that writers use to organize their ideas
about a topic. Although a lot of the writing you will come across does not rely solely on one
method of development, an understanding of these patterns will help you organize your ideas and
get you writing more quickly. The most common methods or techniques of writing include cause
and effect, compare and contrast, classification, definition, etc.

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Cause and Effect Essay

Cause and effect essays are essays that are written to state and elaborate the occurrence of
phenomena and why they occur. Cause and effect essays may be based on reflection, facts,
common sense or observation. Always make sure that you do not leave out crucial information in
your essay. You can always simplify the essay writing process by seeking online help.

Cause and effect essays are concerned with why things happen (causes) and what happens as a
result (effects). Cause and effect is a common method of organizing and discussing ideas.

How to Write Cause and Effect Essays

Here’s how to go about writing an outstanding cause and effect essay:

 First, you need to come up with an interesting topic. The topic might be a phenomenon or
event like “Poverty in Africa”.
 Secondly, you will need to postulate your thesis statement. Your thesis will provide a
point for presenting logical and progressive arguments. The thesis also introduces your
topic in a captivating way while also helping to assert your opinion regarding the topic.
 You will also need to describe, explain and elaborate your chosen topic. In case your
topic is “Poverty in Africa”, you will consider writing some paragraphs on the causes of
poverty in the region and the effects of the phenomenon. It is often better to start with the
causative points before progressing logically to effects of the phenomenon under
discussion.
 To effectively organize your work, always make sure that each cause or effect point starts
on its own paragraph.
 So that your essay remains credible, informative, factual and interesting, you will have to
do a lot of research.
 The length of your cause and effect essay should be guided by the points that you have to
include. You will therefore need to look for information that will help explain the main
points of the essay.
 It is important that you remember to be statistical, analytical, interpret your points and
use examples to justify your claims whenever possible. To make your essay interesting

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and with good flow, it is good to consider your transitions. The transitions are the
reader’s clue on the relationship that exists between the subjects that you are writing
about. Some of the transitions that you may consider using include:

Due to Consequently As a result of Because Therefore

 The conclusion of the paper should tie both the causes and effects that you have
discussed in the body of your cause and effect essay. You will like to revisit the major
points of the essay and give an overall idea of what the essay is all about in the
conclusion.

To evaluate the effectiveness of a cause and effect essay, ask the following questions:

What are the causes? What are the effects? Which should be emphasized? Are there single or
multiple causes? Single or multiple effects? Is a chain reaction involved?

Classification Essay

In a classification essay, a writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories.

Three Steps to Effective Classification:

1. Sort things into useful categories.

2. Make sure all the categories follow a single organizing principle.

3. Give examples that fit into each category.

Finding Categories

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This is a key step in writing a classification essay. To classify, or sort, things in a logical way,
find the categories to put them into. For example, say you need to sort the stack of books on your
shelf. Before you would put them in random piles, you would decide what useful categories
might be: papers that can be thrown away; papers that need immediate action; papers to read;
papers to pass on to other coworkers; or papers to file.

Thesis Statement of a Classification Essay

The thesis statement usually includes the topic and how it is classified. Sometimes the categories
are named.

(topic)...(how classified)...(category) (category) (category)

Ex: Tourists in Hawaii can enjoy three water sports: snorkeling, surfing, and sailing.

How to Write an Effective Classification Essay

1. Determine the categories. Be thorough; don't leave out a critical category. For
example, if you say water sports of Hawaii include snorkeling and sailing, but leave
out surfing, your essay would be incomplete because surfing is Hawaii's most famous
water sport. On the other hand, don't include too many categories, which will blur
your classification. For example, if your topic is sports shoes, and your organizing
principle is activity, you wouldn't include high heels with running and bowling shoes.

2. Classify by a single principle. Once you have categories, make sure that they fit into
the same organizing principle. The organizing principle is how you sort the groups.
Do not allow a different principle to pop up unexpectedly. For example, if your
unifying principle is "tourist-oriented" water sports, don't use another unifying
principle, such as "native water sports," which would have different categories: pearl
diving, outrigger, or canoe racing.

3. Support equally each category with examples. In general, you should write the
same quantity, i.e., give the same number of examples, for each category. The most
important category, usually reserved for last, might require more elaboration.

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Common Classification Transitions

 The first kind, the second kind, the third kind

 The first type, the second type, the third type

 The first group, the second group, the third group

Remember: In a classification essay, the writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories. There
are three steps to remember when writing an effective classification essay: organize things into
useful categories, use a single organizing principle, and give examples of things that fit into each
category.

Comparison and contrast essay

To write a comparison or contrast essay that is easy to follow, first decide what the similarities or
differences are by writing lists on scrap paper. Which are more significant, the similarities or the
differences? Plan to discuss the less significant first, followed by the more significant. It is much
easier to discuss ONLY the similarities or ONLY the differences, but you can also do both.

Then for organizing your essay, choose one of the plans described below whichever best fits
your list. Finally, and this is important, what main point (thesis) might you make in the essay
about the two people/things being compared? Do not begin writing until you have a point that the
similarities or differences you want to use help to prove. Your point should help shape the rest of
what you say: For example, if you see that one of your similarities or differences is unrelated to
the point, throw it out and think of one that is related. Or revise your point. Be sure this main
point is clearly and prominently expressed somewhere in the essay.

Plan A: Use Plan A if you have many small similarities and/or differences. After your
introduction, say everything you want to say about the first work or character, and then go on in
the second half of the essay to say everything about the second work or character, comparing or
contrasting each item in the second with the same item in the first. In this format, all the
comparing or contrasting, except for the statement of your main point, which you may want to
put in the beginning, goes on in the SECOND HALF of the piece.

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Plan B: Use Plan B if you have only a few, larger similarities or differences. After your
introduction, in the next paragraph discuss one similarity or difference in BOTH works or
characters, and then move on in the next paragraph to the second similarity or difference in both,
then the third, and so forth, until you're done. If you are doing both similarities and differences,
juggle them on scrap paper so that in each part you put the less important first ("X and Y are
both alike in their social positions . . ."), followed by the more important ("but X is much more
aware of the dangers of his position than is Y"). In this format, the comparing or contrasting goes
on in EACH of the middle parts.

The following outline may be helpful; however, do not be limited by it.

1. Intro. with thesis

2. 1st similarity

1. 1st work

2. 2nd work

3. 2nd similarity

1. 1st work

2. 2nd work

4. 1st difference

1. 1st work

2. 2nd work

5. 2nd difference

1. 1st work

2. 2nd work

Two Dads Are Better than One

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I've always envied people with only two parents. They never have to feel sorry for their real
father because he is lonely, and they never have to feel they should care more about their
stepfather because he is the one who has provided them with the necessities most of their lives.
Since I have two fathers, I have known these feelings. I know what it's like trying to decide which
father I should care about more so that I could tell my friends the next time they asked. It really
should be a clear-cut decision. My two fathers are so different in everything that I should be able
to look at these differences and decide.

