Materials Today: Proceedings 44 (2021) 3732–3737

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Materials Today: Proceedings

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Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques for low carbon steel welded

joints: A review and experimental study
J.R. Deepak a,⇑, V.K. Bupesh Raja a, D. Srikanth a, H. Surendran a, M.M. Nickolas b
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai 119, India
b
Centre for Quality Assurance and Non-Destructive Evaluation, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai 119, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Radiography, Ultrasonic, Magnetic Particle, Liquid Penetration and Visual Inspection tests are the com-
Received 3 September 2020 mon Non-destructive testing techniques that are used to test the weld joints. In this research article
Received in revised form 6 November 2020 an introduction about the need for various (NDT) Non-Destructive Testing techniques and the methods
Accepted 18 November 2020
of evaluation adopted for weld joints which can be used for various applications like shipping, construc-
Available online 8 January 2021
tion, railway industries, etc are briefly discussed. This research work emphasizes the NDT techniques per-
taining to inspect low carbon steel weld joints. Case studies related to various defects in welding are also
Keywords:
discussed. This research is an attempt to find the sensitivity on various (NDT) Non-Destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing
Welding defects
techniques to detect the welding defects.
Low carbon steel Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd.2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Weathering steel Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 3rd International Con-
Corten A588 grade steel ference on Frontiers in Automobile & Mechanical Engineering.

1. Introduction may be in various categories like cracks, incomplete penetration,

incomplete fusion, porosity, inclusions, etc. [13]. and are can be dif-
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a method of testing the mate- ferent in size, type and position [6]. These defects are danger in
rial without destroying. This means that the inspection, evaluating service.
the welded joints material, components or any defects found in the Low carbon steel grade A588 has a high strength and is also
welded part or the differences between the materials in character- called as weathering steel. When it is exposed to external weather
istics without damaging the material. This means that the conditions [5], its corrosion-resistant properties become higher.
component- the casting, welding, and forging, can continue to be A588 steel has more corrosion resistance as compared to carbon
used and that the non -destructive testing method has done no steel [10]. It is used in almost every application like transmission
harm. NDT can be used to check the quality of the material from and phone towers, freight cars, bridges and housing enclosures. It
the stages of raw material, fabrication and in-service inspection. maintains the weight and durability with a longer life cycle
NDT used to make sure that the material has the capacity to assure [11,12]. The following types of Non-destructive tests are Visual
that they do not fail within the calculated time. Non– destructive inspection, Ultrasonic test, magnetic particle test, radiography test,
evaluation has many terms to describe the activities within the liquid penetration test. The Table 1 below summarizes the Capabil-
field. Some of the terms are non-destructive testing and non- ities and limitations of various NDT techniques.
destructive evaluation (NDE) [1,2]. These include the examination,
inspection which is similar that they decide whether the material
contains irregularities, flaws, or defects. Using NDT techniques 1.1. Visual inspection
one can select a comparatively imperfection or defect less material
and to study the behaviour of newly manufactured material [3,4]. Visual testing is the most common process of inspecting the
By NDT techniques many flaws can be detected, these flaws can be material. It is a technique of overlooking a piece of material using
accepted or rejected depends on the acceptance standard. Defects the unaided or aided eye to search for defects by the trained
inspector to visually inspect the material. Visual inspection testing
can be used for the external and internal surface of the welded sur-
⇑ Corresponding author. face including the piping, pressure vessels and storage tanks and
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.R. Deepak). other equipment. Compared to other processes, it is less in cost.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.578
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd.2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 3rd International Conference on Frontiers in Automobile & Mechanical Engineering.
J.R. Deepak, V.K. Bupesh Raja, D. Srikanth et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 44 (2021) 3732–3737

Table 1
Capabilities of NDT method.

Technique Capabilities Limitations

Visual More visible surface Small defects are difficult to detect
inspection defects
Ultrasonic Surface and interior Testing material must be a
defects conductor of sound
Magnetic Surface and layer Suitable for magnetic material
particle defects
Radiography Internal defects Ability is limited to detect fine
cracks
Liquid Surface defects Not suitable for porous material
penetrate

