Heat and Mass Transfer

Heat transfer:
Heat transfer is the science that seeks to predict the energy
transfer that may take place between material bodies as a

rab
result of a temperature difference.
The science of thermodynamics deals with the amount of
heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from one

A
equilibrium state to another, and makes no reference to how
long the process will take. But in engineering, we are often
interested in the rate of heat transfer, which is the topic of the
science of heat transfer.

ar
mm
As an example of the different kinds of problems that are
treated by thermodynamics and heat transfer, consider the
cooling of a hot steel bar that is placed in a pail of water.
r. A

Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final

equilibrium temperature of the steel bar water combination.
Thermodynamics will not tell us how long it takes to reach
this equilibrium condition or what the temperature of the
bar will be after a certain length of time before the
equilibrium condition is attained. Heat transfer may be used
D

to predict the temperature of both the bar and the water as a

function of time.

001
 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction,
convection, and radiation. All modes of heat transfer require
the existence of a temperature difference, and all modes are
from the high-temperature medium to a lower-temperature
one.

rab
Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of energy from the
more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent, less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the

A
particles.
Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In
gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In
solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
ar
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
mm
r. A
D

Or,

where the constant of proportionality k is

the thermal conductivity of the material,
which is a measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat. 002
 In the limiting case of x 0, the equation
above reduces to the differential form

which is called Fourier s law of heat

conduction after J. Fourier, who expressed

rab
it first in his heat transfer text in 1822.
Here dT/dx is the temperature gradient, which
is the slope of the temperature curve on a T-x

A
diagram (the rate of change of T with x), at
location x.

The negative sign in above equation

ensures that heat transfer in the

ar
positive x direction is a positive
quantity.
mm
Thermal Conductivity
We have seen that different materials store heat differently, and
we have defined the property specific heat Cp as a measure of a
r. A

material s ability to store thermal energy. For example, Cp = 4.18

kJ/kg C for water and Cp = 0.45 kJ/kg C for iron at room
temperature, which indicates that water can store almost 10 times
the energy that iron can per unit mass. Likewise, the thermal
conductivity k is a measure of a material s ability to conduct
heat. For example, k = 0.608 W/m C for water and k = 80.2
W/m C for iron at room temperature, which indicates that iron
D

conducts heat more than 100 times faster than water can. Thus
we say that water is a poor heat conductor relative to iron,
although water is an excellent medium to store thermal energy.
The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate
of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit
are a per unit temperature difference. 003
The thermal conductivity of a material
is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct heat. A high
value for thermal conductivity indicates
that the material is a good heat
conductor, and a low value indicates

rab
that the material is a poor heat conductor
or insulator.
Note that materials such as copper and

A
silver that are good electric conductors are
also good heat conductors, and have high
values of thermal conductivity. Materials
such as rubber, wood, and styrofoam are

ar
poor conductors of heat and have low conductivity values.
mm
r. A
D

The range of
thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature. 004
 rab
A
ar
mm
The kinetic theory of gases predicts and the experiments confirm that
the thermal conductivity of gases is proportional to the square root of
the absolute temperature T, and inversely proportional to the square root
of the molar mass M.
r. A

Therefore, the thermal conductivity of a gas increases with increasing

temperature and decreasing molar mass.
So it is not surprising that the thermal conductivity of helium (M = 4) is
much higher than those of air (M = 29) and argon (M = 40).
The thermal conductivities of gases at 1 atm pressure are listed in Table
A-5. However, they can also be used at pressures other than 1 atm,
since the thermal conductivity of gases is independent of pressure in a
D

wide range of pressures encountered in practice.

005
 D
r. A
mm
ar
A

006
rab
The mechanism of heat conduction in a liquid is complicated by the
fact that the molecules are more closely spaced, and they exert a
stronger intermolecular force field. The thermal conductivities of
liquids usually lie between those of solids and gases. Unlike gases, the
thermal conductivities of most liquids decrease with increasing
temperature.

rab
Like gases, the conductivity of liquids decreases with increasing molar
mass. Liquid metals such as mercury and sodium have high thermal
conductivities and are very suitable for use in applications where a
high heat transfer rate to a liquid is desired, as in nuclear power plants.

A
ar
mm
r. A
D

007
In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects: the lattice vibrational
waves induced by the vibrational motions of the molecules positioned at
relatively fixed positions in a periodic manner called a lattice, and the
energy transported via the free flow of electrons in the solid.
The thermal conductivity of a solid is obtained by adding the lattice and
electronic components. The relatively high thermal conductivities of

rab
pure metals are primarily due to the electronic component. The lattice
component of thermal conductivity strongly depends on the way the
molecules are arranged. For example, diamond, which is a highly
ordered crystalline solid, has the highest known thermal conductivity at

A
room temperature.
Unlike metals, which are good electrical and heat conductors, crystalline
solids such as diamond and semiconductors such as silicon are good
heat conductors but poor electrical conductors.

ar
mm
r. A
D

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in
008
different phases of a substance.
 D
r. A
mm
ar
A

009
rab
The variation of the
Thermal conductivity
of various solids,
liquids, and gases with
temperature.

rab
A
ar
mm
Thermal Diffusivity
The product Cp, which is frequently encountered in heat transfer
analysis, is called the heat capacity of a material. Both the specific heat
r. A

Cp and the heat capacity Cp represent the heat storage capability of a

material. But Cp expresses it per unit mass whereas Cp expresses it per
unit volume, as can be noticed from their units J/kg C and J/m3 C,
respectively. Another material property that appears in the transient heat
conduction analysis is the thermal diffusivity, which represents how fast
heat diffuses through a material and is defined as
D

The thermal diffusivity of a material can be viewed as the ratio of the

heat conducted through the material to the heat stored per unit volume.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into
the medium. A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is
mostly absorbed by the material and a small amount of heat will be
conducted further. 010
 Measuring the
Thermal Conductivity of a
Material
A common way of measuring the
thermal conductivity of a material is to
sandwich an electric thermofoil heater

rab
between two identical samples of the
material. The thickness of the resistance
heater, including its cover, which is
made of thin silicon rubber, is usually

