KABALE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & APPLIED DESIGN AND FINE

ART
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FLUID MECHANICS LECTURE NOTES

Module II: Pressure and Fluid Statics bodies. Finally, we apply Newton’s second
law of motion to a body of fluid in motion
Learning Objectives that acts as a rigid body and analyze the
After completing this chapter, you should variation of pressure in fluids that undergo
be able to: linear acceleration and in rotating
containers. This chapter makes extensive
 determine the pressure at various use of force balances for bodies in static
locations in a fluid at rest. equilibrium, and it would be helpful if the
 explain the concept of manometers relevant topics from statics are first
and apply appropriate equations to reviewed.
determine pressures.
 calculate the hydrostatic pressure 2.1. Pressure
force on a plane or curved In fluids (gases or liquids) we use the term
submerged surface. pressure to mean:
 calculate the buoyant force and
discuss the stability of floating or The perpendicular force exerted by a fluid
submerged objects. per unit area.
2.0. Introduction The counterpart of pressure in solids is
normal stress. Since pressure is defined as
This unit deals with forces applied by force per unit area, it has the unit of
fluids at rest or in rigid-body motion. The newtons per square meter (N/m2), which is
fluid property responsible for those forces called a pascal (Pa). That is,
is pressure, which is a normal force
exerted by a fluid per unit area. We start 1Pa = 1N/m2
with a detailed discussion of pressure,
including absolute and gage pressures, the Mathematically, because pressure may
pressure at a point, the variation of vary from place to place, we have:
pressure with depth in a gravitational field, ∆
= lim
the barometer, the manometer, and other ∆→ ∆
pressure measurement devices.
The pressure unit pascal is too small for
This is followed by a discussion of the most pressures encountered in practice.
hydrostatic forces applied on submerged Therefore, its multiples kilopascal and
bodies with plane or curved surfaces. megapascal are commonly used. Three
other pressure units commonly used in
We then consider the buoyant force
practice, are bar, standard atmosphere, and
applied by fluids on submerged or floating
bodies, and discuss the stability of such

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BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
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 kilogram-force per square centimeter.  Weight of the fluid element in
Units in practice vary: vertical direction.
 1kPa = 1000Pa = 1000N/m2 From pressure definition;
 1MPa = 1000kPa = 1x106N/m2
 1bar = 105Pa = 100kPa = 0.1MPa = .
 1atm = 101,325Pa = 101.325kPa =
1.01325bars = 1013.25 millibars = .
For reference to pressures encountered on the
= .
street which are often imperial:
 1 atm = 14.696 psi (i.e. pounds per = = .!
square inch)
 1 psi = 6894.7 Pa ≈ 6.89 kPa ≈ 0.007 "# × #%
= ×!
MPa &
2.1.1. Pascal’s Law. where ' is the fluid density.
It states that the pressure or the intensity of Resolving,
pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in
all directions. ∑) = * ,
This is proved as: The fluid element is of very − ,-. (1*° − 3)=0
small dimensions i.e., , , and .
= 56 3 , but 56 3 =
Hence,
=
∑) = * ,

− 78 ,(1*° − 3) − &
×
! =0

= 9:3 + ! &
, but

9:3 = ,! ≈*
&
Figure. 2.1. Forces on a fluid element.
(Fluid element is small and its weight is
Consider an arbitrary fluid element of a negligible)
wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest as shown
in Fig 2.1. Let the width of the element Hence,
perpendicular to the plane of paper be unity = , and
and , , and are pressures or intensity
of pressure acting on the faces AB, BC, and = =
AC respectively.
The above equation shows that the pressure
If angle BAC is , then the forces acting on at any point in , , = directions is equal.
the fluid element are;
Since the choice of the fluid is completely
 Pressure forces normal to the arbitrary, pressure at any point is the same
surfaces in all directions.

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BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
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 H H
2.1.2. Pressure variation with depth in a
HI
∆I∆" = ! ∆"∆I ⟹ HI = ! = L
fluid at rest.
where M is the specific weight (or weight
The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is density) of the fluid.
obtained by the hydrostatic Law which
states that the rate of increase of pressure in From above we deduce that the rate of
a vertically downward direction must be increase of pressure in a vertical direction is
equal to the specific weight of the fluid at equal to the weight density of a fluid at that
that point. point. This is called hydrostatic law.
Consider a small fluid element as shown in If we integrate the result above, for liquids;
Fig. 2.2.
N = N! I

⟹ = ! I and I = !