This process may require optical aids like magnifying glasses,

Fig. 2. Magnetic particle NDT method.
lenses, mirrors, fiberscope, bore scopes etc to perform satisfacto-
rily. The Fig. 1 flow chart below shows the steps by which visual
inspection method is carried to investigate the defects. detects the discontinuities by reflecting the transmitted sound
waves in welded material. The UT has high penetrating sensitivity
1.2. Magnetic particle testing [8,9]. It can be used in many industries such as railroad wheels,
shipping industries and pressure vessels.
Magnetic particle examination is used for detecting the pres- The test is carried out with a transducer at the frequency range
ence of discontinuities at surface or near the surface (sub- of 4 MHz and an angle of 700. The equipment consists of pulse/re-
surface) of ferromagnetic materials like cracks and other disconti- ceiver, transducer and display. Pulse/receiver produces a high volt-
nuities like lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, etc. Sensitivity is age electric pulse. A couplant is used to transmit the sound wave
higher in both surface discontinuities and sub-surface discontinu- from the contact transducer to the testing material. Couplant used
ities and rapidly becomes less with more amount of depth of to test the weld plate is machine oil. Before the inspection calibra-
breaks below the surface of the material. This MPT can be carried tion will be done on a reference standard. Two different calibration
out by many techniques like yoke, prod, headshot, central conduc- blocks are employed in this test namely IIW V1 block and IIW V2
tor, etc. block. The chart Fig. 3 below shows the various stages by which
The low carbon weld plates were tested by yoke technique with Ultrasonic testing method is carried to investigate the defects.
two types of current, one is alternating current (AC) which is used
to detect the surface discontinuities. Another one is direct current
(DC) which used to detect the sub-surface discontinuities. The
1.4. Radiography
magnetism which is used is longitudinal. The experiment is
repeated for 2–3 times by changing the position of the yoke by
Radiography uses an x-ray radiation which passes through the
multidirectional. Dry magnetic iron powder is used as the medium
testing material and captured by a recording device. The x-rays
to inspect the material. The magnetic particles attracted to the area
have the ability to penetrate through the welded material. The
of flux deviation. The deviation indicates the discontinuities in the
specimen is tested by placing between the source of radiation
surface. The Fig. 2 below shows the stages by which Magnetic Par-
and film. The film is used in radiography testing works recording
ticle NDT Testing is carried out.
medium. Both sides of the film base are covered by the protective
coating and emulsion coating. The base is polyester and provides
1.3. Ultrasonic testing transparent medium. The emulsion coating increases the quantity
of radiation absorbed. Protective coating is done to safeguard the
The ultrasonic testing is applied to detect the internal defects of film externally [6,7]. Large radiation is passed in defecting areas
welded materials. The principle of ultrasonic testing is more or less and the film appears to be darker. After that the film is processed
equal to echo sounding [6]. A small range of pulse from the ultra- for any possibilities of defects and varying density. The sensitivity
sonic sound is produced by the electric charge applied to a crystal of the x-ray radiation is 2–4% of material thickness. Gamma radio-
called piezoelectric which willvibrate for a less period at a fre- graphy is identical to x-ray radiography in function. Gamma rays
quency that is equal to the thickness of the crystal. Ultrasonic that are produced by radioisotopes such as cobalt 60 can penetrate
through the specimen and can inspect better thickness than x-rays.

Fig. 1. Visual inspection NDT method. Fig. 3. Ultrasonic testing NDT method.

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breaking defects in non-porous materials. This is applicable to all

ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Materials that are commonly
tested using LPT are metals (aluminium, steel, titanium, copper,
etc.), glass, rubber, plastics. LPT is used to detect any defects in
forging, welding defects like cracks, possibilities of leakage and
fatigue cracks. First Penetrant is applied to the testing material
by spraying. After that penetration time has been allowed, the
excess of penetrant is removed by remover and the developer
draws out the penetrant from defects from the surface to a visible
indication. The flow chart Fig. 5 below shows the step by step pro-
cess of Liquid penetrate NDT testing method.

2. Experimental work
Fig. 4. Radiography testing NDT method.

In this research work the weld plated are prepared by cutting

using a shear cutting machine, cleaned with acetone solution and
The Fig. 4 below shows the step by step process of Ultrasonic test-
then followed by polishing and buffing process. The chemical com-
ing method.
position of the 3 mm thick low carbon steel plate to be welded is
given the Table 2 below.
1.5. Liquid penetrate test The plates are being welded using GTAW, GMAW and LBW
welding techniques. GTAW welding process is an arc welding pro-
Liquid penetrate testing is a process that is used to reveal the cess that has a tungsten electrode inside it. This electrode has a
surface discontinuities by bleed out of a coloured visible and fluo- high melting point. The weld pool is protected by Argon, a shield-
rescent dye from the defected area. It is one of the easiest and old ing gas and is prevents oxidation due to water vapour and air pre-
NDT method to find out the defects. This method involves three sent in the atmosphere. GMAW welding process is a welding
materials namely cleaner, penetrate and developer. This method process that uses a consumable wire electrode to join the metals.
is a low-cost method and it is widely applied to locate surface- It produces heat by passing current to the electrode to join the
work piece metal. The Table 3 below shows the welding parame-
ters for welding low carbon 3 mm thick plated by GTAW and
GMAW process.
In the laser welding process heat produced from the concen-
trated coherent light beam which strikes the weld metal. In other
case heat is required to fuse the metal. The Table 4 below shows
the welding process parameters for LBW welding technique. The
Fig. 6 shows the plates being welded by GTAW, GMAW and LBW
welding technique.

