Because learning changes everything.

Sociology: A Brief Introduction 14e

Richard T. Schaefer

Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
 Because learning changes everything. ®

Instructor: Dr. Tôn Nữ Ngọc Hân (Ph.D)

Center for Public Administration
International University (VNU-HCMC)

Chapter 5

Social Interaction, Groups, and Social Structure

Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
 Inside

Social Interaction and Reality

Elements of Social Structure

Understanding Organizations

Social Structure in Global Perspective

Social Policy and Organizations:

The State of the Unions Worldwide

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 A Look Ahead

Social interaction: the ways in which people respond to one

another, whether face-to-face or over the telephone or on the
computer.
Social structure: the way in which a society is organized
into predictable relationships.
This chapter looks at the following:
• What determines a person’s status in society?
• How do our social roles affect our social interactions?
• What is the place of social institutions such as the family,
religion, and government in our social structure?

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 Social Interaction and Reality 1

Reality is shaped by our perceptions, evaluations, and

definitions.
Our response to someone’s behavior is based on the
meaning we attach to his or her actions.
Further, that meaning is shaped by our interactions with the
larger society.

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 Social Interaction and Reality 2

The nature of social interaction and what constitutes reality

varies across cultures.
• In Western cultures, couples see marriage as both a relationship
and a social status; and professions of love are an expected
part of marriage.
• In Japan, marriage is considered more of a social status.
The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power
within a society.
Members of subordinate groups challenge traditional
definitions and begin to perceive and experience reality in a
new way.

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 Video
Japanese husbands shout for beloved wife day

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cDgZH8qfmg

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 SOCIAL REALITY ON TATTOOS

NEGATIVE RESPONSE POSITIVE RESPONSE

Weird or kooky Society’s trendsetters and major

Associated them with fringe sports figures
countercultural groups
(punk rockers, biker gangs, skin-
heads)

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 Skin-head

Punk rockers Biker gang

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 DAVID BECKHAM – FOOTBALL PLAYER

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 LIONEL MESSI – FOOTBALL PLAYER

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 CRISTINO RONADO (CR7) – FOOTBALL PLAYER

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 ITALIA TEAM IN EURO 2020

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 TRẦN LẬP – CỐ NHẠC SĨ – CA SĨ – BAN NHẠC BỨC TƯỜNG

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 TRẦN LẬP – CỐ NHẠC SĨ – CA SĨ – BAN NHẠC BỨC TƯỜNG

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 The nature of social interaction and what
constitutes reality varies across cultures

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 Elements of Social Structure

Social structures can be broken down into five elements:

• Statuses.
• Social roles.
• Groups.
• Social networks.
• Social institutions.

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 Statuses 1

Status: any of the full range of socially defined positions

within a large group or society, from lowest to highest.
A person can hold more than one status at same time.
Examples:
• Son or daughter.
• Neighbor.
• Student or teacher.
• Parent.

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 Statuses 2

Ascribed status: assigned to a person by society without

regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics.
• Generally assigned at birth.
• Examples include race, gender, and age.
• Significant because of social meanings.
Achieved status: status one earns through one’s own
efforts.
• Examples: lawyer, social worker, prisoner, and computer
programmer.

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 Statuses 3

Statuses are complex.

• Ascribed status heavily influences achieved status.
• Whether ascribed or achieved, a status can be positive or
negative.
• Some statuses can be either achieved or ascribed, depending
on the circumstances.
Master status: a status that dominates other statuses and
determines a person’s general position in society.
• For example, many people find that their status of disabled
receives undue weight.

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 FIGURE 5-1 SOCIAL STATUSES

© McGraw Hill LLC (photo): ESB Professional/Shutterstock 21

 ARTHUR ASHE
(1943 – 1993)

◦ Had remarkable career as a tennis star

◦ Died of AIDS

Tennis
star

AIDS
patient

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 STEPHEN HAWKING
(1942 – 2018)
The greatest scientist spanned from physics
to cultures
Suffering from disability
A fatal neurodegenerative disease resulting
in the death of motor neurons in the brain
and spinal cord, which gradually paralyzed
him over decades The
greatest
scientist

Paralyzed
patient

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Throughout the world, many people with disabilities
find that their status as disabled receives undue
weight, overshadowing their actual ability to perform
successfully in meaningful employment.