A major difference between the two is how responsible they are. My stepfather has always had a
steady job. He enjoys going to work each day and knowing that at the end of the week he'll get a
paycheck. With this paycheck he pays bills, buys groceries, and makes sure we all have clothes
to wear. On the other hand, my father doesn't particularly care for steady jobs. He is a singer
and has worked three or four nights a week in nightclubs most of his life. With his money, he
buys things like new guitars and amplifiers. His idea of providing for us, as Mom tells me, is to
send ten dollars a month, which is to be divided three ways. He only does this, however, when
he's out of state.

Discipline is another major difference between my two fathers. My stepfather, who can be very
strict at times, believes that children should obey their parents, do what they are told when they
are told to do it, and respect their elders. My father, who was never disciplined himself, has quite
different views. He has always encouraged my brothers and me to rebel against rules, to ask why
we had to do certain things, and to resent being made to do things we thought were stupid.
(Going to bed at ten was stupid.) My mother always told us that our father only did this to cause
trouble, but I'm not so sure about that. Maybe he did, but then again maybe he thought going to
bed at ten was stupid, too!

Education is another big issue my stepfather is concerned about. He believes, like many people,
that to be able to succeed in life, one has to have a good education. He always told us that he
didn't want us to turn out like he did, a truck driver who had to be away from his family for
weeks at a time. He used to punish me and my brothers for making C's on our report cards. His
theory is that a C is average, and his kids are not average. I wouldn't place any money on that.
My father believes that an education is good to have, but one doesn't have to have it to survive.

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He always says, "Look at me; I made it." I don't think, however, that I would call sleeping in the
back of a station wagon "making it."

So here I have it. All their differences down on paper, and I can look at them objectively and
decide which father to love more, but it isn't that easy. I love my father because he is just that,
my natural father. I respect him; I am obligated to him, and I want to make him proud of me.
Then there is my stepfather, whom I respect very much; whom I feel obligated to; whom I want to
make proud of me; and, most important of all, whom I have grown to love as much as any child
could possibly love a parent. I guess I'll never really know which father I love more. I don't see
why I should have to love either more. I think I'll just love both of them in almost equal amounts.

Definition essay

A definition essay is writing that explains what a term means. Some terms have definite,
concrete meanings, such as glass, book, or tree. Terms such as honesty, honor, or love are
abstract and depend more on a person's point of view.

Three Steps to Effective Definition

1. Tell readers what term is being defined.

2. Present clear and basic information.

3. Use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand.

Choosing a Definition

Choosing a definition is a key step in writing a definition essay. You need to understand the term
before you can define it for others. Read the dictionary, but don't just copy the definition.
Explain the term briefly in your own words. Also, it's important to limit your term before you
start defining it. For example, you could write forever on the term "love." To limit it, you would
write about either "romantic love," "platonic love," or "first love."

Thesis Statement of a Definition Essay

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The thesis statement usually identifies the term being defined and provides a brief, basic
definition.

(term) (basic definition)

Ex: Assertiveness is standing up for your rights.

How To Write an Effective Definition

1. Create a definition. There are several ways to define a term. Here are a few options.

 Define by function. Explain what something does or how something works.

 Define by structure. Tell how something is organized or put together.

 Define by analysis. Compare the term to other members of its class and
then illustrate the differences. These differences are special characteristics
that make the term stand out. For example, compare a Siberian husky to
other dogs, such as lap dogs, mutts, or sporting dogs.

(term) (precise definition)

Ex: A Siberian husky is a dog reputed for its ability to tolerate cold, its
distinctive features, and its keen strength and stamina.

 Define by what the term does not mean. This distinction can sometimes
clarify a definition and help a reader to better understand it.

2. Use understandable facts, examples, or anecdotes. Select facts, examples, or anecdotes

to fully explain your definition. Ask yourself, "Which examples will best help readers
understand the term? What examples would most appeal to my readers? Will a brief
story reveal the term's meaning?" Do not use any examples that will not support the
definition.

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Remember: A definition essay is writing that explains what a term means. When writing a
definition essay, remember to tell readers what term is being defined, to present a clear and basic
definition, and to use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand.

Essay Writing Activity

I. Write an essay arguing for or against one of the following topics.
1. Any student caught cheating on an examination should be automatically dismissed from
college.
2. Drunk drivers should be imprisoned on the first offense.
3. University students should be required to take physical education courses.
II. Write an essay using three of the following topics.

1. What are the advantages of learning a second language?

2. Define what happiness is.
3. Explain four benefits of taking exercise.
4. Compare two of your favorite people.
5. Classify the on-air television shows.
6. Contrast two different teacher of yours.

Unit Four
Letter Writing
Objectives:
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
write a letter using appropriate format for letter writing.
communicate effectively through letter.
differentiate the two major types of letter.
explain the different types of letters such as job application letter, letter of request,
letter of apology, and so on.

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It is said that letter writing is nothing but an art. Even though letters have transformed into e-
mails and SMSes, the art still remains, only the medium has changed. Letters can be broadly
classified into formal letters and informal letters. As the name suggests, formal letters include
business letters, official letters, applications, complaints, letter to editors, letters written to people
whom we want to convey certain important information. On the other hand, informal letters
include personal letters, letters that are written to our friends and family. While formal letters
follow certain format, one can be flexible while writing informal letters. Nonetheless, letter
writing is a skill that needs to be honed over time with practice. It is a pleasurable task once you
know the basic rules.
Let us understand a few ground rules while writing formal letters:

 You need to write your full name, address and date before you begin the letter
 Address the person you are writing the letter to with correct name and designation.
 It is always advisable to start the letter with ‘Respected Sir/Madam’ or ‘Dear
Sir/Madam’ and then mention the name and the address.
 Before beginning to write the letter you must state the purpose of the letter in one line
titled ‘Subject’.
 Your letter should be very crisp giving out only that information which is required.
 Your letter should state action/information required/supplied or requesting action to be
taken
 While closing, do not forget to end your letter politely by using phrases like ‘thanking
you’ and undersigning your letter using ‘Yours faithfully/sincerely’ (Name).
 This is the basic structure of a letter. You can modify it according to the purpose for
which it is written and the person to whom it is addressed. For example, if you are
writing a letter for job application, then you may need to attach your resume along
with the letter and also mention the same in it.

Now coming to informal letters, these are letters that do not have many rules. Since you are
writing to your friends and family, you are free to choose your tone and content. One however
needs to keep the following things in mind:

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 Write your full name and address even if it is an informal letter.

 Divide your letter in small paragraphs.
 Keep your writing simple.
 Make a good choice of words especially if you are writing an apology letter or a letter
to express your condolences in case of a death.
 Most people close the letter with phrases like ‘Yours affectionately/With love/All the
best/Take care’, and so on.

4.1 Formal Letter Writing

A business letter (or formal letter) is a formal way of communicating between two or more
parties. There are many different uses and business letters. Business letters can be informational,
persuasive, motivational, or promotional. Business letters should be typed and printed out on
standard 8.5" x 11" white paper. The most important element of writing a good letter is your
ability to identify and write to your audience. If you are addressing your letter to the department
of human resources, avoid using highly technical terms that only engineers would understand,
even if your letter is addressed to an engineering company, chances are that the personnel in
human resources does not have an engineering background.