where is the pressure above the

atmospheric pressure and ℎ is the point
from free surface and is called the pressure
head.
Example problems:
1. The pressure intensity at a point in a
fluid is given by 3.924N/cm2. Find the
corresponding height of a fluid at that
Figure. 2.2. Pressure variation in a static fluid.
point when a fluid is: (a) water (b) oil of
Let sp.gr. 0.9.
Soln
∆ = Cross-sectional area of the element Pressure, = 3.924 × 10U V/XB
Y
∆ℎ = Height of fluid element Corresponding height, ℎ = Z[

= Pressure on face AB (a). For water, ' = 1000\]/X^

3.924 × 10U
ℎ = Distance of fluid element from free ℎ= =`
1000 × 9.81
surface. (b). For oil,
'a = 0.9 × 1000 = 900\]/X^
The forces acting on the fluid element are:
3.924 × 10U
Pressure force ?@ acting ⊥ to AB ℎa = = `. ``
 900 × 9.81
downwards
 Pressure force ?B acting ⊥ to CD 2. An oil of sp. gr. 0.9 is contained in a
vertically upwards. vessel. At a point the height of oil is
 Weight CDED of the fluid element 40m. Find the corresponding height of
water at the point.
For equilibrium of the fluid element, Soln
− + =* Find pressure at a point
F &
Given,
H
∆" − G + HI ∆IJ ∆" + ! × (∆" × ∆I) ba = 0.9, ℎa = 40X,'c = 1000\]/X^
'a = ba . 'c = 1000 × 0.9 = 900\]/X^

By: Ainebyona Joseph,

BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
11
Email: [email protected].
Tel: 0782464423/0704158769
 = 'a ]ℎa = 900 × 9.81 × 40 Mathematically;
= 353,160V/XB
Absolute pressure
Y ^h^,@i
∴ Height of water, ℎc = Z = = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
g[ @ ×j.k@
= lm ?no = ?npq + ?[nr[D
Vacuum pressure
2.1.3. Absolute, gauge, atmospheric and =Atmospheric pressure – Absolute pressure
vacuum pressures.
?snt = ?npq − ?no
The pressure on a fluid is measured in two
different systems. In one system, its is Points to be considered for pressure
measured above the absolute zero or computation
complete vacuum and it’s called absolute  Any surface open to the atmosphere has
pressure and in the other system pressure is atmospheric pressure. In terms of gage
measured above the atmospheric pressure pressure, this is taken as zero.
and it is called gauge pressure.
 The shape of container does not matter
Absolute pressure. The pressure which is in the value of pressure as it is
measured with reference to absolute dependent on head and density and not
vacuum pressure. on weight of fluid.
 Pressures at the same depths in a
Gauge pressure. The pressure which is continuous mass of fluid are equal.
measured with the help of pressure
 Pnext level = Pprevious level + Pd where Pd =is
measuring instrument, in which the
pressure difference between two levels.
atmospheric pressure is taken a datum. The
The sign of Pd is plus if the next level is
atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked
lower than previous level and minus if
as zero.
the next level is higher than previous
Vacuum pressure. This is pressure below level
the atmospheric pressure.
Note:
The relationship between absolute pressure,
i. The atmospheric pressure at sea
gauge pressure, and vacuum pressure are
level at 15o C is 101.3kN/m2
shown in Fig 2.3
or10.13 N/cm2
ii. The atmospheric pressure head is
760mm of mercury or 10.33 m of
water
iii.

Figure. 2.3. Relationship between pressures.

By: Ainebyona Joseph,

BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
12
Email: [email protected].
Tel: 0782464423/0704158769
 Example problem. 2.1.4. Manometry and Pressure
measurement
What are the gauge pressure and absolute
pressure at a point 3m below the free The pressure of a fluid is measured by the
surface of a liquid having a density of 1.53 following devices;
x 103 kg/m3 if the atmospheric pressure is  Manometers
equivalent to 750mm of mercury? The  Mechanical gauges
specific weight of mercury is 13.6 and
density of water is 1000kg/m3 (Ans. Manometers
45,028N/m2, 145,090N/m2) These are devices used for measuring the
Soln pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing
the column of a fluid by the same or another
Depth of liquid, ℎ@ = 3X column of a fluid. They are classified as;
Density of liquid, '@ = 1,530\]/X^ 1. Simple manometers
2. Differential manometers
Atmospheric pressure head, ℎa = 750XX
of mercury Simple manometers.
ℎa = 0.75X of mercury A simple manometer consists of a glass
tube having one of its ends connected to a
Density of mercury,
point where pressure is to be measured and
'a = 'c ba = 1,000 × 13.6 the other end remains open to the
atmosphere. Common types of simple
= 13,600\]/X^ manometers are;
Atmospheric pressure, npq = 'a ]ℎa 1. Piezometer
= 13,600 × 9.81 × 0.75 2. U-tube manometer