24
 MALCOLM X
(1925 – 1965)
An eloquent and controversial advocate
of Black power and Black pride during
the early 1960s.
His White teachers discouraged him
from taking more challenging courses,
which they felt were not appropriate for
Black students.
In his 8th grade, his White teacher
advised him that his goal of becoming a
lawyer was not realistic and encouraged
him instead to become a carpenter.

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 MALCOLM X
(1925 – 1965)
His being a Black man (ascribed
status) was an obstacle to his dream
of becoming a lawyer (achieved
status). In the United States, the
ascribed statuses of race and gender
can function as master statuses that
have an important impact on one’s
potential to achieve a desired
professional and social status.

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 Research Today: Disability

5-1 Disability as a Master Status:

• Does your campus present barriers to disabled students? If so,
what kinds of barriers—physical, attitudinal, or both? Describe
some of them.
• Why do you think nondisabled people see disability as the most
important characteristic of a disabled person? What can be
done to help people see beyond the wheelchair and the Seeing
Eye dog?

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 Social Roles 1

Social role: a set of expectations for people who occupy a

given social position or status.
Role conflict: occurs when incompatible expectations arise
from two or more social positions held by the same person.
• Roles of one status may conflict with roles of another status.
• Conflict can also occur when individuals move into occupations
that are not common among people with their ascribed status.
Role strain: the difficulty that arises when the same social
position imposes conflicting demands and expectations.
• People who belong to minority cultures can experience role
strain while working in the mainstream culture.

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 Social Roles 2

Role exit: the process of disengagement from a role that is

central to one’s self-identity in order to establish a new role
and identity.
Ebaugh’s four-stage model of role exit:
• Doubt.
• Search for alternatives.
• Action stage or departure.
• Creation of a new identity.

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 Groups 1

Group: any number of people with similar norms, values,

and expectations who interact with one another on a regular
basis.
• Play a vital part in society’s social structure.
• Social interaction often takes place within groups and is
influenced by their norms and sanctions.
• Expectations associated with many social roles are more clearly
defined in the context of a group.
• Group solidarity can influence recovery from traumatic events.

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 Groups 2

Primary group: a small group characterized by intimate,

face-to-face association and cooperation.
• Examples include family, street gangs, and fraternities and
sororities.
• Pivotal role in socialization and development of roles and
statuses.
Secondary group: a formal, impersonal group in which
there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding.
• Examples include workplace groups and larger social clubs.

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 TABLE 5-1 COMPARISON OF PRIMARY OR SECONDARY GROUPS

Primary Group Secondary Group

Generally small Usually large
Relatively long period of interaction Relatively short duration, often
temporary
Intimate, face-to-face association Little social intimacy or mutual
understanding
Some emotional depth to relationships Relationships generally superficial
Cooperative, friendly More formal and impersonal

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 Groups 3

In-group: any group or category to which people feel they

belong.
• Everyone who is regarded as “we” or “us.”
Out-group: any group or category to which people feel they
do not belong.
• “They” or “them.”
Proper behavior for the in-group is simultaneously viewed as
unacceptable behavior for the out-group.
• “In-group virtues” are “out-group vices.”

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 Groups 4

Reference group: any group that individuals use as a

standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior.
Two basic purposes of reference groups:
• Serve a normative function by setting and enforcing standards
of conduct and belief.
• Perform a comparison function by serving as a standard against
which people can measure themselves and others.
Coalition: a temporary or permanent alliance geared toward
a common goal.
• Can be broad-based or narrow.
• Some intentionally short-lived.

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 Social Networks

Social network: a series of social relationships that link a

person directly to others, and through them indirectly to still
more people.
• Social networks are one of the five basic elements of social
structure.
• They can center on virtually any activity.
• Research indicates that in person and online, not everyone
participates equally in social networks.
• Involvement in a social network is referred to as networking.

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 Research Today: Twitter

5-3 Twitter Networks: From Wildfires to Hurricanes

• Why did the number of retweets vary by type of disaster and
type of message? Would you have studied any other variables?
• What are the most important practical implications of this
research?

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 Social Institutions 1

Social institutions: organized patterns of beliefs and

behavior centered on basic social needs.
• Government preserves order.
• Family replaces personnel.