The next element is that you make sure you present your objective in a clear and concise manner.
Don't be vague about your objective, most people will not have the patience to sit there and guess
at the meaning of your letter or the time to read a long-winded letter, just get to the point without
going into unnecessary details.

Another important element to remember is to remain professional. Even if you are writing a
complaint letter, remain polite and courteous, simply state the problem(s) along with any other
relevant information and be sure to avoid threats and slander.

4.1.1 Layout of a Formal Letter

There are different formats or layouts of formal letter. However, the most common ones are
block style, modified block style and semi-block style. The examples below show you a general
layout for a formal letter.

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Block Format

____________________ 1
____________________
____________________

____________________ 2
____________________
____________________

________________ 3
Block Format: Business Letter
_____________________4_____________________

Return Address Line 1 1

Return Address Line 2
_____________________5____________________
Date (Month Day, Year) 2

Mr./Mrs./Ms./Dr. Full name of recipient. 3

Title/Position of Recipient.
Company Name
Address Line 1
Address Line 2 ____________________ 6
____________________
Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name: 4

Subject: Title of Subject 5

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Body Paragraph 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.....................................................................
.............................

Body Paragraph 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.....................................................................
.............................

Body Paragraph 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.....................................................................
.............................6

Closing (Sincerely...), 7

Signature 8

Your Name (Printed) 9

Your Title

Enclosures (2) 10
Typist Initials. 11

The block format is the simplest format; all of the writing is flush against the left margin.

Your Address 1
The return address of the sender of the letter so the recipient can easily find out where to send a
reply to. Skip a line between your address and the date. (Not needed if the letter is printed on
paper with the company letterhead already on it.)

Date 2
Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day Year i.e. August 30, 2003.
Skip a line between the date and the inside address (some people skip 3 or 4 lines after the date).

Inside Address 3
The address of the person you are writing to along with the name of the recipient, their title and
company name, if you are not sure who the letter should be addressed to either leave it blank, but

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try to put in a title, i.e. "Director of Human Resources". Skip a line between the date and the
salutation.

Salutation 4
Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name:, Dear Director of Department Name: or To Whom It May
Concern: if recipient's name is unknown. Note that there is a colon after the salutation. Skip a
line between the salutation and the subject line or body. For Ethiopians use title plus first name.

Subject Line (optional) 5

Makes it easier for the recipient to find out what the letter is about. Skip a line between the
subject line and the body.

Body 6
The body is where you write the content of the letter; the paragraphs should be single spaced
with a skipped line between each paragraph. Skip a line between the end of the body and the
closing.

Closing 7
Let's the reader know that you are finished with your letter; usually ends with Sincerely,
Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that there is a comma after the end of the closing
and only the first word in the closing is capitalized. Skip 3-4 lines between the closing and the
printed name, so that there is room for the signature.

Signature 8
Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink with a pen.

Printed Name 9
The printed version of your name, and if desired you can put your title or position on the line
underneath it. Skip a line between the printed name and the enclosure.

Enclosure 10
If letter contains other document other than the letter itself your letter will include the word

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"Enclosure." If there is more than one you would type, "Enclosures (#)" with the # being the
number of other documents enclosed
that doesn't include the letter itself. 1 ___________________
____________________
Reference Initials 11 ____________________
If someone other than yourself typed ____________________ 2
the letter you will include your initials ____________________
____________________
in capital letters followed by the
typist's initials in lower case in the ________________ 3
following format; AG/gs or AG:gs. ____________________4______________________

_____________________5_____________________

6 ____________________
____________________

Semi-block style

Free style

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4.1.2 Rules of Writing Formal Letters

In English there are a number of conventions that should be used when writing a formal or
business letter. Furthermore, you try to write as simply and as clearly as possible, and not to
make the letter longer than necessary. Remember not to use informal language like contractions.

Addresses:

1) Your Address
The return address should be written in the top right-hand or left-hand corner of the letter.

2) The Address of the person you are writing to

The inside address should be written on the left, starting below your address.

Date:

Different people put the date on different sides of the page. You can write this on the right or the
left on the line after the address you are writing to. Write the month as a word.

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Salutation or greeting:

1) Dear Sir or Madam,

If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use this. It is always advisable to
try to find out a name.

2) Dear Mr Jenkins,
If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.) and the surname only. If you
are writing to a woman and do not know if she uses Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which is for
married and single women. For Ethiopians use the local title and first name.

4.1.3 Content of a Formal Letter

First paragraph
The first paragraph should be short and state the purpose of the letter- to make an enquiry,
complain, request something, and so on.

The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter should contain the relevant information
behind the writing of the letter. Most letters in English are not very long, so keep the information
to the essentials and concentrate on organizing it in a clear and logical manner rather than
expanding too much.

Last Paragraph
The last paragraph of a formal letter should state what action you expect the recipient to take- to
refund, send you information, etc.

Ending a letter:

1) Yours faithfully
If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way.

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2) Yours sincerely
If you know the name of the person, end the letter this way.

3) Your signature
Sign your name, then print it underneath the signature. If you think the person you are writing to
might not know whether you are male of female, put you title in brackets after your name.

Abbreviations Used in Letter Writing

The following abbreviations are widely used in letters:

 asap = as soon as possible

 cc = carbon copy (when you send a copy of a letter to more than one person, you use this
abbreviation to let them know)
 enc. = enclosure (when you include other papers with your letter)
 pp = per procurationem (A Latin phrase meaning that you are signing the letter on
somebody else's behalf; if they are not there to sign it themselves, etc)
 ps = postscript (when you want to add something after you've finished and signed it)
 pto (informal) = please turn over (to make sure that the other person knows the letter
continues on the other side of the page)
 RSVP = please reply

Sample Business Letter

3519 Front Street
Mount Celebres, CA 65286

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October 5, 2004

Ms. Betty Johnson

Accounts Payable
The Cooking Store
765 Berliner Plaza
Industrial Point, CA 68534

Dear Ms Johnson:

It has come to my attention that your company, The Cooking Store has been late with
paying their invoices for the past three months.

In order to encourage our customers to pay for their invoices before the due date, we
have implemented a discount model where we'll give you 2% off your invoice if you
pay us within 10 days of receiving the invoice.

I hope that everything is going well for you and your company. You are one of our
biggest customers, and we appreciate your business. If you have any questions, you
can feel free to contact me at (555) 555-5555.

Sincerely,

Signature

Bob Powers
Accounts Receivable

4.1.4 Kinds of Formal Letter

A. Job application letter

A covering letter is the one that accompanies your CV when you are applying for a job. Here is a
fairly conventional plan for the layout of the paragraphs.

Opening Paragraph
Briefly identify yourself and the position you are applying for. Add how you found out about the
vacancy.

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Paragraph 2
Give the reasons why you are interested in working for the company and why you wish to be
considered for that particular post. State your relevant qualifications and experience, as well as
your personal qualities that make you a suitable candidate.