Table 4
Welding parameters of LBW.

Description 3 mm thickLow carbon steel

Type of welding Laser Beam Welding
power percentage 70%
Gas pressure 14,000
pulse 51
Shielding gas Nitrogen
Time taken (sec) 100
weld length (mm) 500
weld speed (mm/min) 3000
Fig. 5. Liquid penetrate NDT method.

Table 2
Chemical composition of low carbon steel.

Elements Carbon Silicon Manganese Phosphorus Sulphur Chromium Nickel Copper

Composition % 0.12 0.298 0.391 0.087 0.013 0.546 0.218 0.302

Table 3
Welding parameters of GTAW and GMAW.

Type ofwelding Current(Amps) Voltage(volts) Time taken(sec) Filler Dia(mm) Fillergrade Shielding gas RootGap(mm)
GTAW 111 – 1.45 2.5 ER70S-6 Argon 100% 3 mm
GMAW 171.67 16.03 47 1 ER70S-6 Argon 80%CO2 20% 3 mm

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J.R. Deepak, V.K. Bupesh Raja, D. Srikanth et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 44 (2021) 3732–3737

Fig. 6. Welded plates by GTAW GMAW and LBW welding technique.

Fig. 7. Welding defects observed by visual inspection.

3. Results and discussion no defects it is acceptable. The Fig. 8 below shows the welding
defects observed by liquid penetration NDT technique.
3.1. Visual inspection observations
3.3. Radiography test
The below Table 5 summarizes the various defects which are
identified by visual inspection of the GMAW, GTAW and LBW The below Table 7 consolidates the defects identified by radio-
welded plates. graphy on NDT test of the GMAW, GTAW and LBW welded plates.
By visual inspection in GTAW welding, we got defects at 0 to By the observations we can conclude that radiography testing
5 mm visual crack, 130 to 150 mm single pore, 4to 10 mm on root can also detects internal defects of any type of welding. By radiog-
site excess penetration are observed, in GMAW welding we got raphy NDT testing method in GTAW welded plate at location A-B;
defects at 0 to 10 mm single pore, 15 to 35 mm excess beads flaws are observed which is not acceptable. Similarly, when GMAW
absorbed, 100 mm single spattered pore absorbed, in laser welding
no defects it is acceptable. The Fig. 7 below shows the welding Table 6
defects observed by visual inspection method. Welding defects observed by Liquid penetration test.

No of Observation of weld defects by liquid penetration method

3.2. Liquid penetration test defects
GMAW Weld GTAW Weld LBW Weld
1 0 to 0 to 5 mmvisual No
The below Table 6 consolidates the defects identified by liquid 10 mmsingle crack observed surfaceindicationobserved
penetration NDT test of the GMAW, GTAW and LBW welded plates. pore absorbed
By liquid penetration test in GTAW welding we got defects at 0 2 15 to 130 to
35 mmexcess 150 mmsingle
to 5 mm visual crack, 130 to 150 mm single pore, 4to 10 mm on
beads absorbed pore absorbed
root site excess penetration are observed, in GMAW welding we 3 100 mm 4 to 10 mm on
got defects at 0 to 10 mm single pore, 15 to 35 mm excess beads singlespattered root siteexcess
absorbed, 100 mm single spattered pore absorbed, in laser welding pore absorbed penetration

Table 5
Welding defects observed by Visual Inspection Method.

No ofDefects Observation of Weld Defects by Visual Inspection Method

GMAW Weld GTAW Weld LBW Weld
1 0 to 10 mmsingle pore absorbed 0 to 5 mmvisual crack observed No Opensurfaceindicationobserved
2 15 to 35 mmexcess beads absorbed 130 to 150 mmsingle pore absorbed
3 100 mm singlespattered pore absorbed 4 to 10 mm onroot site excess penetration

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J.R. Deepak, V.K. Bupesh Raja, D. Srikanth et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 44 (2021) 3732–3737

Table 7
Welding defects observed by Radiography test.