= 100,062V/XB Piezometer. A piezometer is the simplest

form of manometer which can be used for
Pressure at 3m from free surface of the
measuring moderate pressures of liquids. It
liquid
consists of a glass tube (Fig 2.4) inserted in
[nr[D = '@ ]ℎ@ = 1,530 × 9.81 × 3 the wall of a vessel or of a pipe, containing
liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
&
= `v, *&wx/ The tube extends vertically upward to such
a height that liquid can freely rise in it
Absolute pressure, no = npq + [nr[D
without overflowing. The pressure at any
&
= 100,062 + 45,028 = F`v, *1*x/ point in the liquid is indicated by the height
of the liquid in the tube above that point,
which can be read on the scale attached to
it.

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BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
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Email: [email protected].
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 Also, obviously, such a gauge is useless for
measuring gas pressures.
U-tube manometer.
Piezometers cannot be employed when
large pressures in the lighter liquids are to
be measured, since this would require very
Figure. 2.4.(b) Piezometer tube fitted to an open long tubes, which cannot be handled
vessel. conveniently. Furthermore gas pressures
cannot be measured by the piezometers
because a gas forms no free atmospheric
surface. These limitations can be overcome
by the use of U-tube manometers.
U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube
bent in U-shape, one end of which is
connected to a point at which pressure is to
be measured and the other end remains
open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig.
2.5.

Figure. 2.4.(b) Piezometer tube fitted to a closed

pipe.

If at a point A, the height of the liquid say

water is ℎ in a piezometer tube, then the
pressure at A is,
&
" = ! I(x/ )
The problem with this type of manometer is
that for usual civil engineering applications
the pressure is large (e.g., 100 kN/m2) and
so the height of the column is impractical
(e.g.,10 m).
Piezometers measure gauge pressure only
(at the surface of the liquid), since the
surface of the liquid in the tube is subjected
to atmospheric pressure. A piezometer tube
is not suitable for measuring negative
pressure; as in such a case the air will enter
in pipe through the tube.

By: Ainebyona Joseph,

BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
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Email: [email protected].
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 ℎB = Height of the heavy liquid in the right
limb above the datum line,
ℎ = Pressure in pipe, expressed in terms of
head,
= Pressure in pipe
b@ = Specific gravity of the light liquid, and
bB = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.
The pressures in the left limb and right limb
above the datum line X–X are equal (as the
pressures at two points at the same level in
a continuous homogeneous liquid are
equal).
Pressure head above X–X in the left limb
= ℎ + ℎ@ b@
Pressure head above X–X in the right limb
= ℎB bB
Equating these two pressures, we get:
I + IF yF = I& y& ,
I = I& y& − IF yF (In terms of head)
Or
= !& I& − !F IF
(ii) For negative pressure:
Refer to Fig. 2.5 (b).
Pressure head above X–X in the left limb
= ℎ + ℎ@ b@ + ℎB bB
Figure. 2.5. U-tube manometer. Pressure head above X–X in the right limb
(i) For positive pressure: = 0.
Refer to Fig. 2.5 (a). Equating these two pressures, we get:
Let, A be the point at which pressure is to I + IF yF + I& y& = *
be measured. X–X is the datum line as
shown in Fig. 2.5. I = −(IF yF + I& y& )
Let, Or
ℎ@ = Height of the light liquid in the left = −(!& I& + !F IF )
limb above the datum line,

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BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
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Email: [email protected].
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 Differential Manometers
A differential manometer is used to
measure the difference in pressures
between two points in a pipe, or in two
different pipes. In its simplest form a
differential manometer consists of a U-
tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two
ends are connected to the points, whose
difference of pressures is required to be
found out. The following are the most
commonly used types of differential Figure. 2.6(b). U-tube differential manometers.
manometers:
1. U-tube differential manometer.
2. Inverted U-tube differential Case I. Fig. 2.6 (a) shows a differential
manometer. manometer whose two ends are connected
with two different points A and B at the
same level and containing same liquid.
1. U-tube differential manometer:
Let,
A U-tube differential manometer is shown
in Fig. 2.6. ℎ = Difference of mercury levels (heavy
liquid) in the U-tube,
ℎ@ = Distance of the centre of A from the
mercury level in the right limb,
b@ (= bB ) = Specific gravity of liquid at the
two points A and B,
b = Specific gravity of heavy liquid or
mercury in the U-tube,
ℎz = Pressure head at A, and
ℎ{ = Pressure head at B.
Figure. 2.6(a). Two pipes at the same level. We know that the pressures in the left limb
and right limb, above the datum line, are
equal.
Pressure head in the left limb
= ℎz + (ℎ@ + ℎ )b@
Pressure head in the right limb
= ℎ{ + ℎ@ × b@ + ℎ × b
Equating these two equations, we get;