Paragraph 3
Inform them that you have enclosed your current CV and add any further information that you
think could help your case.

Closing Paragraph
Give your availability for interview, thank them for their consideration, restate your interest and
close the letter.

B. Letter of Enquiry

A letter of enquiry is when you are approaching a company speculatively, that is you are making
an approach without their having advertised oz announced a vacancy.

Opening Paragraph
Introduce yourself briefly and give your reason for writing. Let them know of the kind of
position you are seeking, why you are interested and how you heard about them.

Paragraph 2
Show why their company in particular interests you, mention your qualifications and experience
along with any further details that might make them interested in seeing you.

Paragraph 3
Refer to your enclosed CV and draw their attention to any particularly important points you
would like them to focus on in it.

Closing Paragraph
Thank them, explain your availability for interview and restate your enthusiasm for their
company and desire to be considered for posts that might as yet be unavailable.

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C. Writing a Complaint Letter

The complaint letter should be written in the business letter format. When writing a complaint
letter you want to keep it short and to the point to help ensure that your letter will be read in its
entirety, if you write a seven page complaint letter, it's highly unlikely that someone will sit
down and read all seven pages.

The complaint letter should be addressed to the customer service/consumer affairs department or
the head office if there is no customer service department. The address and contact information
of the customer service department should be available on the company's products or website.

Complaint Letter writing

In the first paragraph you should identify what the issue is and any relevant information that you
believe is important. Be sure to include the following information if it's applicable to the
situation: the date/time of the issue, location, name of person on duty, name of product, what the
problem was, your account number, model number, price, warranty information and reference
number. Be sure to stick with the facts and avoid putting emotions into your letter.

The next paragraph should state what you would like done to resolve the situation. If you
received poor service, you could request an apology or a coupon. If a product malfunctioned, you
could request that you could exchange the product for a new one or request a refund.

The last paragraph should thank the reader for the time. You can also throw in some
compliments about something you liked about their company's product or service.

You should include your telephone number/e-mail address after your printed name so that they
can contact you ASAP if necessary.

Be sure to keep a copy of the letter for yourself and include photocopies of any relevant
documents and enclose them with your letter.

Sample Complaint Letter

65 Market Street

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Val Haven, CT 95135

June 30, 2004

Customer Service
Cool Sports, LLC
8423 Green Terrace Road
Asterville, WA 65435

Dear Sir or Madam:

I have recently ordered a new pair of soccer cleats (item #6542951) from your
website on June 21. I received the order on June 26. Unfortunately, when I opened it
I saw that the cleats were used. The cleats had dirt all over it and there was a small
tear in front of the part where the left toe would go. My order number is
AF26168156.

To resolve the problem, I would like you to credit my account for the amount
charged for my cleats, I have already went out and bought a new pair of cleats at my
local sporting goods store so sending another would result in me having two pairs of
the same cleats.

Than you for taking the time to read this letter. I have been a satisfied customer of
your company for many years and this is the first time I have encountared a problem.
If you need to contact me, you can reach me at (555) 555-5555.

Sincerely,

Signature

Ken Thomas

D. Writing an Apology Letter

An apology letter shows that you are sorry and says that you value your relationship with the
What is the paragraph all about?
other
Whatparty.
is theThe sooner
subject an apology letter is written and sent out the better it is for the
matter?
What is the Depending
relationship. purpose of on
thethe
topic?
nature ofthe letter, it can either be written in the friendly or the
business letter format.

Friendly/Personal Apology Letter

If this is a personal letter you should start the letter by saying that you are sorry to the recipient.

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Next you should admit your fault and take responsibility for your actions. Next you should
volunteer or ask if there is any way that you can help out to resolve the situation. Then you
should let the recipient that you will try to make sure that the situation will not happen again. To
close off the letter you should apologize again. When writing a personal apology letter it should
come from the heart and be sincere.

Formal/Business Apology Letter

If this is a business letter you should start the letter by saying that you are sorry to the recipient.
Next you should give an explanation as to what went wrong. Then you should try to rectify the
problem. To close off the letter you should apologize again.

Sample Apology Letter

5868 Maple Wood Street
Fairfield, PA 37626

November 29, 2004

Mr. Joseph Bicman

358 Noncook Road
John's Town, PA 57323

Dear Mr. Bicman:

I apologize for the mix-up of order #: 26429782. We have just implemented a new
packaging system that still has a few bugs to be worked out, but we did fix your
order and sent it out this morning. For your trouble, we have enclosed a $25 gift
certificate which can be used at any of our stores. Once again I would like to
apologize for the mix-up in your order and any inconveniences this may have caused
you.

Sincerely,

Signature

Scott Mahoney
Customer Service Manager

E. Requesting a Letter of Recommendation

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Getting a good recommendation letter can significantly help you out in your application process
so it is important to ask someone who you are in good terms with for a letter. It is also important
to ask someone that knows you well for a recommendation and ask them for it in person. If you
are seeking a letter for college or graduate schools, then it is recommended that you request
letters from your teachers/professors. If you are seeking a letter for a job, business or
professional school then it would be ideal if you got one from your current company. If you have
not been at your current company long or if you are not currently employed then asking a
previous employer is recommended. If that is not possible seek recommendations from respected
professionals that you may know, such as doctors, lawyers, politicians, ministers and so on.

Ask for the letters early on, don't wait until the day before the letter is supposed to be sent in to
request the letters of recommendation. Instead ask ahead of time. If you are going to apply to
school ask your professor at least a month ahead of time. If you are seeking a professional letter,
ask for a letter of recommendation whenever you leave a job.

Assist the writer with as much material as necessary, providing the writer with your resume and
a list of achievements will make it easier on the writer. You may also want to give him/her any
information that will help with the letter including your plans for the future, your strengths,
experiences and other qualities you want to be presented in the letter. Be honest about the
information you give, if you embellish it'll catch up with you later.

You should provide the writer with a stamped and addressed envelope. Also if there is a
guideline that needs to be followed or any other material that needs to be filled out, you should
provide that to him/her.

After the letter is sent out, you should send a thank you note to the writer. You can also thank
them in person or over the phone as well.

F. Writing a Letter of Recommendation

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If you are requested to write a letter of recommendation but think that he/she is a poor
employee/student or if you don't know him/her very well it is best if you decline. If you feel that
you know the employee/student well it is a good idea to ask for additional information and/or
conduct a short interview with him/her so that you'll have solid information to write in your letter

Follow the business letter format with the exception of the inside address which you can leave
out if it is unknown. Unless the name of the person is given to you, you should address the "To
Whom It May Concern:" Also be sure to include your phone number and/or e-mail so the reader
can contact you with any questions.

The first paragraph should start out by stating your relationship to the applicant and how long
you have known him/her. You should also state your professional position at the company/school
and any additional information about yourself that will help build your credibility as a good
reference.

The second paragraph should focus on building the applicant. It should give an overview of the
candidate and his/her strengths and qualities.

The next 2 to 3 paragraphs should focus on a single quality followed by an example(s) of how
they show that quality.