A
less than 0.5 mm.
A circulating fluid such as tap water keeps the exposed ends of the
samples at constant temperature. The lateral surfaces of the samples are
well insulated to ensure that heat transfer through the samples is one-

ar
dimensional. Two thermocouples are embedded into each sample some
distance L apart, and a differential thermometer reads the temperature
drop T across this distance along each sample.
mm
When steady operating conditions are reached, the total rate of heat
transfer through both samples becomes equal to the electric power
drawn by the heater, which is determined by multiplying the electric
current by the voltage.
r. A

In a certain experiment, cylindrical samples of diameter 5 cm and

length 10 cm are used. The two thermocouples in each sample are
placed 3 cm apart. After initial transients, the electric heater is observed
to draw 0.4 A at 110 V, and both differential thermometers read a
temperature difference of 15 C. Determine the thermal conductivity of
the sample.
D

SOLUTION
Assumptions: 1 Steady operating conditions exist since the temperature
readings do not change with time. 2 Heat losses through the lateral
surfaces of the apparatus are negligible since those surfaces are well
insulated, and thus the entire heat generated by the heater is conducted
through the samples. 3 The apparatus possesses thermal symmetry.
011
Analysis: The electrical power consumed by the resistance heater and
converted to heat is

The rate of heat flow through each sample is

since only half of the heat generated will flow through each sample

rab
because of symmetry. Reading the same temperature difference across
the same distance in each sample also confirms that the apparatus
possesses thermal symmetry. The heat transfer area is the area normal
to the direction of heat flow, which is the cross-sectional area of the

A
cylinder in this case:

Noting that the temperature drops by 15 C within 3 cm in the direction

of heat flow, the thermal conductivity of the sample is determined to
be
ar
mm
Discussion: Perhaps you are wondering if we really need to use two
samples in the apparatus, since the measurements on the second sample
do not give any additional information. It seems like we can replace the
second sample by insulation. Indeed, we do not need the second
r. A

sample; however, it enables us to verify the temperature measurements

on the first sample and provides thermal symmetry, which reduces
experimental error.

Conversion between SI and English Units

D

012
CONVECTION
Convection is the mode of energy
transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion,
and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion. In the

rab
absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat
transfer between a solid surface and the Heat transfer from a hot
adjacent fluid is by pure conduction. surface to air by convection.

A
Convection is called forced convection if
the fluid is forced to flow over the surface
by external means such as a fan, pump, or
the wind. In contrast, convection is called
natural (or free) convection if the fluid

ar
motion is caused by buoyancy forces that
are induced by density differences due to The cooling of a boiled egg
the variation of temperature in the fluid by forced and natural convection.
mm
Heat transfer between the block and the surrounding air will be by
conduction if the temperature difference between the air and the block
is not large enough to overcome the resistance of air to movement and
r. A

thus to initiate natural convection currents.

The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to
the temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by Newton s
law of cooling as

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 C or

Btu/h ft2 F, As is the surface area through which convection heat
D

transfer takes place, Ts is the surface temperature, and is the

temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

013
The convection heat transfer coefficient h
is not a property of the fluid. It is an
experimentally determined parameter
whose value depends on all the variables
influencing convection such as the
surface geometry, the nature of fluid
motion, the properties of the fluid, and

rab
the bulk fluid velocity.

A
ar
mm
EXAMPLE: Measuring Convection Heat Transfer
Coefficient
A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at
r. A

15 C. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating,

and the surface temperature of the wire is measured to be 152 C in
steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through
the wire are measured to be 60 V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding
any heat transfer by radiation, determine the convection heat transfer
coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of the wire and
the air in the room.
D

014
SOLUTION
When steady operating conditions are reached, the rate of heat loss
from the wire will equal the rate of heat generation in the wire as a
result of resistance heating. That is,

rab
A
ar
mm
RADIATION
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the
r. A

electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.

where (sigma) = 5.67 * 10 8

W/m2 K4 or 0.1714 * 10 8 Btu/h
ft2 R4 is the Stefan Boltzmann
constant. The idealized surface that
D

emits radiation at this maximum

rate is called a blackbody, and the Blackbody radiation represents the
radiation emitted by a blackbody is maximum amount of radiation that
called blackbody radiation. can be emitted from a surface at a
specified temperature.

015
The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation
emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

where is the emissivity of the surface. The property emissivity, whose

value is in the range 0 1, is a measure of how closely a surface
approximates a blackbody for which =1.

rab
Another important radiation property of a surface is its absorptivity ,
which is the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that
is absorbed by the surface. Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0
1.

A
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. That is, a
blackbody is a perfect absorber ( = 1) as it is a perfect emitter.

ar
mm
The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined from

where Qincident is the rate at which

r. A

radiation is incident on the surface

and is the absorptivity of the
surface. The difference between the
rates of radiation emitted by the
surface and the radiation absorbed The absorption of radiation
is the net radiation heat transfer. incident on an opaque surface of
absorptivity.
D

016
the net rate of radiation heat
transfer between these two surfaces
is given by

Radiation heat transfer to or from a

rab
surface surrounded by a gas such as
air occurs parallel to conduction (or
convection, if there is bulk gas
Radiation heat transfer
motion) between the surface and

A
between a surface and the
the gas.
surfaces surrounding it.
For simplicity and convenience, this is often done by defining a
combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined that includes the effects of
both convection and radiation. Then the total heat transfer rate to or

ar
from a surface by convection and radiation is expressed as
mm
EXAMPLE: Radiation Effect on Thermal Comfort
It is a common experience to feel
chilly in winter and warm in
r. A

summer in our homes even when the

thermostat setting is kept the same.
This is due to the so called radiation
effect resulting from radiation heat
exchange between our bodies and the
surrounding surfaces of the walls and
the ceiling.
D

017
SOLUTION:

rab
A
ar
mm
r. A

We mentioned that there are three mechanisms of heat transfer, but not
all three can exist simultaneously in a medium. For example, the outer
surfaces of a cold piece of rock will warm up in a warmer environment
as a result of heat gain by convection (from the air) and radiation (from
the sun or the warmer surrounding surfaces). But the inner parts of the
D

rock will warm up as this heat is transferred to the inner region of the
rock by conduction.

