Institute of Hotel Management, Pusa, New Delhi

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7. Method of Cooking
Heat transfer

In order for food to be cooked, heat must be transferred from a heat source (such as a Gas
flame or an electric element or even the sun rays) to and through the food. Understanding the
ways in which heat is transferred and the speed at which it is transferred helps the cook
control the cooking process.

Heat is transferred in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. It is important to

remember that, during a cooking process, more than one of these methods of transfer may be
happening at the same time. For example, food on a grill may be heated by conduction from
the hot metal grill, by convection from hot air rising from the Burner or charcoal, and by
radiation from the glowing burner or coals.

Conduction

Conduction occurs in two ways:

1. When heat moves directly from one item to something touching it—for example, from the
top of the range to a soup pot placed on it, from the pot to the broth inside, And from the
broth to the solid food items in it.

2. When heat moves from one part of something to an adjacent part of the same Item—for
example, from the exterior of a roast to the interior, or from a sauté pan to its handle.
Different materials conduct heat at different speeds. Heat moves rapidly through Copper and
aluminium, more slowly in stainless steel, more slowly yet in glass and porcelain. Air is a
poor conductor of heat.

Convection

Convection is the process that carries the heat from the heat source to the food. Once the
carrier of the heat (air or liquid) comes in contact with the food, the heat is transferred from
the carrier to the food by conduction.

Convection occurs when heat is spread by the movement of air, steam, or liquid (including
hot fat). there are two kinds of convection:

1. Natural.

Hot liquids and gases rise while cooler ones sink. Thus, in any oven, kettle of liquid, or deep-
fat fryer a constant, natural circulation distributes heat.

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2. Mechanical.

In convection ovens and convection steamers, fans speed the circulation of heat. Thus, heat is
transferred more quickly to the food, and the food cooks faster. Stirring is a form of
mechanical convection. Thick liquids cannot circulate as quickly as thin ones, so the rate of
natural convection is slower. This explains, in part, why it is so easy to scorch thick soups
and sauces. The heat is not carried away from the bottom of the pan quickly enough, so it
stays concentrated on the bottom and Scorches the food. Stirring redistributes the heat and
helps prevent this. (Using heavy Pots made of a material that conducts heat well also helps
prevent scorching because the pot conducts the heat more quickly and evenly across the
bottom and up the sides.)

Radiation

Radiation occurs when energy is transferred by waves from a source to the food. The Waves
themselves are not actually heat energy but are changed into heat energy when they strike the
food being cooked. (Light waves, radio waves, and x-rays are examples of Radiation not used
for cooking.) Two kinds of radiation are used in the kitchen:

1. Infrared.

Broiling is the most familiar example of infrared cooking. In a broiler, an electric Element or
a ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot that it gives off Infrared radiation,
which cooks the food. High-intensity infrared ovens are designed to heat food rapidly.another
example is cooking in solar cooker, where sun rays are harness to produce heat.

2. Microwave.

In microwave cooking, the radiation generated by the oven penetrates partway into the food,
where it agitates the molecules of water. The friction this agitation causes creates heat, which
cooks the food.

 Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely waterless

material will not heat in a microwave oven. Plates become hot only when heat is
conducted to them by hot foods.
 Because most microwaves penetrate no more than about 2 inches (50 mm) into foods,
heat is transferred to the centre of large pieces of food by Conduction, just as in
roasting.

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COOKING TIMES

It takes time to heat a food to a desired temperature, the temperature at which a food is
“done” (meaning the desired changes have taken place). this time is affected by three Factors:

1. Cooking temperature.

This means the temperature of the air in the oven, the fat in the fryer, the surface of a griddle,
or the liquid in which a food is cooking.

2. The speed of heat transfer.

Different cooking methods transfer heat at different rates, as shown by these Examples: Air is
a poor conductor of heat, while steam is much more efficient. a jet of Steam (212°f/100°c)
will easily burn your hand, but you can safely reach into an oven at 500°f (260°c).

This is why it takes longer to bake potatoes than to steam them. A convection oven cooks
faster than a conventional oven; even if both are set at the same temperature. The forced air
movement transfers heat more rapidly.

3. Size, temperature, and individual characteristics of the food.

For example: A small beef roast cooks faster than a large one. A chilled steak takes longer to
broil than one at room temperature.

