Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Chapter 8. Trees

Mai Van Duy

August 12, 2022

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Contents

1. Introduction to Trees

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Contents

1. Introduction to Trees
2. Applications of Trees

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Contents

1. Introduction to Trees
2. Applications of Trees
3. Tree Traversal

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Contents

1. Introduction to Trees
2. Applications of Trees
3. Tree Traversal
4. Spanning Trees

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Contents

1. Introduction to Trees
2. Applications of Trees
3. Tree Traversal
4. Spanning Trees
5. Minimum Spanning Trees

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Definition

A tree is a connected undirected graph with no simple

circuits.

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Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Definition

A tree is a connected undirected graph with no simple

circuits.

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Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Definition

A tree is a connected undirected graph with no simple

circuits.

G1 , G2 are trees and G3 , G4 are not.

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Theorem

An undirected graph is a tree if and only if there is a

unique simple path between any two of its vertices.

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Definition

A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been

designated as the root and every edge is directed away
from the root.

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Definition

A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been

designated as the root and every edge is directed away
from the root.

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Some common concepts

I g is root of tree
I j is parent of m
and l
I m or l is a child of j
I m, l are siblings
I g is ancestor of m
and m is
descendant of g

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Definition

A rooted tree is called an m-ary tree if every internal

vertex has no more than m children. The tree is called a
full m-ary tree if every internal vertex has exactly m
children. A complete m-ary tree is a full m-ary tree in
which every leaf is at the same level. An m-ary tree with
m = 2 is called a binary tree.

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Definition

A rooted tree is called an m-ary tree if every internal

vertex has no more than m children. The tree is called a
full m-ary tree if every internal vertex has exactly m
children. A complete m-ary tree is a full m-ary tree in
which every leaf is at the same level. An m-ary tree with
m = 2 is called a binary tree.

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Definition

An ordered rooted tree is a rooted tree where the children

of each internal vertex are ordered (which is usually
represented as in the graph).

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Definition

An ordered rooted tree is a rooted tree where the children

of each internal vertex are ordered (which is usually
represented as in the graph).

f is the left child of d and g is the right child of d

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Definition

An ordered rooted tree is a rooted tree where the children

of each internal vertex are ordered (which is usually
represented as in the graph).

f is the left child of d and g is the right child of d

(b): the left subtree of c and (c): the right subtree of c.

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Theorem

A tree with n vertices has n − 1 edges.

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Theorem

A full m-ary tree with i internal vertices contains n = mi + 1

vertices.

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Theorem

A full m-ary tree with

n vertices has i = (n − 1)/m internal vertices and
l = [(m − 1)n + 1]/m leaves;
i internal vertices has n = mi + 1 vertices and
l = (m − 1)i + 1 leaves;
l leaves has n = (ml − 1)/(m − 1) vertices and
i = (l − 1)/(m − 1) internal vertices.

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Example

Suppose that someone starts a chain letter. Each person

who receives the letter is asked to send it on to four other
people. Some people do this, but others do not send any
letters. How many people have seen the letter, including
the first person, if no one receives more than one letter
and if the chain letter ends after there have been 100
people who read it but did not send it out? How many
people sent out the letter?

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Solution

The chain letter can be represented using a 4-ary tree.

The internal vertices correspond to people who sent out
the letter, and the leaves correspond to people who did
not send it out. Because 100 people did not send out the
letter, the number of leaves in this rooted tree is l = 100.
Hence, part (iii) of Theorem 4 shows that the number of
people who have seen the letter is
n = (4.100 − 1)/(4 − 1) = 133. Also, the number of internal
vertices is 133 − 100 = 33, so 33 people sent out the letter.

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Definition

The level of a vertex v in a rooted tree is the length of the

unique path from the root to this vertex. The level of the
root is defined to be zero.

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Definition

The level of a vertex v in a rooted tree is the length of the

unique path from the root to this vertex. The level of the
root is defined to be zero.
The height of a rooted tree is the maximum of the levels of
vertices.

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Definition

The level of a vertex v in a rooted tree is the length of the

unique path from the root to this vertex. The level of the
root is defined to be zero.
The height of a rooted tree is the maximum of the levels of
vertices.
A rooted m-ary tree of height h is balanced if all leaves
are at levels h or h − 1.