The closing paragraph should reiterate that the applicant would be a good employee/student and
add any additional comments that you may want to bring up. You can also write about why you
think the employee/student will be a good fit with the company, school, and/or position. Also let
the reader know that he/she can contact you if they have any additional questions.

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Sample Letter of Recommendation

562 Banquest Street
Fair Valley, AL 81356

September 28, 2004

To Whom It May Concern:

It is with great pleasure that I am recommending Rose Berdinger to you. I am the

Head Sales Manager at Vacuums Plus and Rose has been under my supervision from
November of 2000 to August of 2004 as a saleswoman.

Rose would be a great asset to any company. She is one of the brightest employees
that I have ever had. She also has a great drive and passion for her work.

Rose is such a quick learner. Within her first two weeks at Vacuums Plus she had
learned all the product names, their features, and how they work. It normally takes a
new employee at least two months to get familiar with all the products that we sell.

Rose's drive has led her to great success at Vacuums Plus. She has had the honor of
receiving the "Top Sales Person of the Month Award" ten times in her last year at
Vacuums Plus, which is a feat that no employee has ever achieved here before.

I believe that Rose Berdinger will be an excellent fit for your company. Rose has
been nothing short of an exemplary employee. If you have any further questions, feel
free to contact me at (555) 555-555 and I'll be happy to answer any questions you
have.

Sincerely,

Signature

Peter Ziggad
Head Sales Manager

G. Writing a Letter of Appeal

In cases where unfair treatment was committed, a letter of appeal can help to rectify the situation.
An appeal letter allows you to state your side of the story using facts to support your cause to
convince the reader(s) to reconsider your case.

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The first paragraph should introduce yourself and explain why you are writing the letter.
Although it may be difficult, be sure to keep your tone and emotions in check so that you can
show that you can present an objective viewpoint. Keep the first paragraph as concise and clear
as possible so that the reader can immediately understand its urgency. The next paragraph(s)
should narrate the account of what happened, and why your appeal should be granted. Include all
the necessary facts in order to legitimize your case. You can start by referring to your handbook
or guidelines as member of that particular group or institution. Also, provide specific times and
date when particular events occurred. To make your letter more reader-friendly, use bullet-points
every time you need to enumerate. After doing this, refer to testimonials from people related to
your work, transcript of records, and medical certificate, if necessary. The last part should
summarize everything you have stated above. Repeat the necessary points that need to be
elucidated. Also include the contact details and where you can be reached. Close out the letter by
thanking the reader for their time.

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Sample
4682 Farrow Parkway Letter of
Chicago, IL 60621 Appeal

June 20, 2007

Jack Copeland
Dean, Academic Division
Chicago College University
1323 E. 84th St., 5th floor
Chicago, IL 60621

Dear Mr. Copeland;

I am a senior Philosophy major who took PH401 Advanced Metaphysics class under
Prof. Vanleer, and I am writing to you to appeal a retake for the final comprehensive
oral exam that was given on June 18, 2007.

I feel that Mr. Vanleer did not give my situation the proper respect and understanding
that it truly deserved. On June 8, 2007 at 10:37 A.M., I was struck by a sedan going
65 mph on my way to the university. I survived the accident but fractured the bones
in my legs and hips. I have enclosed the medical documents detailing my stay at St.
Francis Hospital along with this letter.

Because of this setback, I had to reschedule all my exams for the following week
(June 18-22, 2007) and move to the week after that (June 25-29) to allow for me to
recover. I had my classmate Tom Saunders send the necessary letters to all of my
professors requesting to postpone the date of my final exams by a week. All of them
agreed except for Prof. Vanleer, who did not send any reply at all. The doctors said
that it would take me at least two weeks to properly recover, and even if I did prepare
for my exams for Prof. Vanleer, I would not be able to produce the expected output
considering my debilitated condition.

I feel that the situation is not warranted because I never got a grade lower than a B or
(80-85) on his exams. Therefore, the risk of me failing the course and being
prevented from graduating because of not being able to take his final exams due to an
unavoidable circumstance is unacceptable. The handbook states in Article III,
Section II that “Students who have medical emergencies prior to a particular exam
will be given the option to reschedule that exam.”

The medical situation which prevented me from taking the final at the scheduled time
was beyond my control. I would ask you to grant me another opportunity to take the
final exam. I look forward to meeting with you to discuss this matter. Feel free to call
me with any questions at 555-555-5555. I appreciate the time that you have taken to
read my appeal.

Sincerely,

Signature
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F. Writing an Invitation Letter

An invitation letter serves the purpose of inviting a guest to a party, an event or a celebration
while conveying more information than a traditional invitations card. It serves two purposes;
one, to invite the individual to the event and two, to ensure that the person receiving the letter is
going to attend.

There are two tenses used within the invitation letter, the present and the future. The present
tense conveys information about the event and the future tense ensures the guest is going to
attend.

Business Invitation Letter

An invitation letter is a formal way to invite peers and clients to events which are being hosted
by the company and are one of the most popular ways of inviting guests to functions. The
professional invitation should be written in a formal tone, even when being sent to friends and
family members, if the letter is also being sent to professional contacts.

The introduction allows the host and sender to introduce themselves, as well as the organization
in which they have chosen to represent. A simple background of the individual or company will
suffice in this section of the letter.

Next, in the body of the letter it is important to outline all of the information about the event. The
date and time should be included as well as the theme and purpose for the event. At this point, a
date should be mentioned in which guests should provide their reply by, and it may also contain
any information regarding special roles played at the event, attire and items required for the guest
to bring. Be sure to mention any specifications about dress code in the invitation letter.

Next, in one sentence, the appreciation for the guest to attend the party should be shown. This
can be completed with a formal note, stating that you look forward to seeing the individual at the
event. Remember, this needs to keep in tone with the rest of the letter.

The conclusion should contain the sign off and a line that ties the complete letter together,
drawing the end of the invitation, with a salutation and a signature.

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Friendly Invitation Letter

A friendly invitation letter is similar to a business letter but contains less formal speech and can
make nuances with memories that may be shared with the guests whom are being invited to the
occasion.

Friendly invitation letters are used for a variety of reasons from engagement parties and showers
to wedding invitations. They can also be used for personal parties and showers as well as
housewarming get together. Personal invitation letters should be signed with a less formal sign
off, such as; yours sincerely, best, or sincerely.

Invitation letters are used as an alternative to traditional invitations. They allow the host to
convey different messages through the tone of the letter. Invitation letters allow the host to
convey additional information that what is traditionally shared in an invitation card. Memories
can be shared with close friends and family members that bring about memories of past events.
When sending an invitation letter, be sure to edit it completely, ensuring there are no
punctuation, grammatical or spelling errors before the letter is sent to potential guests. Using
these techniques, you should be able to create personal and professional invitation letters with
ease.

Sample Invitation Letter

Lockwood Middle School
307 Main Street
Lockwood, NJ 51686

December 17, 2008

Mrs. Jody Coling

President
Lockwood Health Association
23 Main Street
Lockwood, NJ

Dear Mrs. Coling:

My name is Susan Harris and I am writing on behalf of the students at Lockwood Middle School. We would like
to invite you to attend a special event being held at our school in a week's time.