018
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly
by radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid
motion) and by convection and radiation in
a flowing fluid. In the absence of radiation,
heat transfer through a fluid is either by
conduction or convection, depending on
the presence of any bulk fluid motion.

rab
Convection can be viewed as combined
conduction and fluid motion, and
conduction in a fluid can be viewed as a
special case of convection in the absence

A
of any fluid motion.

ar
Although there are three mechanisms of
heat transfer, a medium may involve only
two of them simultaneously.
mm
Thus, when we deal with heat transfer through a fluid, we have either
conduction or convection, but not both. Also, gases are practically
transparent to radiation, except that some gases are known to absorb
radiation strongly at certain wavelengths. Ozone, for example, strongly
r. A

absorbs ultraviolet radiation. But in most cases, a gas between two

solid surfaces does not interfere with radiation and acts effectively as a
vacuum. Liquids, on the other hand, are usually strong absorbers of
radiation.
Finally, heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation only since
conduction or convection requires the presence of a material medium.
D

019
 EXAMPLE: Heat Loss from a Person
Consider a person standing in a
breezy room at 20 C. Determine the
total rate of heat transfer from this
person if the exposed surface area
and the average outer surface

rab
temperature of the person are 1.6 m2
and 29 C, respectively, and the
convection heat transfer coefficient is
6 W/m2 C.

A
ar
mm
r. A
D

020
 rab
A
ar
mm
Steady-State Conduction One Dimension
THE PLANE WALL
First consider the plane wall where a direct application of Fourier s law
r. A

may be made.

Integration yields
D

021
If more than one material is present, as in the multilayer wall, the
analysis would proceed as follows: The temperature gradients in the
three materials are shown, and the heat flow may be written

rab
A
ar
mm
r. A

The heat-transfer rate may be considered as a flow, and the

combination of thermal conductivity, thickness of material, and area as
a resistance to this flow. The temperature is the potential, or driving,
function for the heat flow, and the Fourier equation may be written
D

A relation quite like Ohm s law in electric-circuit theory. The thermal

resistance is x/kA.
022
The electrical analogy may be used to solve more complex problems
involving both series and parallel thermal resistances.

rab
A
ar
mm
The one-dimensional heat-flow equation for this type of problem may
be written
r. A

where the Rth are the thermal resistances of the various materials. The
units for the thermal resistance are C/W or F h/Btu.
RADIAL SYSTEMS
Cylinders
Consider a long cylinder of inside
radius ri, outside radius ro, and length L.
D

023
Fourier s law is used by inserting the proper area relation. The area for
heat flow in the cylindrical system is

rab
A
ar
mm
The thermal-resistance concept may be used for multiple-layer
cylindrical walls just as it was used for plane walls. For the three-layer
system the solution is
r. A
D

024
 D EXAMPLE

r. A
mm
ar
A

025
rab
EXAMPLE

rab
A
ar
mm
r. A

This heat flow may be used to calculate the interface temperature

between the outside tube wall and the insulation. We have
D

The largest thermal resistance clearly results from the insulation, and
thus the major portion of the temperature drop is through that material.

026
Consider the plane wall exposed to a hot fluid A on one side and a
cooler fluid B on the other side.

The heat transfer is expressed by

rab
The heat-transfer process may be represented
by the resistance network, and the overall heat

A
transfer is calculated as the ratio of the overall
temperature difference to the sum of the thermal
resistances:

ar
mm
Observe that the value 1/hA is used to represent the convection
resistance. The overall heat transfer by combined conduction and
convection is frequently expressed in terms of an overall heat-transfer
coefficient U, defined by the relation
r. A

where A is some suitable area for the heat flow. The overall heat-transfer
coefficient would be
D

027
For a hollow cylinder exposed to a convection environment on its inner
and outer surfaces, the electric-resistance analogy, TA and TB are the two
fluid temperatures. Note that the area for convection is not the same for
both fluids in this case, these areas depending on the inside tube
diameter and wall thickness. The overall heat transfer would be
expressed by

rab
A
in accordance with the thermal network. The terms Ai and Ao represent

ar
the inside and outside surface areas of the inner tube. The overall heat-
transfer coefficient may be based on either the inside or the outside area
of the tube. Accordingly,
mm
r. A

EXAMPLE
Water flows at 50 C inside a 2.5-cm-inside-diameter tube such that hi
=3500 W/m2 C. The tube has a wall thickness of 0.8 mm with a
thermal conductivity of 16 C. The outside of the tube loses heat
D

by free convection with ho =7.6W/m2 C. Calculate the overall heat-

transfer coefficient and heat loss per unit length to surrounding air at
20 C.
Solution
There are three resistances in series for this problem. With L=1.0 m, di
=0.025 m, and do =0.025+(2)(0.0008)=0.0266 m, the resistances may be
calculated as 028
 rab
A
ar
mm
CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER
We consider the general case where the
temperature may be changing with time
r. A

and heat sources may be present within

the body. For the element of thickness dx,
the following energy balance may be made:
D

029
These energy quantities are given as follows:

rab
A
ar
mm
r. A

This is the one-dimensional heat-conduction equation. To treat more

than one-dimensional heat flow, we need consider only the heat
conducted in and out of a unit volume in all three coordinate directions.
D

Elemental volume for three-

dimensional heat-conduction
analysis (cartesian coordinates) 030
 rab
where the quantity (m2/s) is called the thermal diffusivity of the
material. The larger the value of the faster heat will diffuse through
the material.

A
ar
mm
Elemental volume for three-
dimensional heat-conduction
analysis (cylindrical coordinates)
r. A
D

031
HEAT-SOURCE SYSTEMS
A number of interesting applications of the principles of heat transfer
are concerned with systems in which heat may be generated internally.
Nuclear reactors are one example; electrical conductors and chemically
reacting systems are others.

rab
Plane Wall with Heat Sources
Consider the plane wall with uniformly
distributed heat sources. The thickness of

A
the wall in the x direction is 2L, and it is
assumed that the dimensions in the other
directions are sufficiently large that the
heat flow may be considered as one-
dimensional.
ar
mm
r. A
D

032
 D
r. A
mm
ar
A

033
rab
Consider a cylinder of radius R with uniformly distributed heat
sources and constant thermal conductivity. If the cylinder is
sufficiently long that the temperature may be considered a function of
radius only, the appropriate differential equation may be obtained by
neglecting the axial, azimuth, and time-dependent terms in below

rab
Equation,

A
For one dimension (radial) steady state.