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 Social Institutions 2

From the functionalist perspective, there are five major tasks

or functional prerequisites that a society or relatively
permanent group must accomplish if it is to survive:
• Replacing personnel.
• Teaching new recruits.
• Producing and distributing goods and services.
• Preserving order.
• Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose.

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 Social Institutions 3

Conflict theorists object to the idea that the outcome is

necessarily efficient and desirable.
• Major institutions help maintain privileges of most powerful
individuals and groups within society.
• Social institutions such as education have an inherently
conservative nature.
• Social institutions also operate in gendered and racist
environments.

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 Social Institutions 4

Social institutions affect everyday our behavior.

Interactionist theorists emphasize that our social behavior is
conditioned by:
• The roles and statuses we accept.
• The groups to which we belong.
• The institutions within which we function.

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 FIGURE 5-2 THE ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE

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 TABLE 5-2 SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL
INSTITUTIONS

Perspective Role of Social Institutions Focus

Functionalist Meeting basic social needs Essential functions
Conflict Meeting basic social needs Maintenance of privileges
and inequality
Interactionist Fostering everyday behavior Influence of the roles and
statuses we accept

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 EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
One example of Social institutions

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 GROUP ASSIGNMENT

Social institutions
Education, Family & Religion

Watching the video

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vStLGBTKMBQ

Summarizing the main contents in this video

Showing your understanding on these social institutions by using different

sociological perspectives

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 GROUP ASSIGNMENT

Social institutions
Government, Economy, Health and Medicine

Watching the video

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L72h7bk6HZs

Summarizing the main contents in this video

Showing your understanding on these social institutions by using different

sociological perspectives

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 Understanding Organizations

Formal organization: a group designed for a special

purpose and structured for maximum efficiency.
• Examples include the U.S. Postal Service, McDonald’s, and the
Boston Pops orchestra.
• Formal organizations vary in size, specificity of goals, and
degree of efficiency—but they are all structured to facilitate
large-scale operations.
• In our society, formal organizations fulfill an enormous variety of
personal and societal needs.
• Ascribed statuses can influence how we see ourselves within
formal organizations.

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 Characteristics of a Bureaucracy 1

Bureaucracy: a component of formal organization that uses

rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency.
For analytical purposes, Max Weber developed an ideal type
of bureaucracy.
• Ideal type: a construct or model for evaluating specific cases.
• Perfect bureaucracies do not exist.
• Weber emphasized the basic similarity of structure and process
found in otherwise dissimilar enterprises of religion, government,
education, and business.

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 Characteristics of a Bureaucracy 2

Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy:

(1) Division of labor:
• Specialized experts perform specific tasks.
• Fragmentation of work can divide workers and remove any
connection they might feel to the objective of the bureaucracy.
• Alienation: a condition of estrangement or dissociation from the
surrounding society.
• Trained incapacity: workers become so specialized that they
develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems.

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 Characteristics of a Bureaucracy 3

Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy:

(2) Hierarchy of authority:
• Each position is under the supervision of a higher authority.
(3) Written rules and regulations:
• Written rules and regulations offer employees clear standards
for an adequate performance.
• They also provide a valuable sense of continuity in a
bureaucracy.
• Goal displacement: the term used by Robert Merton to refer to
overzealous conformity to official regulations.

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 Characteristics of a Bureaucracy 4

Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy:

(4) Impersonality:
• Work is carried out “without hatred or passion”
(sine ira et studio).
• Intended to guarantee equal treatment for each person.
• Contributes to the cold and uncaring feeling of modern
organizations.

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 Characteristics of a Bureaucracy 5

Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy:

(5) Employment based on technical qualifications:
• Hiring based on qualifications.
• Performance measured against specific standards.
• Peter principle: every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise
to his or her level of incompetence.