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Definition

The level of a vertex v in a rooted tree is the length of the

unique path from the root to this vertex. The level of the
root is defined to be zero.
The height of a rooted tree is the maximum of the levels of
vertices.
A rooted m-ary tree of height h is balanced if all leaves
are at levels h or h − 1.

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Theorem

There are at most mh leaves in an m-ary tree of height h.

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Theorem

There are at most mh leaves in an m-ary tree of height h.

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Corollary

If an m-ary tree of height h has l leaves, then h ≥ dlogm l e.

If the m-ary tree is full and balanced, then h = dlogm l e.

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Definition

A binary search tree is an ordered rooted binary tree.

Each of its vertices is labeled with a key, which is one of
the items and vertices are assigned keys so that the key of
a vertex is both larger than the keys of all vertices in its left
subtree and smaller than the keys of all vertices in its right
subtree.

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Definition

A binary search tree is an ordered rooted binary tree.

Each of its vertices is labeled with a key, which is one of
the items and vertices are assigned keys so that the key of
a vertex is both larger than the keys of all vertices in its left
subtree and smaller than the keys of all vertices in its right
subtree.
Note: Just the label of vertices can be compared !.

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Definition

A binary search tree is an ordered rooted binary tree.

Each of its vertices is labeled with a key, which is one of
the items and vertices are assigned keys so that the key of
a vertex is both larger than the keys of all vertices in its left
subtree and smaller than the keys of all vertices in its right
subtree.
Note: Just the label of vertices can be compared !.

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Algorithm

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Algorithm

Note: The algorithm returns the location of x or adds a

new vertex with label x into binary search tree.

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Example

Find the word “oceanography” (or insert it into the binary

search tree) in the following binary search tree.

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Definition

A rooted tree in which each internal vertex corresponds

to a decision, with a subtree at these vertices for each
possible outcome of the decision, is called a decision
tree.

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Example

Suppose there are seven coins, all with the same weight,
and a counterfeit coin that weighs less than the others.
How many weighings are necessary using a balance
scale to determine which of the eight coins is the
counterfeit one?

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Solution

There are three possibilities for each weighing on a

balance scale. Consequently, the decision tree for the
sequence of weighings is a 3-ary tree. There are at least
eight leaves in the decision tree because there are eight
possible outcomes. The largest number of weighings
needed to determine the counterfeit coin is the height of
the decision tree. Hence, at least dlog3 8e = 2 weighings
are needed.

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Example

Form a decision tree of sorting three number a, b, c.

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

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Example

Form a decision tree of sorting three number a, b, c.

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Theorem

A sorting algorithm based on binary comparisons requires

at least dlog n!e comparisons.

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Corollary

The number of comparisons used by a sorting algorithm to

sort n elements based on binary comparisons is Ω(n log n).

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Theorem

The average number of comparisons used by a sorting

algorithm to sort n elements based on binary comparisons
is Ω(n log n).

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Example

Represent this word using bit strings: “SEEN”.

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Example

Represent this word using bit strings: “SEEN”.

I Using ASCII encoding (S:1010011, E:1000101,
N:1001110)

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Example

Represent this word using bit strings: “SEEN”.

I Using ASCII encoding (S:1010011, E:1000101,
N:1001110)
I Using fix-length encoding (S:00, E:01, N:10)

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Example

Represent this word using bit strings: “SEEN”.

I Using ASCII encoding (S:1010011, E:1000101,
N:1001110)
I Using fix-length encoding (S:00, E:01, N:10)
I Using variable-length encoding (E:0, S:10, N:11)

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Definition

Prefix code is a type of codes which encodes the letters

so that the bit string for a letter never occurs as the first
part of the bit string for another letter.

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Representing a prefix code

A prefix code can be represented using a binary tree,

where the characters are the labels of the leaves in the
tree. The edges of the tree are labeled so that an edge
leading to a left child is assigned a 0 and an edge
leading to a right child is assigned a 1. The bit string used
to encode a character is the sequence of labels of the
edges in the unique path from the root to the leaf that
has this character as its label.