A significant amount of the students at the school have been working on a project which relates to the
unemployment problem within the youth demographic of Lockwood. You are invited to attend a presentation that

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will be held within the media room of the school where a variety of proposals that will demonstrate the ability of
the community to develop employment opportunities for the youth within the community.

At the presentation, there will be several students receiving awards which will recognize them within the
community from the Mayor. Refreshments will also be available at the presentation.

As one of the prominent figures in the community, we would be honored by your attendance. Please reply by
Monday the 26th of February to confirm your attendance to the function.

We look forward to seeing you there,

Sincerely,

Signature

Ms. Susan Harris

Guide to Basic Business Letters

The basics of good business letter writing are easy to learn. The following guide provides the
phrases that are usually found in any standard business letter. These phrases are used as a kind of
frame and introduction to the content of business letters. At the end of this guide, you will find
links to sites that give tips on the difficult part of writing successful business letters – arguing
your business objective. By using these standard phrases, you can give a professional tone to
your English business letters.

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I would be delighted to

The Start Giving Bad News

Dear Personnel Director, Unfortunately

I am afraid that
Dear Sir or Madam: (use if you don't
know who you are writing to) Enclosing Documents

Dear Dr, Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms Smith: I am enclosing

(use if you know who you are writing to, Please find enclosed
and have a formal relationship with - Enclosed you will find
VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for
women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss) Closing Remarks

Dear Frank: (use if the person is a close Thank you for your help Please contact
business contact or friend) us again if we can help in any way.
there are any problems.
The Reference you have any questions.

Reference to Future Contact

With reference to your advertisement in I look forward to ...

the Times, your letter of 23 rd March, hearing from you soon.
your phone call today, meeting you next Tuesday.
Thank you for your letter of March 5 th . seeing you next Thursday.

The Reason for Writing The Finish

I am writing to inquire about Yours faithfully, (If you don't know the
apologize for name of the person you're writing to)
confirm
Yours sincerely, (If you know the name
Requesting of the person you're writing to)

Could you possibly? Best wishes,

I would be grateful if you could
Best regards, (If the person is a close
Agreeing to Requests business contact or friend)

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Sample Letter

Here is a sample letter using some of these forms:

Ken's Cheese House

34 Chatley Avenue
Seattle, WA 98765
Tel:
Fax:
Email: [email protected]

October 23, 2006

Fred Flintstone
Sales Manager
Cheese Specialists Inc.
456 Rubble Road
Rockville, IL

Dear Mr Flintstone:

With reference to our telephone conversation today, I am writing to confirm your order for: 120 x Cheddar
Deluxe Ref. No. 856

The order will be shipped within three days via UPS and should arrive at your store in about 10 days.

Please contact us again if we can help in any way.

Yours sincerely,

Kenneth Beare
Director of Ken's Cheese House

Useful phrases to write business letters

Opening line

Why do we need an opening line in a business letter or formal email?

- to make reference to previous correspondence

- to say how you found the recipient's name/address
- to say why you are writing to the recipient.

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Ten good opening lines:

With reference to your letter of 8 June, I ...

I am writing to enquire about ...

After having seen your advertisement in ... , I would like ...

After having received your address from ... , I ...

I received your address from ... and would like ...

We/I recently wrote to you about ...

Thank you for your letter of 8 May.

Thank you for your letter regarding ...

Thank you for your letter/e-mail about ...

In reply to your letter of 8 May, ...

Closing lines

Why do we need a closing line in a business letter or email?

- to make a reference to a future event

- to repeat an apology
- to offer help

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Basic Writing Skills (EnLa-1012)
Ten good closing lines:

If you require any further information, feel free to contact me.

I look forward to your reply.

I look forward to hearing from you.

I look forward to seeing you.

Please advise as necessary.

We look forward to a successful working relationship in the future.

Should you need any further information, please do not hesitate to contact me.

Once again, I apologize for any inconvenience.

We hope that we may continue to rely on your valued custom.

I would appreciate your immediate attention to this matter.

When the recipient's name is unknown to you say:

Dear Sir ... Yours faithfully

Dear Madam ... Yours faithfully

Dear Sir or Madam ... Yours faithfully

When you know the recipient's name:

Dear Mr Hanson ... Yours sincerely

Dear Mrs Hanson ... Yours sincerely

Dear Miss Hanson ... Yours sincerely

Dear Ms Hanson ... Yours sincerely

When addressing a good friend or colleague:

Dear Jack ... Best wishes/Best regards

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Addressing whole departments:

Dear Sirs ... Yours faithfully

Friendly Letter Writing

A friendly letter (or informal letter) is a way of communicating between two people (sometimes
more) who are usually well acquainted. There are many uses and reasons for writing a friendly
letter, but usually friendly letters will consist of topics on a personal level. Friendly letters can
either be printed or hand-written. The friendly letter is typically less formal than that of a
business letter. Usually the first paragraph of the body will consist of an introduction which will
give the recipient an idea about you're writing to them with a short summary of the main topic of
your letter. If you don't know the person you are writing to, you may want to introduce yourself
in this introductory paragraph as well.

The next few paragraphs will usually consist of the message you want to get across along with
any details you may want to convey.

The last paragraph will usually be the conclusion where you wrap everything up. You can sum
up your main idea in this paragraph, thank the recipient for their time, wish the recipient well,
and/or ask any questions.

Since friendly letters are less formal, you can feel free to write it however you like, but the above
format is fairly common.

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Friendly Letter Format

Body Paragraph 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.....................................................................
.................................

Body Paragraph 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.....................................................................
.................................

Body Paragraph 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.....................................................................
.................................4

Closing (Sincerely...), 5
Signature 6

In the friendly letter format, your address, date, the closing, signature, and printed name are all
indented to the right half of the page (how far you indent in is up to you as long as the heading
and closing is lined up, use your own discretion and make sure it looks presentable). Also the
first line of each paragraph is indented.

Your Address 1
All that is needed is your street address on the first line and the city, state and zip on the second
line. (Not needed if the letter is printed on paper with a letterhead already on it.)

Date 2
Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day Year i.e. August 30, 2003.
Skip a line between the date and the salutation.

Salutation 3
Usually starts out with Dear so and so, or Hi so and so. Note: There is a comma after the end of
the salutation (you can use an exclamation point also if there is a need for some emphasis).

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Body 4
The body is where you write the content of the letter; the paragraphs should be single spaced
with a skipped line between each paragraph. Skip 2 lines between the end of the body and the
closing.

Closing 5
Let's the reader know that you are finished with your letter; usually ends with Sincerely,
Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that there is a comma after the end of the closing
and only the first word in the closing is capitalized.

Signature 6
Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink with a pen. Skip a line
after your signature and the P.S.

Sample Friendly Letter

It feels like such a long time since the last time I saw you. I know it's only been several weeks since I saw
you. So far my summer has been great!

I spend my all my weekends at the beach. I am getting a nice tan and you can no longer say I am paler than
you. I have been playing lots of volleyball, surfing and building a nice collection of sea shells. Just this past
weekend I took second place in a sandcastle building contest!