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BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
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Email: [email protected].
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 I" + (IF + I)yF = I# + IF yF + Iy (I" − I# ) = I& × y& + I × y − (IF + I)yF

I" − I# = IF yF + Iy– (IF + I)yF = I(y − yF ) + I& y& − IF yF

= I(y– yF ) Hence, the difference of pressure heads at

A and B,
Hence, the difference of pressure head,
I" − I# = I(y– yF ) + I& y& − IF yF
I" − I# = I(y– yF )
Or
Case II. Fig. 2.6 (b) shows a differential
manometer whose two ends are connected " − # = I (! − !F ) + !& I& − !F IF
to two different points A and B at different 2. Inverted U-tube differential
levels and containing different liquids. manometer:
Let, This type of manometer is used for measuring
difference of two pressures where accuracy is
ℎ = Difference of mercury levels (heavy the major consideration.
liquid) in the U-tube,
Refer to Fig. 2.7. It consists of an inverted U-
ℎ@ = Distance of the centre of A, from the tube, containing light liquid, whose two ends
mercury level in the left limb, are connected to the points, (A and B) whose
difference of pressures is to be found out.
ℎB = Distance of the centre of B, from the
mercury level in the right limb,
b@ = Specific gravity of liquid in pipe A,
bB = Specific gravity of liquid in pipe B,
b = Specific gravity of heavy liquid or
mercury,
ℎz = Pressure head at A, and
ℎ{ = Pressure head at B.
z = Pressure at A, and

{ = Pressure head at B.
Figure. 2.7. Inverted differential manometers.
Considering the pressure heads above the
Let,
datum line X–X, we get:
ℎ@ = Height of liquid in the left limb below
Pressure head in the left limb the datum line X–X,
= I" + (IF + I)yF ℎB = Height of liquid in the right limb below
the datum line,
Pressure head in the right limb
ℎ = Difference of levels of the light liquid in
= I# + I& × y& + I × y the right and left limbs (also known as
Equating the above pressure heads, we get: manometer reading),

I" + (IF + I)yF = I# + I& × y& + I × y b@ = Specific gravity of the liquid in the left
limb,

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BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
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 bB = Specific gravity of the liquid in the right (a) ℎ@ = 0.5 m and liquid in the left limb rises
limb, to 0.9 m above X-X;
b = Specific gravity of the light liquid, (b) ℎ@ = 0.1 m and liquid in the left limb falls
to 0.2 m below X-X;
ℎz = Pressure head at A, and
4. A differential manometer is used to measure
ℎ{ = Pressure head at B. the pressure difference between two points in a
z = Pressure at A, and pipe carrying water. The manometric liquid is
mercury and the points have a 0.3 m height
{ = Pressure head at B. difference. Calculate the pressure difference
when ℎ = 0.7 m
We know that pressure heads in the left limb
and the right limb below the datum line X–X 5. For the configuration shown, calculate the
are equal. weight of the piston if the gauge pressure
reading is 70 kPa.
Pressure head in the left limb below X–X
= I" − IF × yF
Pressure head in the right limb below X–X
= I# – I& × y& – I × y
Equating the above heads, we get:
I" – IF × yF = I#– I& × y& – I × y
I" – I# = IF × yF – I& × y& – I × y
Hence,
I" – I# = IF yF – I& y& – Iy
Or
6. A hydraulic jack having a ram 150 mm in
"– # = !F IF – !& I& – ! I diameter lifts a weight W = 20 kN under the
action of a 30 mm plunger. What force is
required on the plunger to lift the weight?

Assignment 2. – Pressure Measurement

1. What is the pressure head, in metres of
water, exerted by the atmosphere?
2. What is the maximum gauge pressure of
water that can be measured using a piezometer
2.5 m high?
3. A U-tube manometer is used to measure the
pressure of a fluid of density 800kg/m3.
If the density of the manometric liquid is 13.6
× 103 kg/m3, what is the gauge pressure in the
pipe if

By: Ainebyona Joseph,

BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
18
Email: [email protected].
Tel: 0782464423/0704158769