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Example of Representing a prefix code

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How to construct a prefix code that is using the fewest

bits?.

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Huffman coding

Huffman coding is an algorithm that takes as input the

frequencies (which are the probabilities of occurrences)
of symbols in a string and produces as output a prefix
code that encodes the string using the fewest possible
bits, among all possible binary prefix codes for these
symbols.

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Huffman coding

Given symbols and their frequencies, our goal is to

construct a rooted binary tree where the symbols are the
labels of the leaves. The algorithm begins with a forest of
trees each consisting of one vertex, where each vertex
has a symbol as its label and where the weight of this
vertex equals the frequency of the symbol that is its label.
At each step, we combine two trees having the least total
weight into a single tree by introducing a new root and
placing the tree with larger weight as its left subtree and
the tree with smaller weight as its right subtree.
Furthermore, we assign the sum of the weights of the two
subtrees of this tree as the total weight of the tree. The
algorithm is finished when it has constructed a tree, that
is, when the forest is reduced to a single tree.

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Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

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Example

Use Huffman coding to encode the following symbols with

the frequencies listed: A: 0.08, B: 0.10, C: 0.12, D: 0.15, E:
0.20, F: 0.35. What is the average number of bits used to
encode a character?

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Solution

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Solution

The average number of bits used to encode a symbol

using this encoding is

3 × 0.08 + 3 × 0.10 + 3 × 0.12 + 3 × 0.15 + 2 × 0.20 + 2 × 0.35 = 2.45

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Definition

Universal address system is a way that we can totally

order the vertices of an ordered rooted tree.

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Definition

Universal address system is a way that we can totally

order the vertices of an ordered rooted tree.

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Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Definition

Tree traversal is a procedure that visiting all the vertices of

an ordered rooted tree.

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Definition of Preorder Traversal

Let T be an ordered rooted tree with root r. If T consists

only of r, then r is the preorder traversal of T . Otherwise,
suppose that T1 , T2 , ..., Tn are the subtrees at r from left to
right in T . The preorder traversal begins by visiting r. It
continues by traversing T1 in preorder, then T2 in preorder,
and so on, until Tn is traversed in preorder.

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Definition of Preorder Traversal

Let T be an ordered rooted tree with root r. If T consists

only of r, then r is the preorder traversal of T . Otherwise,
suppose that T1 , T2 , ..., Tn are the subtrees at r from left to
right in T . The preorder traversal begins by visiting r. It
continues by traversing T1 in preorder, then T2 in preorder,
and so on, until Tn is traversed in preorder.

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Preorder Algorithm

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Definition of Inorder Traversal

Let T be an ordered rooted tree with root r. If T consists

only of r, then r is the inorder traversal of T . Otherwise,
suppose that T1 , T2 , ..., Tn are the subtrees at r from left to
right. The inorder traversal begins by traversing T1 in
inorder, then visiting r. It continues by traversing T2 in
inorder, then T3 in inorder, . . . , and finally Tn in inorder.

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Definition of Inorder Traversal

Let T be an ordered rooted tree with root r. If T consists

only of r, then r is the inorder traversal of T . Otherwise,
suppose that T1 , T2 , ..., Tn are the subtrees at r from left to
right. The inorder traversal begins by traversing T1 in
inorder, then visiting r. It continues by traversing T2 in
inorder, then T3 in inorder, . . . , and finally Tn in inorder.

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Inorder Algorithm

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Definition of Postorder Traversal

Let T be an ordered rooted tree with root r. If T consists

only of r, then r is the postorder traversal of T . Otherwise,
suppose that T1 , T2 , ..., Tn are the subtrees at r from left to
right. The postorder traversal begins by traversing T1 in
postorder, then T2 in postorder, . . . , then Tn in postorder,
and ends by visiting r.

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Definition of Postorder Traversal

Let T be an ordered rooted tree with root r. If T consists

only of r, then r is the postorder traversal of T . Otherwise,
suppose that T1 , T2 , ..., Tn are the subtrees at r from left to
right. The postorder traversal begins by traversing T1 in
postorder, then T2 in postorder, . . . , then Tn in postorder,
and ends by visiting r.