On the weekdays I work. I drive an ice cream truck around and sell ice cream to the kids. It is so cool. It is
a combination of the two things I love most, ice cream and kids. The pay isn't too great but I love the job so
much.

I hope the summer's been going well for you too. There's only a month and a half left in summer vacation
and after that it's back to school. Would you like to meet up some time to before school starts?

Your friend,
Signature

Writing CV (curriculum vitae)

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Purpose of curriculum vitae

You will find lots of free resume / CV writing advice and tips on this topic. The word
Curriculum Vitae literally translated means the story of your life. The words Curriculum Vitae
are usually abbreviated to CV or C.V. and you will sometimes see it incorrectly written in lower
case as c.v. or cv. The possessive form of Curriculum Vitae / CV should be written as
Curriculum Vitae's or C.V.'s or CVs, but not as c.v.'s or cv's. It includes a summary of your
educational and academic background, as well as teaching and research experience, publications,
presentations, awards, honors, affiliations, and other details. Also your CV should be clear,
concise, complete, and up-to-date with current employment and educational information.

Your CV is a very important document; with it rest your hopes and dreams for the future - that
next step up the career ladder, a better position, more money, new challenges, etc. Your CV
therefore has to represent the best you have to offer if you do not want to miss out on that job
you saw which was 'perfect' for you.

These days employers often receive a lot of CVs for each advertised position - jobs advertised in
national papers can often attract hundreds of applicants. So your CV has to be just that little bit
special to stand out if you want to obtain interviews. The good news (for you) is that most people
do not know how to write a CV and only spend a short time preparing a CV. Writing
professional CVs is a skill, which these people have not learnt.

Of course your CV can continue to work in your favour even after it has obtained an interview
for you. It can help you at an interview by carefully focusing the interviewer's mind on your
good points and on your achievements. Once you have left the interview it will continue to work
in your favour as the interviewer will probably reread it before making a decision, either on who
should be invited to the second interview stage or who the job should be offered to.

When it comes to salary negotiations a well written CV can help. If your CV conveys your full
worth you are likely to get a higher salary offer than you might have done with a poorer CV. So
do not skimp on the time you spend on writing a CV as it will probably be a false economy.

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In the following sections we will teach you how to write professional CVs and show you a
number of CV examples as an introduction to the art of CV writing.

Sample curriculum vitae

Sample 1

Chris Jackson
24 Mansfield Drive, Chedlee,
Manchester M23 4DJ.
Tel: (0161) 234 1234
Email: [email protected]

PROFILE:

A Senior Quality Assurance Technician with a wide range of experience in the food
industry. Able to work on own initiative and as part of a team. Proven leadership skills
involving managing, developing and motivating teams to achieve their objectives. First-
class analytical, design and problem solving skills. Dedicated to maintaining high quality
standards.

MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS:

Saved the company £50,000 a year by implementing a new quality assurance

system.
Increased the acceptance level of finished goods from 96% to 99%.
Achieved BS5750 for the production line by rewriting the company's quality
assurance procedures.
Solved major quality assurance problems which temporarily halted production.

CAREER HISTORY:

1989 - date GEPO FOODS LIMITED

1992 - date Senior Quality Assurance Technician

Gepo Foods manufacture biscuits under the brand name Manu at their
Manchester factory. Responsibilities and achievements:

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 Managed all quality assurance in Gepo Foods' Manchester factory
and reported directly to the Factory Manager.
Managed a team of 6 people; assigning them tasks, and motivating
them to meet deadlines.
Demonstrated the quality assurance procedures to customers on
factory visits.
Performed Quality Audits at the factory.

1989 - 1992 Quality Assurance Technician

Created computer applications with the help of a programmer to

monitor the factory environment.
Analysed the quality assurance system and made recommendations
for improvements. These were incorporated into the current quality
assurance system.
Examined equipment in the factory to check that it met the company
standards.
Investigated new equipment installed in the factory to make sure that
it would comply with quality assurance procedures.

1985 - 1989 SURRET FOOD PRODUCTS LIMITED

1986 - 1989 Research Technician

Surret Food Products manufacture a wide range of grocery products.

Responsibilities:

Formulated new product lines and conducted the relevant laboratory

experiments.
Performed a study of the shelf life of various canned foods.
Tested new products to check that they met EEC guidelines for
bacteriological content.
Conducted a survey on packaging.

1985 - 1986 Plant Operator

Worked on the production line at the canning factory. Responsibilities:

Operated the canning machinery producing tinned fruit and

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 vegetables.
Solved and fixed any production line problems with the help of the
service engineer.

TRAINING:

Various courses including: Quality Assurance, The BS5750 Quality Approach,

Team Leadership I & II, Time Management, Report Writing.

QUALIFICATIONS:

BSc (Hons) 2:2 in Biochemistry at the University of Warwick.

3 A Levels: Maths [C], Biology [B], Chemistry [C]; 6 O Levels.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

Driving Licence: Full, clean.

INTERESTS:

Football, Grand Prix racing, physical fitness - gym.

Sample 2

Chris Jackson

24 Mansfield Drive, Chedlee,

Manchester M23 4DJ.

Tel: (0161) 234 1234

Email: [email protected]

PROFILE:

A Senior Quality Assurance Technician with a wide range of experience in the food industry.
Able to work on own initiative and as part of a team. Proven leadership skills involving
managing, developing and motivating teams to achieve their objectives. First-class analytical,

133
design and problem solving skills. Dedicated to maintaining high quality standards.

MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS:

Saved the company £50,000 a year by implementing a new quality assurance system.

Increased the acceptance level of finished goods from 96% to 99%.

Achieved BS5750 for the production line by rewriting the company's quality assurance
procedures.

Solved major quality assurance problems which temporarily halted production.

CAREER HISTORY:

1989 - date GEPO FOODS LIMITED

1992 - date Senior Quality Assurance Technician

Gepo Foods manufacture biscuits under the brand name Manu at their Manchester factory.
Responsibilities and achievements:

Managed all quality assurance in Gepo Foods' Manchester factory and reported directly to the
Factory Manager.

Managed a team of 6 people; assigning them tasks, and motivating them to meet deadlines.

Demonstrated the quality assurance procedures to customers on factory visits.

Performed Quality Audits at the factory.

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1989 - 1992 Quality Assurance Technician
Created computer applications with the help of a programmer to monitor the factory
environment.

Analyzed the quality assurance system and made recommendations for improvements. These
were incorporated into the current quality assurance system.

Examined equipment in the factory to check that it met the company standards.
Investigated new equipment installed in the factory to make sure that it would comply with
quality assurance procedures.

1985 - 1989 SURRET FOOD PRODUCTS LIMITED

1986 - 1989 Research Technician

Surret Food Products manufacture a wide range of grocery products. Responsibilities:

Formulated new product lines and conducted the relevant laboratory experiments.

Performed a study of the shelf life of various canned foods.

Tested new products to check that they met EEC guidelines for bacteriological content.

Conducted a survey on packaging.