Fish items generally cook more quickly than meats. Because there are so many variables, it is
difficult or even impossible to determine exact cooking times in most recipes. Individual
ovens, fryers, and steamers, for example, May transfer heat more or less efficiently or have
different recovery times. Roasting Charts that give cooking times for various cuts of meat can
be used only as guidelines, and the cook must use his or her judgment to make the final
determination of Doneness. Cooking times are discussed again in the next chapter.

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METHODS
OF COOKING

MOIST DRY FAT

BLANCHING BAKING FRYING

SHALLOW
BOILING BROILING STIR FRY DEEP FRY
FRY

POACHING ROASTING

STEAMING GRILLING

STEWING

BRAISING

MOIST :

1. BLANCHING- Blanching means to cook an item partially and briefly, usually in water but
some time oil also used.

There are two ways of blanching in water

A. Place the item in cold water bring to boil and simmer. Cool the item by plunging into in
cold water. Purpose: to dissolve out blood, salt or impurities from meat or bones.

B. Place the item in rapidly boiling water , remove and cool. Purpose: to retain the colour or
destroy the harmful enzymes of vegetables or to loosen the skin of tomatoes etc.

2. BOILING- boiling is the cooking of prepared food in a liquid at boiling point. This could be
water, court bouillon, milk or stock & maintain it at that temperature.

Boiling is classified as-

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1. Rapid boiling 100° C

2. Simmering is a slow, gentle, moist method of cooking in liquid or stock (85 to 96°c)
simmering is best for cuts with higher amounts of connective tissue which need long,
slow cooking to tenderise them.
3.
Techniques
 Placing the food into cold water & bringing to boil (root vegetable, cured meat etc.)
 Advantage: helps to tenderise the fibrous structure. Avoid damage to foods, which
would lose their shape.
 Placing the food directly into boiling water. (Meat, green vegetable etc.)
 Advantage: maximum colour & nutritive value are retained. Seals in the natural
juices.

Advantages of boiling
 Need less attention.
 Cheap.
 Less shrinkage & drying.
 Nutritious method
 Unwanted flavours can be washed away. Eg. Boiling yam will reduce its itchiness.

Disadvantages of boiling:
 Some foods fall apart when boiled.
 Vitamins are often destroyed or lost to the cooking liquid.

Rules
 Food item should be completely covered with water.
 Scum should be removed.
 Simmer whenever possible so as to minimize evaporation.
 Select pan, which are neither too small nor too large.

3. POACHING: Poaching is a wet method of cookery where food is cooked gently in liquid,
which is held just below boiling point (71-82° C). Poaching liquids can be stock, stock
and wine, stock syrup, milk or court bouillon (a flavoured vegetable stock). The cooking
liquid adds to the taste of the finished dish and can be used to form the basis of an
accompanying sauce. Poaching can be used to cook eggs, fish, chicken and certain fruits.
There are two types of poaching:

1. Deep poaching is where the food is completely covered in liquid. It is suitable for whole
fish. The fish is covered in cold liquid and brought to the correct poaching temperature. Cold
liquid prevents uneven flesh shrinkage that would spoil the appearance.

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2. Shallow poaching is used for thin or fragile cuts of fish, which would break up if they were
deep poached. This method of poaching can take place in the oven, once the liquid has
reached the correct temperature. To prevent the food from drying out, the food is covered
with a piece of buttered greaseproof paper and a lid.

Rules
 Take care when handling pans of poaching liquid to avoid scalding and spillage
 Choose a suitable sized pan
 Always work hygienically
 Too high a temperature could toughen certain delicate foods such as seafood.
 Vinegar & salt helps in quick coagulation

4. STEAMING: is a wet method of cookery that involves the preparation of foods being cooked
by steam under varying degrees of pressure. Steam sometimes contacts the food directly (e.g.
Vegetables) or indirectly (e.g. Covered bowls of steamed pudding). Steaming is a labour
saving method of cookery. Less risk of the food drying out or burning and less risk of food
overcooking. Long, slow cooking by moist heat enables the tough connective tissue in meat
to convert into gelatine and the meat becomes tender. Cheaper cuts of meat can be steamed
successfully. Vegetables such as root vegetables, which do not deteriorate easily in colour,
flavour of texture, can also be steamed.

Remember
 Check the water level frequently if using a pan or a manual steamer.
 Always check the cold water supply
 Always open the door of a steamer carefully so that the rush of hot steam doesn’t
scald you. Have a thick cloth ready.
 Never open a pressure cooker or high-pressure steamer, while it is under pressure.
Allow pressure to drop first by switching off and waiting for a short time.