Radiographic Number Thickness (mm) IQI min max sensitivity Film size location location Remarks
GMAW 3 20 2 2.5 2/2T 34 A-B Flaw obc Non-acceptable
GTAW 3 20 2 2.5 2/2T 34 A-B Flaw obc Non-acceptable
LBW 3 20 2 2.5 2/2T 34 A-B Acceptable

welded plates inspected at location A-B, small flaws are observed comparatively more number of defects and the severity defects.
which is also not acceptable. But in LBW laser weld plates no flaws The below Table 9 summarizes the defects identified by magnetic
are observed, where the plates welded using LBW welding tech- particle NDT test of the GMAW, GTAW and LBW welded plates.
nique is acceptable.
3.5. Ultrasonic test
3.4. Magnetic particle test
The ultrasonic NDT testing test is carried out in GMAW, GTAW
The magnetic particle NDT testing is carried out in GMAW, and LBW welded plates. Table 10 below shows the equipments
GTAW and LBW welded plates. Table 8 shows the equipments used used for ultrasonic NDT testing.
for magnetic particle testing In GMAW welded joint three defects (lack of fusion) has been
In GMAW welded joint three defects has been observed like observed. In GTAW welding process one Lack of penetration
centre line crack, traverse crack and slag. In GTAW welding process defects has been observed. Similarly, in LBW laser beam welded
four defects has been observed like traverse crack, HAZ crack, slag plates a lack of penetration is observed on the weld axis. Table 11
and lack of Fusion. But in LBW laser beam welded plates a 100% summarizes the defects identified by ultrasonic NDT testing of the
lack of fusion throughout the weld axis is observed. By conducting GMAW, GTAW and LBW welded plates
magnetic particle test welded on welded low carbon (CortenA588
steel) plates by GMAW welding has minimum number of defects.
But the observations on magnetic particle testing of low carbon 4. Conclusion
(CortenA588 steel) welded plates by GTAW welding process has
In this research work, three different types of welding like Gas
metal arc welding (GMAW), Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
Table 8
Equipments of magnetic particle test. Table 10
Equipments of ultrasonic test.
Technique used Electromagnetic Test
Material used Corten A588 steel
Current AC and DC
Process Continuous probe 70° 4 MHz
Medium Dry iron powder Size 8  9 mm
Type of Indication Linear Indication Range 0 to 50 mm

Fig. 8. Welding defects observed by liquid penetration method.

Table 9
Welding defects observed by magnetic particle test.

No ofDefects Observation of Weld Defects by Magnetic particle testing Method

GMAW Weld GTAW Weld LBW Weld
1 0 to 20 mm centre linecrack is observed 0 to 5 mm transversecrack is observed 100% lack offusion throughoutthe weld axis
2 0 to 80 mm transversecrack is observed 0 to 15 mm HAZcrack observed
3 0 to 90 mm twoslag is observed 0 to 15 mm slagout of weld is observed
4 – 0 to 220 mmlack of fusion

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J.R. Deepak, V.K. Bupesh Raja, D. Srikanth et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 44 (2021) 3732–3737

Table 11
Welding defects observed by ultrasonic test.

Plate Location Beam path Surface depth Depth Thickness Defect

GMAW 0–38 mm 35 mm 18.17 6.8 mm 2 mm Lack of fusion
GTAW 0–150 mm 21 mm 19.7 7.1 mm 2 mm Lack of penetration
LBW 0–20 mm 20 mm 12.7 1.5 mm 2 mm Lack of penetration

and Laser beam welding (LBW) are carried out on a low Carbon and Visual Inspection testing that are used to inspect GTAW,
steel (Corten ASTM A588 steel plate). During welding process weld GMAW and LBW welded plates, radiography testing holds good.
defects arises which are identified by NDT Non-Destructive Testing This is due to the easy detection of internal flaws and pores in
process. Visual inspections, Liquid penetration test, Radiography the subsurface of the welded plates.
testing, magnetic particle testing and ultrasonic testing are the five
NDT techniques which is used in this research work to identify the CRediT authorship contribution statement
various defects in the welded plates.
J.R. Deepak: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision,
 In visual inspection of GTAW welded plates, defects at 0 to Writing - original draft. V.K. Bupesh Raja: Investigation. D. Sri-
5 mm visual crack, 130 to 150 mm single pore, and 4to kanth: Writing - original draft. H. Surendran: Writing - original
10 mm on root site excess penetration are observed. In GMAW draft. M.M. Nickolas: .
welded plates, defects at 0 to 10 mm single pore, 15 to 35 mm
excess beads absorbed, 100 mm single spattered pore absorbed. Declaration of Competing Interest
But in LBW laser welded plate no defects is observed which
makes the LBW Laser welded plate acceptable. The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
 By using liquid penetration test in GTAW welding, defects at 0 cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to 5 mm visual crack, 130 to 150 mm single pore, 4to 10 mm to influence the work reported in this paper.
on root site excess penetration are observed. In GMAW welding,
defects at 0 to 10 mm single pore, 15 to 35 mm excess beads References
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