ar
mm
r. A
D

034
 rab
A
ar
mm
EXAMPLE: Heat Source with Convection
A current of 200 A is passed through a stainless-steel wire [k =19
C] 3 mm in diameter. The resistivity of the steel may be taken as 70
r. A

and the length of the wire is 1 m. The wire is submerged in a

liquid at 110 C and experiences a convection heat-transfer coefficient
of 4 kW/m2 C. Calculate the center temperature of the wire.
Solution
All the power generated in the wire must be dissipated by convection to
the liquid:
D

The resistance of the wire is calculated from

where is the resistivity of the wire. The surface area of the wire is
so from Equation (a),
035
And

so that

rab
Finally, the center temperature of the wire is calculated from

A
ar
mm
CONDUCTION-CONVECTION SYSTEMS
In heat-exchanger applications a finned-tube arrangement might be used
to remove heat from a hot liquid. The heat transfer from the liquid to the
finned tube is by convection. The heat is conducted through the material
r. A

and finally dissipated to the surroundings by convection.

Consider the one-dimensional
fin exposed to a surrounding
fluid at a temperature T as
shown in Figure. The
temperature of the base of the
D

fin is T0. We approach the

problem by making an
energy balance on an element
of the fin of thickness dx as
shown in the figure. Thus
036
where the area in this equation is the surface area for convection. Let the
cross-sectional area of the fin be A and the perimeter be P. Then the
energy quantities are

rab
A
ar
mm
r. A
D

037
One boundary condition is

The other boundary condition depends on the physical situation.

Several cases may be considered:
CASE 1: The fin is very long, and the temperature at the end of the fin
is essentially that of the surrounding fluid.

rab
CASE 2: The fin is of finite length and loses heat by convection from
its end.
CASE 3: The end of the fin is insulated so that dT/dx=0 at x=L.

A
ar
mm
r. A

Thus
D

038
All of the heat lost by the fin must be conducted into the base at x=0.
Using the equations for the temperature distribution, we can compute
the heat loss from

rab
An alternative method of integrating the convection heat loss could be

A
used:

For case 1,

ar
mm
For case 3,
r. A

The heat flow for case 2 is

To indicate the effectiveness of a fin in transferring a given quantity of

D

heat, a new parameter called is defined by

039
 rab
where z is the depth of the fin, and t is the thickness. Now, if the fin is
sufficiently deep, the term 2z will be large compared with 2t, and

A
ar
mm
so that

Above equation can also be used for fins subjected to convection

r. A

provided that the fin length L is replaced by the corrected length Lc.

If a straight cylindrical rod extends from a wall, the corrected fin length
is calculated from
D

040
 D
r. A
mm
ar
A

041
rab
Efficiencies of circumferential fins of rectangular profile

rab
A
ar
mm
In some cases a valid method of evaluating fin performance is to
compare the heat transfer with the fin to that which would be obtained
without the fin. The ratio of these quantities is
r. A

where Af is the total surface area of the fin and Ab is the base area.
D

This term is sometimes called the fin effectiveness.

042
EXAMPLE: An aluminum fin [k =200 C] 3.0 mm thick and 7.5
cm long protrudes from a wall. The base is maintained at 300 C, and
the ambient temperature is 50 C with h=10 W/m2 C. Calculate the
heat loss from the fin per unit depth of material.
Solution
We may use the approximate

rab
method of solution by extending
the fin a fictitious length t/2 and
then computing the heat transfer
from a fin with insulated tip

A
ar
mm
r. A

for an insulated-tip fin

D

043
EXAMPLE: Aluminum fins 1.5 cm wide and 1.0mm thick are placed
on a 2.5-cm-diameter tube to dissipate the heat. The tube surface
temperature is 170 C, and the ambient-fluid temperature is 25 C.
Calculate the heat loss per fin for h=130 W/m2 C. Assume k =200
C for aluminum.
Solution

rab
For this example we can compute the heat transfer
by using the fin-efficiency curves in figure. The
parameters needed are

A
ar
mm
From Figure, f =82 percent. The heat that would be transferred if the
entire fin were at the base temperature is (both sides of fin exchanging
heat)
r. A
D

044
In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave like a
lump whose interior temperature remains essentially uniform at all
times during a heat transfer process. The temperature of such bodies can
be taken to be a function of time only, T(t). Heat transfer analysis that
utilizes this idealization is known as lumped heat capacity method of

rab
analysis.
Consider a small hot copper ball coming out of an
oven. Measurements indicate that the temperature of
the copper ball changes with time, but it does not

A
change much with position at any given time. Thus the temperature of
the ball remains uniform at all times, and we
can talk about the temperature of the ball
with no reference to a specific location.

ar
mm
During a differential time interval d , the temperature of the body rises
by a differential amount dT. An energy balance of the solid for the time
interval d can be expressed as
r. A

where A is the surface area for convection, T is the temperature of the

convection environment, and V is the volume. The initial condition is
written
D

Integrating from = 0, at which T = T0, to any time , at which T = T,

gives

045
We have already noted that the lumped-capacity type of analysis
assumes a uniform temperature distribution throughout the solid body
and that the assumption is equivalent to saying that the surface-
convection resistance is large compared with the internal-conduction
resistance. Such an analysis may be expected to yield reasonable
estimates within about 5 percent when the following condition is met:

rab
If one considers the ratio V/A=s as a characteristic dimension of the

A
solid, the dimensionless group in above equation is called the Biot
number:

ar
mm
EXAMPLE: A steel ball [c=0.46 kJ/kg C, k =35 C] 5.0 cm in
diameter and initially at a uniform temperature of 450 C is suddenly
placed in a controlled environment in which the temperature is
maintained at 100 C. The convection heat-transfer coefficient is 10
r. A

W/m2 C. Calculate the time required for the ball to attain a

temperature of 150 C.
Solution:
We anticipate that the lumped-capacity method will apply because of
the low value of h and high value of k. We can check by using Biot
equation:
D

Therefore, lumped system analysis is applicable.

046
 rab
A
ar
mm
Convection was considered only insofar as it related to the boundary
conditions imposed on a conduction problem. The subject of convection
r. A

heat transfer requires an energy balance along with an analysis of the

fluid dynamics of the problems concerned.