Checklist of essential points

 Check water supply and steam pressure.
 Choose the correct type of commodity.
 Select a suitable container.
 Protect foods if necessary e.g. Puddings with greaseproof paper
 Open door slowly and carefully.
 Close door firmly.
 Control time
 Clean steamer, when cool.

5. STEWING: is a long, slow, wet method of cookery, which takes place in a pan with a tight-
fitting lid. The slow gentle cooking of tougher cuts of meat and poultry makes their texture
more tender and palatable. The cooking liquid forms part of the finished dish and it is always
thickened either:
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 At the start of cooking by the adding of flour to make a roux. A roux is a mixture of
fat and flour to one of three stages
 During cooking, by using ingredients such as potatoes which break down and thicken
the liquid e.g. Irish stew
 After the food has been cooked by the addition of a liaison of cream and yolks
 The addition of a blended starch at the end of cooking.

Cooking can take place on top of the stove at a simmering temperature. Stewing is an
economical method of cookery, as cheaper cuts of meat can be used.

Connective tissue and the effects of stewing

Meat is the muscle of animals. Muscle consists of bundles of long fibers held together by
connective tissue. Older animals and muscles, which are well used, tend to produce coarser
fibres and more connective tissue, yielding tougher cuts of meat. Long slow cooking in moist
heat can gradually convert connective tissue into the more palatable gelatine.

6. BRAISING: It is combination of roasting & stewing. It is carried out in tight fitted lid
containers / casseroles. Braising is done to prevent the loss of juices due to evaporation. It is
long cooking method & normally takes 5-6 hrs.

Methods of braising

Brown braising

 Use for joints & portion sized cuts of meat.

 Meat sealed by browning in hot oven / pan on the stove
 Sealing helps in retain flavour, nutritive value & gives a good colour.
 Meat then placed on a bed of root vegetable in a braising pan, with liquid, covered
with a lid & cooked slowly.
White braising
 Use for vegetable & sweet breads
 Foods are blanched, refreshed cooked on a bed of root vegetable.
 Use white stock, cooked slowly

Effects of braising

Cooking by braising causes the breakdown of tissue fiber in the structure of certain foods,
which softens the texture, thus making it tender and edible. The texture is also improved by
being cooked in the braising liquid.

Advantages

 Tougher, less expensive meats and poultry can be used

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 Maximum flavour and nutritional value are retained

 Variety of presentation and flavour is given to the menu.

Time and temperature control

 Slow cooking is essential for efficient braising; the liquid must barely simmer
 To reduce evaporation and maintain temperature, use a tight-fitting lid
 Time needed for braising will vary according to the quality of the food
 Ideal oven temperature for braising 160 degrees centigrade

Safety

 Select a suitably sized pan with tight fitting lid and handles
 Care is required when removing hot pans from the oven and when removing the lid
 Sprinkle flour on hot pans and lids after removal from the oven as a warning that they
are hot.

FAT

1. FRYING

SHALLOW FRYING: is a fast, fat method of cookery. Shallow frying is the cooking of
food in a small-preheated fat or oil on a hot surface such as: A frying pan or a flat solid
cooking surface is called as a griddle. When this type of cooking equipment is used the
process is known as griddling. Some griddles have grooved surfaces to mark the food,
improving the appearance. The coating of oil (or fat) prevents the food from sticking and
helps conduct the heat to the foods surface.
Meunière. This is a traditional french way to cook fish. The fish is passed through seasoned
flour, shallow fried and finished with nut-brown butter, chopped parsley and lemon juice.

Suitable foods
 Can be cooked quickly.
 Tender, good quality cuts of meat
 Tougher cuts are not suitable as there is no moist heat to tenderise the meat fibres.
 Beef burgers and successfully shallow fried.
 Vegetables such as onions, mushrooms, tomatoes and peppers.
 A variety of fish
Coatings: Some foods are coated before being fried to help them to brown, to reduce fat
absorption and to improve the shape.

STIR FRYING is a popular method of cookery and is a variation of shallow frying. Food is
cooked and stirred very quickly in a wok. Sautéing is tossing the food in the pan during

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cooking so that it cooks and browns on all sides e.g. Sauté mushrooms. The word sauter is
actually taken from the french verb sautoir, which means “to jump”.