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Postorder Algorithm

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Representing the expression

The expression can be represent by the binary trees with

the rules: the internal vertices represent operations, and
the leaves represent the variables or numbers.

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Example

What is the ordered rooted tree that represents the

expression ((x + y ) ↑ 2) + ((x − 4)/3)?

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Example

What is the ordered rooted tree that represents the

expression ((x + y ) ↑ 2) + ((x − 4)/3)?

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Definition

We obtain prefix form of an expression when we traverse

its rooted tree in preorder.

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Definition

We obtain prefix form of an expression when we traverse

its rooted tree in preorder.
We obtain infix form of an expression when we traverse its
rooted tree in inorder.

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Definition

We obtain prefix form of an expression when we traverse

its rooted tree in preorder.
We obtain infix form of an expression when we traverse its
rooted tree in inorder.
We obtain postfix form of an expression when we traverse
its rooted tree in postorder.

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Definition

We obtain prefix form of an expression when we traverse

its rooted tree in preorder.
We obtain infix form of an expression when we traverse its
rooted tree in inorder.
We obtain postfix form of an expression when we traverse
its rooted tree in postorder.
Note: Prefix form is called Polish notation and Postfix form is
called reverse Polish notation.

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Example

What is the prefix (infix, postfix) form of the following tree?

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Example

What is the prefix (infix, postfix) form of the following tree?

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Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

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Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

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Definition

Let G be a simple graph. A spanning tree of G is a

subgraph of G that is a tree containing every vertex of G.

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Example

Find a spanning tree of this simple graph:

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Theorem

A simple graph is connected if and only if it has a

spanning tree.

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Depth-First Search

We will form a rooted tree. Arbitrarily choose a vertex of

the graph as the root. Form a path starting at this vertex
by successively adding vertices and edges, where each
new edge is incident with the last vertex in the path and a
vertex not already in the path. Continue adding vertices
and edges to this path as long as possible. If the path
goes through all vertices of the graph, the tree consisting
of this path is a spanning tree. If it is not the case, move
back to the next to last vertex in the path, and, if possible,
form a new path starting at this vertex passing through
vertices that were not already visited. If this cannot be
done, move back another vertex in the path, that is, two
vertices back in the path, and try again.

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Depth-First Search Algorithm

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Example

Find a spanning tree of this graph using Depth-First Search:

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Breadth-First Search

Arbitrarily choose a root from the vertices of the graph.

Then add all edges incident to this vertex. The new
vertices added at this stage become the vertices at level
1 in the spanning tree. Arbitrarily order them. Next, for
each vertex at level 1, visited in order, add each edge
incident to this vertex to the tree as long as it does not
produce a simple circuit. Arbitrarily order the children of
each vertex at level 1. This produces the vertices at level 2
in the tree. Follow the same procedure until all the
vertices in the tree have been added. The procedure
ends because there are only a finite number of edges in
the graph.

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Breadth-First Search Algorithm

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Example

Find a spanning tree of this graph using Breadth-First

Search:

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Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

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Definition

A minimum spanning tree in a connected weighted

graph is a spanning tree that has the smallest possible
sum of weights of its edges.

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Prim’s Algorithm

Begin by choosing any edge with smallest weight, putting

it into the spanning tree. Successively add to the tree
edges of minimum weight that are incident to a vertex
already in the tree, never forming a simple circuit with
those edges already in the tree. Stop when n − 1 edges
have been added.

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Prim’s Algorithm

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Example

Find a minimum spanning tree for this graph:

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Solution

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Kruskal’s Algorithm

Choose an edge in the graph with minimum weight.

Successively add edges with minimum weight that do not
form a simple circuit with those edges already chosen.
Stop after n − 1 edges have been selected.

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Kruskal’s Algorithm

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Example

Find a minimum spanning tree for this graph:

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees

Introduction to Trees Applications of Trees Tree Traversal Spanning Trees Minimum Spanning Trees

Note: In Prim’s algorithm, edges of minimum weight that

are incident to a vertex already in the tree, and not
forming a circuit, are chosen; whereas in Kruskal’s
algorithm edges of minimum weight that are not
necessarily incident to a vertex already in the tree, and
that do not form a circuit, are chosen.

Mai Van Duy Chapter 8. Trees