Consider the flow over a flat plate

D

047
Beginning at the leading edge of the plate, a
region develops where the influence of
viscous forces is felt. These viscous forces
are described in terms of a shear stress
between the fluid layers. If this stress is
assumed to be proportional to the normal

rab
velocity gradient, we have the defining equation for the viscosity,

A
The constant of proportionality is called the dynamic viscosity. The
region of flow that develops from the leading edge of the plate in which
the effects of viscosity are observed is called the boundary layer.
Initially, the boundary-layer development is laminar, but at some critical

ar
distance from the leading edge, depending on the flow field and fluid
properties, small disturbances in the flow begin to become amplified,
and a transition process takes place until the flow becomes turbulent.
mm
The turbulent-flow region may be pictured as a random churning action
with chunks of fluid moving to and from in all directions.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when
r. A
D

This particular grouping of terms is called the Reynolds number, and is

dimensionless if a consistent set of units is used for all the properties:

048
Consider the flow in a tube as shown in below figure. A boundary layer
develops at the entrance, as shown.

rab
A
Velocity profile for (a) laminar flow in

ar
a tube and (b) turbulent tube flow.
mm
In a tube, the Reynolds number is again used as a criterion for laminar
and turbulent flow. For
r. A

the flow is usually observed to be turbulent d is the tube diameter.

The continuity relation for one-dimensional flow in a tube is
D

We define the mass velocity as

so that the Reynolds number may also be written

049
The velocity distribution is:

The thickness of boundary layer is:

rab
where

A
EXAMPLE:
Air at 27 C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s.
Calculate the boundary-layer thickness at distances of 20 cm and 40 cm
from the leading edge of the plate. The viscosity of air at 27 C is
1.85 10 5
ar
s. Assume unit depth in the z direction.
mm
Solution
The density of air is calculated from
r. A

The Reynolds number is calculated as

D

The boundary-layer thickness is calculated from

050
A thermal boundary layer may be defined as that region where
temperature gradients are present in the flow.
The temperature of the wall is Tw, the
temperature of the fluid outside the
thermal boundary layer is T , and the

rab
thickness of the thermal boundary layer
is designated as t.
The local heat flux per unit area, , is

A
where h is the convection heat-transfer coefficient. Combining these
equations, we have
ar
mm
The temperature distribution is
r. A

where =T Tw.
Thermal boundary-layer thickness
D

where

where Pr is called the Prandtl number. 051

When the plate is heated over the entire length, x0 =0, and

For constant wall temperature:

rab
A
Substitute of and in
above equation

ar
mm
The equation may be nondimensionalized by multiplying both sides by
x/k, producing the dimensionless group on the left side,
r. A

called the Nusselt number

or, for the plate heated over its entire length, x0 =0 and
D

Above equations express the local values of the heat-transfer coefficient

in terms of the distance from the leading edge of the plate and the fluid
properties. For the case where x0 =0 the average heat-transfer
coefficient and Nusselt number may be obtained by integrating over the
length of the plate:
052
 rab
A
ar
mm
Physical property
The foregoing analysis was based on the assumption that the fluid
properties were constant throughout the flow. When there is an
r. A

appreciable variation between wall and free-stream conditions, it is

recommended that the properties be evaluated at the so-called film
temperature Tf , defined as the arithmetic mean between the wall and
free-stream temperature,
D

For the constant-heat-flux case it can be shown that the local Nusselt
number is given by

which may be expressed in terms of the wall heat flux and temperature
difference as
053
 rab
A
ar
mm
All above equation are applicable to fluids having Prandtl numbers
between about 0.6 and 50. It would not apply to fluids with very low
r. A

Prandtl numbers like liquid metals or to high- Prandtl-number fluids like

heavy oils or silicones. For a very wide range of Prandtl numbers,
Churchill and Ozoe have correlated a large amount of data to give the
following relation for laminar flow on an isothermal flat plate:
D

For the constant-heat-flux case, 0.3387 is changed to 0.4637 and 0.0468

is changed to 0.0207. Properties are still evaluated at the film
temperature.
054
EXAMPLE:
Air at 27 C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s. The
viscosity of air at 27 C is 1.85 10 5 s. Assume unit depth in the
z direction. Assume that the plate is heated over its entire length to a
temperature of 60 C. Calculate the heat transferred in (a) the first 20 cm
of the plate and (b) the first 40 cm of the plate.

rab
Solution:
The total heat transfer over a certain length of the plate is desired; so we
wish to calculate average heat-transfer coefficients. Evaluating the
properties at the film temperature:

A
ar
mm
At x=20 cm
r. A

The average value of the heat-transfer coefficient is twice this value, or

D

The heat flow is

If we assume unit depth in the z direction,

055
At x=40 cm

rab
A
EXAMPLE:
A 1.0-kW heater is constructed of a glass plate with an electrically
conducting film that produces a constant heat flux. The plate is 60 cm
by 60 cm and placed in an airstream at 27 C, 1 atm with u =5 m/s.

ar
Calculate the average temperature difference along the plate and the
temperature difference at the trailing edge.
mm
r. A
D

056
 rab
A
ar
mm
EXAMPLE
Engine oil at 20 C is forced over a 20-cm-square plate at a velocity of
1.2 m/s. The plate is heated to a uniform temperature of 60 C.
r. A

Calculate the heat lost by the plate.