DEEP FAT FRYING: Deep-frying is a fast fat method of cookery where food is cooked by
submerging it in preheated fat or oil. The oil or fat is heated to a temperature of 165C-
190C. The food is cooked quickly and its surface browns and develops a crisp texture. The
temperature of the oil is an essential factor if deep fried food is to be palatable. Preheating the
oil to the recommended temperature will allow the outside of the food to be seared and
coloured. Fried foods always absorb carrying various amounts of oil, depending upon the
type of food and the initial temperature of the fat. This fat absorption can vary from 5% to
40% so control of temperature is crucial to prevent excessive absorption resulting in greasy
food. Draining the fried food on kitchen paper after frying will also help to remove any
excess fat, making the dish more appealing.

Coatings: are used on some foods before deep-frying. It helps to:

 Reduce the fat absorption.
 Improve the shape.
 Assist the browning.
 Improve the texture.

Types of coatings are:

 Flour
 Breadcrumbs
 Batter

2. ROSTING: Roasting is a most preferred method of cooking used in western cookery as it is

used for prime cuts of meats. No liquid is added to the meat so original meat flavour can
come. Roasting is cooking in dry heat with the aid of fat or oil in an oven or on a spit.

Pot roasting: it is carried out in covered in covered pot or pan. Good quality meat item /
smaller joints are used. Meat / game / poultry is kept on the skewers to avoid sticking to the
bottom. Lid should be covered and the bird should be basted regularly. Cooking should be
done on slow fire. Root vegetables should be put after 20 min. To get flavour. When the joint
is cooked, add stock so that the vegetable mix and form an accompaniment called as jus-lie
gravy.

Oven roasting: cooking is done in the roasting trays. Meat / poultry and certain vegetables are
used. Joints can be trimmed and tied if retaining of shape is necessary. Joints can be browned
to seal the pores and cooking time is 15 min. For 455 grams. Of meat and another 15 min. In
oven.

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Spit roasting: here a spit is constantly revolved to ensure evenly colouring. It is cooking by
direct heat and basting is carried out regularly.

Tandoor roasting: it is carried out in tandoor by using is carried out regularly.

Terms related to roasting

 Pôeling: it is similar to pot roasting, except for the thing that in this method butter is
used instead of fat as cooking medium. Only prime quality foods can be cooked by
this method.
 Encasserole: it is same as pôeling but no vegetables is used in this method. Only
brown stock can be poured.
 Encocotte: same as pot roasting except that the food items is garnished with the
vegetables which are cooked in butter.

3. GRILLING this is fast medium of cooking by direct heat. Grilled meats should be
turned to achieve desired grill marks. Sometimes known as broiling. It is earliest method of
cooking & also gives the variety to the menu.

Over heat: (charcoal, bar-be-que, gas or electric grill)

 Bars must be preheated

 Food starts from hottest part then move to cooler part of the grill.
 Cooking time depends on the thickness of the food & heat.

Under heat: (salamander)

 Should be pre-heated & greased.

 Soft items grilled on tray.
 Salamander can be used for browning, gratinating & glazing.

Between heat: grilling between electrically heated grill bars.

Advantages of grilling

 Charring food gives a distinctive appearance & improves flavour.

 Variety is given to menu & diet.
 It can be used for live cooking.

Rules for grilling

 Grills bars should be clean.

 Basting of food & oiling of bars prevents dryness.
 Slow cooking results in the food drying out.
 A smaller & thinner item takes less time.
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 When using solid fuel, the flames & smoke must be allowed to die before placing
food.

Degree of cooking

Rare : au bleu
Underdone : saignant
Just done : a point
Well done : biencuit

DRY

BAKING: it is a cooking of food by dry heat in an oven. Degree of dryness can be modified
from the amount of steam produced from the item.

Dry baking: when baking, steam arise from the water content of the food, this steam
combines with the dry heat of the oven to cook the food. (Cake, pastry)

Baking with increased humidity: when baking certain food in oven, with increased
humidity by placing a bowl of water.

Baking with heat modification: placing food in container of water, (bain marie) modifies
the heat so that the foods cook slowly.

Rules for baking

 Always preheat oven.

 Accuracy is essential in weighing, measuring, & controlling temperature.
 Minimize the opening of oven door.
 Use thick, dry cloth for handling hot trays.

BROILING: To cook with radiant heat and it is dry form of cooking & carried out on iron
bars or pan. Beef & fish are broiled; even spices are broiled on hot griddle to bring out their
flavour.

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