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 TABLE 5-3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A BUREAUCRACY

Negative Negative
Consequence— Consequence—
Characteristic Positive Consequence For the Individual For the Organization
Division of labor Produces efficiency in a Produces trained Produces a narrow
large-scale corporation incapacity perspective
Hierarchy of authority Clarifies who is in Deprives employees of Permits concealment of
command a voice in decision mistakes
making
Written rules and Let workers know what Stifle initiative and Lead to goal
regulation is expected of them imagination displacement
Impersonality Reduces bias Contributes to feelings Discourages loyalty to
of alienation company
Employment based on Discourages favoritism Discourages ambition to Fosters Peter principle
technical qualifications and reduces rivalries improve oneself
elsewhere

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 Characteristics of a Bureaucracy 6

Bureaucratization: the process by which a group,

organization, or social movement becomes increasingly
bureaucratic.
• Can take place in large and small group settings.
Iron law of oligarchy: describes how even a democratic
organization will eventually develop into a bureaucracy ruled
by a few, called an oligarchy.
• People who achieve leadership roles have the skills, knowledge,
and charismatic appeal to direct or control others.

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 Sociology in the Global Community:
McDonaldization
5-4 McDonald’s and the Worldwide Bureaucratization of
Society:
• McDonaldization: the process by which the principles of
bureaucratization have increasingly shaped organizations
worldwide.
• What features of fast-food restaurants do you appreciate? Do
you have any complaints about them?
• Analyze life at your college using Weber’s model of
bureaucracy. What elements of McDonaldization do you see?
Do you wish life were less McDonaldized?

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 Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture 1

Classical theory of formal organizations: workers are

motivated almost entirely by economic rewards.
• Also known as the scientific management approach.
• Only the physical constraints on workers limit their productivity.
• Workers are a resource.
• The formation of unions helped change this view.

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 Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture 2

Human relations approach: emphasizes the role of people,

communication, and participation in a bureaucracy.
• Planning focuses on workers’ feelings, frustrations, and
emotional need for job satisfaction.
• Stresses the less formal aspects of bureaucracies, such as
informal groups and social networks.
Bureaucracy’s other face: term coined by Charles Page to
refer to the unofficial activities and interactions that are a
basic part of daily organizational life.

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 Social Structure in Global Perspective

Modern societies are complex, especially compared to

earlier social arrangements.
Sociologists Émile Durkheim, Ferdinand Tönnies, and
Gerhard Lenski developed ways to contrast modern societies
with simpler forms of social structure.

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 Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic
Solidarity 1

Durkheim argued in Division of Labor (1893) that social

structure depends on the division of labor in a society.
Mechanical solidarity: a collective consciousness that
emphasizes group solidarity
• Characteristic of societies with minimal division of labor.
• All individuals perform the same tasks.
• The group is the dominating force.
• There are few social roles.

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 Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic
Solidarity 2

Organic solidarity: a collective consciousness resting on

the need a society’s members have for one another.
• Greater division of labor as societies become more
technologically advanced.
• Dependence on others is essential for group survival.

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 Tönnies’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
Gemeinschaft: a close-knit community that is typical of rural
life.
• People have similar backgrounds.
• Everyone knows each other.
• Little privacy.
• Social control maintained through informal means.
Gesellschaft: an ideal community characteristic of modern
life.
• Most people are strangers.
• Relationships governed by social roles that grow out of tasks.
• Little consensus concerning values or commitment to the group.
• Social control maintained through formal means.

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 TABLE 5-4 COMPARISON OF THE GEMEINSCHAFT AND
GESELLSCHAFT

Gemeinschaft Gesellschaft
Rural life typifies this form. Urban life typifies this form.
People share a feeling of community that People have little sense of commonality.
results from their similar backgrounds and Their differences appear more striking than
life experiences. their similarities.
Social interactions are intimate and familiar. Social interactions are likely to be
impersonal and task-specific.
People maintain a spirit of cooperation and Self-interest dominates.
unity of will.
Tasks and personal relationships cannot be The task being performed is paramount;
separated. relationships are subordinate.
People place little emphasis on individual Privacy is valued.
privacy.
Informal social control predominates. Formal social control is evident.
People are not very tolerant of deviance. People are more tolerant of deviance.
Emphasis is on ascribed statuses. Emphasis is on achieved statuses.
Social change is relatively limited. Social change is very evident, even within a
generation.

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 Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach 1

Sociocultural evolution: human societies undergo a

process of change characterized by a dominant pattern.
• Long-term social trends resulting from the interplay of continuity,
innovation, and selection.
• Society’s level of technology is critical to the way it is organized.
Technology: cultural information about the ways in which
the material resources of the environment may be used to
satisfy human needs and desires.