Solution
We first evaluate the film temperature:

The properties of engine oil are

D

The Reynolds number is

057
Because the Prandtl number is so

rab
and

A
The average value of the convection coefficient is

so that the total heat transfer is

ar
mm
The shear stress at the wall may be expressed in terms of a friction
r. A

coefficient Cf :

The shear stress may also be calculated from the relation

Using the velocity distribution given by Equation

D

we have

and substitute the relation for the boundary-layer thickness

in above equation. Then

058
Substitute in above equation, then

(1)

Equation may be rewritten in the following

form:

rab
The group on the left is called the Stanton number,

A
so that (2)

ar
Upon comparing Equations (1) and (2), we note that the right sides are
alike except for a difference of about 3 percent in the constant, We
recognize this approximation and write
mm
Above equation, called the Reynolds-Colburn analogy, expresses the
r. A

relation between fluid friction and heat transfer for laminar flow on a
flat plate and for constant wall temperature.
EXAMPLE: Drag Force on a Flat Plate
Air at 27 C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s. The
viscosity of air at 27 C is 1.85 10 5 s. Assume unit depth in the z
direction. Assume that the plate is heated over its entire length to a
temperature of 60 C. Compute the drag force exerted on the first 40 cm
D

of the plate using the analogy between fluid friction and heat transfer.
Solution:
Evaluating the properties at the film temperature:

059
At x=40 cm

rab
We use below equation to compute the friction coefficient and then

A
calculate the drag force. An average friction coefficient is desired, so

The density at 316.5 K is

ar
mm
For the 40-cm length
r. A

Then

The average shear stress at the wall is computed from below equation:
D

The drag force is the product of this shear stress and the area,
Drag force = D = w A
060
 rab
A very thin region near the plate surface has a laminar character, and the
viscous action and heat transfer take place under circumstances like

A
those in laminar flow. Farther out, at larger y distances from the plate,
some turbulent action is experienced, but the molecular viscous action
and heat conduction are still important. This region is called the buffer
layer. Still farther out, the flow is fully turbulen. In this fully turbulent
region we speak of eddy viscosity and eddy thermal conductivity. These

ar
eddy properties may be 10 to 20 times as large as the molecular values.
mm
The main difficulty in an analytical treatment is that these eddy
properties vary across the boundary layer, and the specific variation
can be determined only from experimental data. This is an important
point. All analyses of turbulent flow must eventually rely on
r. A

experimental data because there is no completely adequate theory to

predict turbulent-flow behavior.

Turbulent Heat Transfer Based on Fluid-Friction Analogy

The local skin-friction coefficient is given by
for 5*105 < Rex < 107
D

At higher Reynolds numbers the formula of Schultz-Grunow is

recommended:
for 107 < Rex < 109
Applying the fluid-friction analogy St Pr2/3 = Cf /2, we obtain the local
turbulent heat transfer as:
061
Or
The average heat transfer over the entire laminar-turbulent boundary
layer is

5*105 < ReL < 107

rab
Recalling that ,we can rewrite above equation as

5*105 < ReL < 107

A
For Higher Reynolds numbers the friction coefficient equation is

107 < ReL < 109

ar
mm
For constant-wall-heat flux in turbulent flow the local Nusselt number
is only about 4 percent higher than for the isothermal surface; that is,
r. A

EXAMPLE: Turbulent Heat Transfer from Isothermal Flat Plate

Air at 20 C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at 35 m/s. The plate is 75
cm long and is maintained at 60 C. Assuming unit depth in the z
direction, calculate the heat transfer from the plate.
D

Solution
We evaluate properties at the film temperature:

062
The Reynolds number is

and the boundary layer is turbulent because the Reynolds number is

greater than 5 105. Therefore, we use suitable Equation to calculate the

rab
average heat transfer over the plate:

A
ar
mm
TURBULENT-BOUNDARY-LAYER THICKNESS
A number of experimental investigations have shown that the velocity
profile in a turbulent boundary layer, outside the laminar sublayer, can
be described by a one-seventh-power relation
r. A

For the boundary layer is fully turbulent from the leading edge of the
plate.

The boundary layer follows a laminar growth pattern up to Recrit =5 105

D

and a turbulent growth thereafter.

5*105 < ReL < 107

063
EXAMPLE: Turbulent-Boundary-Layer Thickness
Air at 20 C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at 35 m/s. The plate is 75
cm long and is maintained at 60 C. Calculate the turbulent-boundary-
layer thickness at the end of the plate, assuming that it develops (a)
from the leading edge of the plate and (b) from the transition point at
Recrit =5 105.

rab
Solution
We evaluate properties at the film temperature:

A
ar
mm
(a)
r. A

(b)
D

The two values differ by 40 percent.

064
EMPIRICAL RELATIONS FOR PIPE AND TUBE FLOW

rab
A
The Bulk Temperature
First let us give some further consideration to the bulk-temperature
concept that is important in all heat-transfer problems involving flow

ar
inside closed channels. The bulk temperature represents energy average
or mixing cup conditions.
mm
Thus, for the tube flow depicted in above figure the total energy added
can be expressed in terms of a bulk-temperature difference by
r. A

In some differential length dx the heat added dq can be expressed either

in terms of a bulk-temperature difference or in terms of the heat-transfer
coefficient

where Tw and Tb are the wall and bulk temperatures at the particular x
location. The total heat transfer can also be expressed as
D

where A is the total surface area for heat transfer.

A traditional expression for calculation of heat transfer in fully
developed turbulent flow in smooth tubes is that recommended by
Dittus and Boelter [1]:

065
 rab
A
ar
mm
To take into account the property variations, Sieder and Tate recommend
the following relation:
r. A

All properties are evaluated at bulk-temperature conditions, except w,

which is evaluated at the wall temperature. Above equation apply to
fully developed turbulent flow in tubes.
In the entrance region the flow is not developed, and Nusselt
recommended the following equation:
D

where L is the length of the tube and d is the tube diameter. The
properties in above equation are evaluated at the mean bulk temperature.

066
Petukhov has developed a more accurate, although more complicated,
expression for fully developed turbulent flow in smooth tubes:

For

rab
where
n=0.11 for Tw >Tb, n=0.25 for Tw <Tb, and

A
n=0 for constant heat flux or for gases.
All properties are evaluated at Tf =(Tw +Tb)/2 except for b and w.
The friction factor may be obtained either from below figure or from
the following for smooth tubes:

ar
mm
Friction factors for pipes
r. A
D

067
Hausen presents the following empirical relation for fully developed
laminar flow in tubes at constant wall temperature:

The heat-transfer coefficient calculated from this relation is the average

value over the entire length of tube. Note that the Nusselt number

rab
approaches a constant value of 3.66 when the tube is sufficiently long.