1985 - 1986 Plant Operator

Worked on the production line at the canning factory. Responsibilities:

Operated the canning machinery producing tinned fruit and vegetables.

Solved and fixed any production line problems with the help of the service engineer.

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TRAINING:

Various courses including: Quality Assurance, The BS5750 Quality Approach, Team Leadership
I & II, Time Management, Report Writing.

QUALIFICATIONS:

BSc (Hons) 2:2 in Biochemistry at the University of Warwick.

3 A Levels: Maths [C], Biology [B], Chemistry [C]; 6 O Levels.

PERSONAL DETAILS:

Date of Birth: 24th February 1964.

Marital Status: Single.

Driving Licence: Full, clean.

INTERESTS:

Football, Grand Prix racing, physical fitness - gym.

Exercise

1. Why is an application letter important?

136
2. How many pieces of information are needed in an application letter? Discuss them.

3. What are the different parts of a formal letter?

4. Fill in the missing word(s) in the writing below. The words are in the box below the writing.

Name the _ _ _ you are applying for and where you found out about it. For example, name the _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ where the ad. appeared and the date when it was printed. Include some _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ about yourself. This is not necessary if you are _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ a CV. Give the name,
address and _ _ _ _ _ number of two people who will _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ you to the potential
employer. It is best if one of these is a personal_ _ _ _ _ _ _ and one is a work referee. State the
times when you will be available for an_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.
Exercise
1. Choose the right option.
1. On your official letter your name should appear
A. at the top, on the right
B. at the bottom
C. at the top and at the bottom
2. If you start your letter with Dear Sirs, you end it with
A. Yours sincerely
B. Best wishes
C. Yours faithfully
3. The abbreviation Enc. should appear:
A. at the bottom, on the left
B. at the bottom, on the right
C. below senders address

4. Senders address should appear

A. at the top, on the right
B. at the top, on the left
C. at the bottom, on the left

137
5. The complimentary close of an official letter reads:
A. I/We look forward about hearing from you
B. I/We look forward to hear from you
C. I/We look forward to hearing from you
6. Tick the incorrect opening salutation
A. Dear Madam
B. Dear Anne Morrison
C. Dear Anne
7. Tick the incorrect date
A. 12 January 2001
B. January 12, 2001
C. Bratislava, 12 January 2001
8. The abbreviation for Missis is
A. Mrs
B. Ms
C. Mss
2. Fill in the gaps in this letter of invitation with prepositions from the menu.

of in on before in to
on from for to of

Dear Mr. Smith

I am writing _______behalf _____ the Organizing Committee ______ the 5th International
Conference _________ Information Technology. The conference will take place _____ 25
_______ 28 June 2001. Please find enclosed the programme and attendance request form.
________ order to assure accommodation _______ conference participants _____ good time we
would be very grateful if you could return the attendance request form _____ 1st June 2001.
We look forward _______ hearing from you.

Yours sincerely

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3. Fill in the gaps in this letter with words from the menu.

arranged pleased faithfully commitment

participate regret honoring series
Dear Sirs

I am _____________ and honored by the invitation to ___________ in your conference. I very

much __________ to say that it will not be possible for me to participate this time. Between 20th
and 30th June 2001 I am giving a ___________ of lectures at the University of South Essex. It
was _____________ last January and I cannot change this _____________ any more.

Thank you once more for _____________ me with your invitation.

With very good wish for the success of the conference,

Yours ____________

Andrew Smith

4. Put the words in the correct order to make a sentence. The first word of the sentence
starts with capital letter.
1. 17 January thank of for letter you your
2. BC 150 printers of 5 received for pieces we order your
3. GBP gross 4,255 price of offer can a we
4. 751 is10% GBP a unit including price discount quantity the
5. letter be by may of payment done credit
6. On payment on orders all initial require we delivery
7. period credit subsequent 15 for orders allow day we all a
8. allow delivery 5 please for days
9. soon from hearing to look you forward we

5. Put the words in the correct order to make a sentence/part of a sentence. The first word
of a sentence starts with capital letter. Please note that company names and position
names also start with capital letters.
1. network for of I manager the wish position apply to,

139
2. November in revue which computer edition of advertised the was.
3. as supervisor currently a network MM computing work at I.
4. I field the experience of supervision in network years have three.
5. taking prior current my to post,
6. Programmer I microcomputer plc for analyst as an worked,
7. responsible software for design where business I was new.
8. let information there further any require know is if me you please.
9. forward to you from look hearing

6. Fill in the missing words in the writing below.

Name the _ _ _ you are applying for and where you found out about it. For example, name the _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ where the ad. appeared and the date when it was printed. Include some _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ about yourself. This is not necessary if you are _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ a CV. Give the name,
address and _ _ _ _ _ number of two people who will _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ you to the potential
employer. It is best if one of these is a personal _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and one is a work referee. State the
times when you will be available for an _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.

7. Look up the following words in your dictionary and try to write a sentence using the
words given.

information including referee interview

job newspaper recommend phone

referee potential job employer

8. After having sent a covering letter to his future employer and a successful interview, Ato
Girma has received a letter in which his future employer informs him that the
employment is confirmed. Fill in the missing prepositions in this letter.

Dear Ato Girma

With reference (for/to/about ) our telephone conversation (from/in/of) 5 April, I am pleased to

confirm the offer (for/of/on) a position as a technical specialist (by/in/on) our company. Please

140
find enclosed two copies (of/to/for) the contract (about/of/on) employment. Would you please
sign both copies and return them (in/by/to) our office. We also send you an information leaflet
given (for/to/among) all employees providing information related (of/for/to) social benefits,
staff canteen and other facilities run (on/to/by) our company.

Should you have any queries (at/about/to) your conditions of employment, please do not
hesitate to contact the Personnel Department.

I look forward (about/for/to) seeing you (at/in/on) 15 April, and hope this will be the beginning
(of/for/in) a long and mutually beneficial co-operation.

Yours sincerely

Ato Beyene
Personnel Manager

9. Simple Past or Present Perfect? Choose the right options in the following letter.

Dear Mr. Henok

As you know, we have bought/bought two photocopiers from your company and been quite
satisfied with their performance. We have even recommended/even recommended your
photocopiers to our partner company. Recently, however, the standard of your maintenance
service has got/got much worse.

Our 230 CS photocopiers have been installed/were installed in 1999 and your maintenance
service has kept/kept them in perfect working order. When there has been/was a breakdown,
your company has used to/used to send a mechanic at 24 hours notice. Since March 2000 the
situation has become/became worse and the mechanic promises to come in about 3 or 4 days
and is unable to tell us when exactly he will be arriving. Last week he has arrived/arrived at
4pm on Friday afternoon and our secretary has been/was unable to leave work until your man
had finished. Let me say that we are not satisfied with the quality of the services your company
has provided/provided since last March. We have already spoken/already spoke with your
mechanic about that, but there has been no change so far.

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We look forward to hearing from you and hope that you can promise the immediate
improvement in your maintenance services.

Yours sincerely

10. Mention at least four basic pieces of information you need to include in a covering letter
for a job application.

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