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 Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach 2

The first type of preindustrial society was the hunting-and-

gathering society.
Hunting-and-gathering society: people rely on whatever
foods and fibers are readily available.
• Technology is minimal.
• People constantly move in search of food.
• Kinship ties are strong and the source of authority.

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 Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach 3

By the close of the 20th century, hunting-and-gathering

societies had virtually disappeared.
Horticultural societies: people plant seeds and crops rather
than merely subsist on available foods.
• Much less nomadic.
• Greater emphasis on the product of tools and household
objects.
Agrarian society: engage primarily in the production of food.
• Technological innovations such as the plow increase crop yields.
• Emergence of larger settlements.

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 Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach 4

Industrial society: a society that depends on mechanization

to produce its goods and services.
• Reliance on inventions and energy sources.
• Many societies shifted to an industrial base.
• Specialization of tasks and manufacturing of goods became
common.
• People move away from family as a self-sufficient production
unit.

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 Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach 5

Postindustrial society: economic system engaged primarily

in the processing and control of information.
• Main output is services rather than manufactured goods.
• Decline in organized working-class groups.
Postmodern society: a technologically sophisticated society
preoccupied with consumer goods and media images.
• Consumption of goods and information on a mass scale.
• Global perspective.

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 TABLE 5-5 STAGES OF SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION

Societal Type First Appearance Characteristics

Hunting-and- Beginning of human life Nomadic; reliance on readily available
gathering food and fibers
Horticultural About 12,000 years ago More settled; development of agriculture
and limited technology
Agrarian About 5,000 years ago Larger, more stable settlements; improved
technology and increased crop yield
Industrial 1760 to 1850 Reliance on mechanical power and new
sources of energy; centralized workplaces;
economic interdependence; formal
education
Postindustrial 1960s Reliance on services, especially the
processing and control of information;
expanded middle class
Postmodern Latter 1970s High technology; mass consumption of
consumer goods and media images;
cross-cultural integration

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 Sociology in the Global Community:
Disney World
5-5 Disney World: A Postmodern Theme Park:
• Hyperconsumerism: the practice of buying more than we need
or want, and often more than we can afford.
• In just the last 24 hours, what evidence of hyperconsumerism
have you witnessed?
• How often do you find yourself moving seamlessly across time
or space, in one way or another?

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 Social Policy and Organizations:
The State of the Unions Worldwide 1

Looking at the Issue:

• Labor unions: organized workers who share either same skill
or same employer.
• Labor union practices were historically discriminatory; today,
some actually ensure equal pay for minorities.
• Labor union power varies greatly from country to country.
• Reasons for the ongoing decline in labor union membership:
• Changes in the type of industry.
• Growth in part-time jobs.
• The legal system.
• Globalization.
• Employer offensives.
• Automation.

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 Social Policy and Organizations:
The State of the Unions Worldwide 2

Applying Sociology:
• Marxists and functionalists view union development as a logical
response to organizational growth.
• Sociologists have linked the decline in union membership to a
widening gap between hourly workers’ wages and managerial
and executive compensation.

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 Social Policy and Organizations:
The State of the Unions Worldwide 3

Initiating Policy:
• The United States is unique among industrial democracies in
allowing employers to actively oppose union development.
• In Europe, labor unions tend to play a major role in politics.
• International trade unions sometimes speak out on common
issues.
• No global union has emerged.

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 FIGURE 5-3 LABOR UNION MEMBERSHIP BY STATE, 2018

Access the text alternative to slide image

© McGraw Hill LLC Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2020a. 72

 FIGURE 5-4 LABOR UNION MEMBERSHIP WORLDWIDE
Note: U.S. data for 2019, other countries’ data are for 2016.
Access the text alternative to slide image

© McGraw Hill LLC Sources: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2020a; International Labour Organization 2019. Flags: admin_design/Shutterstock 73
 Taking Sociology to Work

Sarah Levy, Owner, S. Levy Foods:

• Sarah saw the connection between business and sociology in
her introductory sociology course.
• Have you ever thought of starting your own business? If so,
what do you think the key to your success might be?
• Would business have been a more practical major for Sarah?
Why or why not?

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 Because learning changes everything. ®

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