A somewhat simpler empirical relation was proposed by Sieder and Tate

for laminar heat transfer in tubes:

A
In this formula the average heat-transfer coefficient is based on the
arithmetic average of the inlet and outlet temperature differences, and all

ar
fluid properties are evaluated at the mean bulk temperature of the fluid,
except w, which is evaluated at the wall temperature.
mm
The product of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers that occurs in the is
called the Peclet number.
r. A

If the channel through which the fluid flows is not of circular cross
section, it is recommended that the heat-transfer correlations be based on
the hydraulic diameter DH, defined by

where A is the cross-sectional area of the flow and P is the wetted

perimeter.
D

Flow in tube
For Re < 2300 (laminar flow)
For Re > 2300 (turbulent flow)

068
EXAMPLE: Turbulent Heat Transfer in a Tube
Air at 2 atm and 200 C is heated as it flows through a tube with a
diameter of 1 in (2.54 cm) at a velocity of 10 m/s. Calculate the heat
transfer per unit length of tube if a constant-heat-flux condition is
maintained at the wall and the wall temperature is 20 C above the air
temperature, all along the length of the tube. How much would the bulk
temperature increase over a 3-m length of the tube?

rab
Solution
We first calculate the Reynolds number to determine if the flow is
laminar or turbulent, and then select the appropriate empirical

A
correlation to calculate the heat transfer. The properties of air at a bulk
temperature of 200 C are

ar
mm
so that the flow is turbulent. We therefore use suitable equation to
r. A

calculate the heat-transfer coefficient.

The heat flow per unit length is then

D

We can now make an energy balance to calculate the increase in bulk

temperature in a 3.0-m length of tube:

069
We also have

so that we insert the numerical values in the energy balance to obtain

rab
and

EXAMPLE: Heating of Water in Laminar Tube Flow

A
Water at 60 C enters a tube of 1-in (2.54-cm) diameter at a mean flow
velocity of 2 cm/s. Calculate the exit water temperature if the tube is 3.0
m long and the wall temperature is constant at 80 C.
Solution

ar
We first evaluate the Reynolds number at the inlet bulk temperature to
determine the flow regime. The properties of water at 60 C are
mm
r. A

so the flow is laminar. Calculating the additional parameter, we have

so below equation is applicable.

D

We do not yet know the mean bulk temperature to evaluate properties

so we first make the calculation on the basis of 60 C, determine an exit
bulk temperature, and then make a second iteration to obtain a more
precise value. When inlet and outlet conditions are designated with the
subscripts 1 and 2, respectively, the energy balance becomes 070
 rab
A
ar
mm
This equation can be solved to give

Thus, we should go back and evaluate properties at

r. A

We obtain
D

071
We insert this value of h back into Equation (a) to obtain

The iteration makes very little difference in this problem. If a large bulk-
temperature difference had been encountered, the change in properties
could have had a larger effect.
EXAMPLE: Heat Transfer in a Rough Tube

rab
A 2.0-cm-diameter tube having a relative roughness ( ) of 0.001 is
maintained at a constant wall temperature of 90 C. Water enters the tube
at 40 C and leaves at 60 C. If the entering velocity is 3 m/s, calculate the
length of tube necessary to accomplish the heating.

A
Solution
We first calculate the heat transfer from

For the rough-tube condition, we may employ the Petukhov relation.

ar
mm
The mean film temperature is
r. A

and the fluid properties are

Also,
D

The Reynolds number is thus

We find the friction factor from figure as

072
Because Tw >Tb, we take n=0.11 and obtain

rab
The tube length is then obtained from the energy balance

A
ar
mm
FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS
r. A
D

073
The flow over cylinders may have a laminar boundary layer followed
by a turbulent boundary layer and a wake region depending on the
Reynolds number with the diameter as the characteristic length.
The fluid particles on the midplane strike the cylinder at the stagnation
point, bringing the fluid to a complete stop and thus raising the pressure
at that point. The pressure decreases in the flow direction while the

rab
fluid velocity increases.
The critical Reynolds number for flow across a circular cylinder or
sphere is about Recr = 2 * 105. That is, the boundary layer remains
laminar for about Re < 2 * 105 and becomes turbulent for Re > 2 * 105.

A
ar
mm
The resulting correlation for average heat-transfer coefficients in cross
flow over circular cylinders is
r. A

for gases and liquids

where the constants C and n are tabulated in below table. Properties for
use with above equation are evaluated at the film temperature as
indicated by the subscript .
D

Constants for use

with Equation.

074
Still a more comprehensive relation is given by Churchill and
Bernstein that is applicable over the complete range of available data:

rab
where Pe = Re * Pr (for heat transfer)
This relation underpredicts the data somewhat in the midrange of
Reynolds numbers between 20,000 and 400,000, and it is suggested

A
that the following be employed for this range:

ar
mm
EXAMPLE: Airflow Across Isothermal Cylinder
Air at 1 atm and 35 C flows across a 5.0-cm-diameter cylinder at a
velocity of 50 m/s. The cylinder surface is maintained at a temperature
of 150 C. Calculate the heat loss per unit length of the cylinder.
r. A

Solution
We first determine the Reynolds number and then find the applicable
constants from table for use with equation.

The properties of air are evaluated at the film temperature:

D

075
From table

So

rab
The heat transfer per unit length is therefore

A
ar
mm
EXAMPLE: Heat Transfer from Electrically Heated Wire
A fine wire having a diameter of 3.94 10 5 m is placed in a 1-atm
airstream at 25 C having a flow velocity of 50 m/s perpendicular to the
r. A

wire. An electric current is passed through the wire, raising its surface
temperature to 50 C. Calculate the heat loss per unit length.
Solution
We first obtain the properties at the film temperature:
D

The Reynolds number is

The Peclet number is Pe=Re Pr =83.3, and we find that below equations
apply and compare results.

076
Or

with C=0.683 and n=0.466

and the value of the heat-transfer coefficient is

rab
The heat transfer per unit length is then

A
we calculate the Nusselt number by another equation as

ar
mm
and

and
r. A

Here, we find the two correlations differing by 0.4 percent.

Because many heat-exchanger arrangements involve multiple rows of

tubes, the heat transfer characteristics for tube banks are of important
practical interest.
D

The Reynolds number is based on the maximum velocity occurring in

the tube bank; that is, the velocity through the minimum-flow area.

077
(a) in-line tube rows; (b) staggered tube rows.

rab
A
ar
mm
The data of Table 6-4 pertain to tube banks having 10 or more rows of
tubes in the direction of flow.
Modified correlation for heat transfer in tube banks of 10 rows or more
r. A

for use with equation.

D

078
For fewer rows the ratio of h for N rows deep to that for 10 rows
is given in below table.

Ratio of h for N rows deep to that for 10 rows deep, for use with
equation.

rab
Determination of Maximum Flow Velocity

A
For flows normal to in-line tube banks the maximum flow velocity will
occur through the minimum frontal area (Sn d) presented to the
incoming free stream velocity u . Thus,

ar
mm
For the staggered case, the flow enters the tube bank through the area
Sn d and then splits into the two areas [(Sn/2)2 +Sp2 ]1/2 d. If the sum
of these two areas is less than Sn d, then they will represent the
minimum flow area and the maximum velocity in the tube bank.
r. A

2{[(Sn/2)2 +Sp2 ]1/2 d} > Sn d

2{[(Sn/2)2 +Sp2 ]1/2 d} < Sn d

D

079
EXAMPLE: Heating of Air with In-Line Tube Bank
Air at 1 atm and 10 C flows across a bank of tubes 15 rows high and 5
rows deep at a velocity of 7 m/s measured at a point in the flow before
the air enters the tube bank. The surfaces of the tubes are maintained at
65 C. The diameter of the tubes is 1 in [2.54 cm]; they are arranged in
an in-line manner so that the spacing in both the normal and parallel

rab
directions to the flow is 1.5 in [3.81 cm]. Calculate the total heat
transfer per unit length for the tube bank and the exit air temperature.
Solution
The constants for use with equation

A
may be obtained from table, using

so that
ar
mm
The properties of air are evaluated at the film temperature, which at
entrance to the tube bank is
r. A

Then
D

To calculate the maximum velocity, we must determine the minimum

flow area. We find that the ratio of the minimum flow area to the total
frontal area is (Sn d)/Sn. The maximum velocity is thus

where u is the incoming velocity before entrance to the tube bank. The
080
Reynolds number is computed by using the maximum velocity.
The heat-transfer coefficient is then calculated with equation:

rab
This is the heat-transfer coefficient that would be obtained if there were
10 rows of tubes in the direction of the flow. Because there are only 5

A
rows, this value must be multiplied by the factor 0.92, as determined
from table.
The total surface area for heat transfer, considering unit length of tubes,
is
where N is the total number of tubes.

ar
mm
Before calculating the heat transfer, we must recognize that the air
temperature increases as the air flows through the tube bank. Therefore,
this must be taken into account when using
r. A

As a good approximation, we can use an arithmetic average value of T

and write for the energy balance

where now the subscripts 1 and 2 designate entrance and exit to the tube
bank. The mass flow at entrance to the 15 tubes is
D

081
so that Equation ( f ) becomes

that may be solved to give

The heat transfer is then obtained from the right side of Equation ( f ):

rab
This answer could be improved somewhat by recalculating the air
properties based on a mean value of T , but the improvement would be

A
small and well within the accuracy of the empirical heat-transfer
correlation of equation.

ar
mm
Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are thermal devices that transfer or exchange heat
from one fluid to one or more others. Heat exchangers are commonly
r. A

used in practice in a wide range of applications, from heating and air-

conditioning systems in a household, to chemical processing and power
production in large plants. In a car radiator, for example, heat is
transferred from the hot water flowing through the radiator tubes to the
air flowing through the closely spaced thin plates outside attached to
the tubes.
D

Double-pipe
the double-pipe heat exchanger. One fluid in a double-pipe heat
exchanger flows through the smaller pipe while the other fluid flows
through the annular space between the two pipes. Two types of flow
arrangement are possible in a double-pipe heat exchanger: in parallel
flow, both the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at the same
082
end and move in the same direction.
 rab
A
ar
mm
In counter flow, on the other hand, the hot and cold fluids enter the heat
exchanger at opposite ends and flow in opposite directions. Compact
heat exchangers enable us to achieve high heat transfer rates between
two fluids in a small volume, and they are commonly used in
r. A

applications with strict limitations on the weight and volume of heat

exchangers.
D

A gas-to-liquid
compact heat
exchanger for a
residential
air-conditioning
system. 083
Cross-flow
In compact heat exchangers, the two fluids usually move perpendicular
to each other, and such flow configuration is called cross-flow. The
cross-flow is further classified as unmixed and mixed flow, depending
on the flow configuration, as shown in below figure. In (a) the cross-
flow is said to be unmixed since the plate fins force the fluid to flow
through a particular interfin spacing and prevent it from moving in the

rab
transverse direction (i.e., parallel to the tubes). The cross-flow in (b) is
said to be mixed since the fluid now is free to move in the transverse
direction.

A
ar
mm
r. A
D

084
Perhaps the most common type of heat exchanger in industrial
applications is the shell-and-tube heat exchanger, shown in below
figure. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers contain a large number of tubes
(sometimes several hundred) packed in a shell with their axes parallel
to that of the shell. Heat transfer takes place as one fluid flows inside
the tubes while the other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell.
Baffles are commonly placed in the shell to force the shell-side fluid to

rab
flow across the shell to enhance heat transfer and to maintain uniform
spacing between the tubes.

A
ar
mm
Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are further classified according to the
number of shell and tube passes involved. Heat exchangers in which all
the tubes make one U-turn in the shell, for example, are called one-
shell-pass and two-tube-passes heat exchangers. Likewise, a heat
r. A

exchanger that involves two passes in the shell and four passes in the
tubes is called a two-shell-passes and four-tube-passes heat exchanger.
D

Multipass flow arrangements in shell-and-tube heat exchangers. 085

We have already discussed the overall heat-transfer coefficient with the
heat transfer through the plane wall of below figure expressed as

rab
A
ar
mm
where TA and TB are the fluid temperatures on each side of the wall. The
overall heat-transfer coefficient U is defined by the relation
r. A

(a)
D

(a)

Double-pipe heat exchange: (a) schematic; (b) thermal-resistance

network for overall heat transfer
086
where the subscripts i and o pertain to the inside and outside of the
smaller inner tube. The overall heat-transfer coefficient may be based
on either the inside or outside area of the tube at the discretion of the

rab
designer. Accordingly,

A
ar
mm
After a period of operation the heat-transfer surfaces for a heat
exchanger may become coated with various deposits present in the flow
r. A

systems, or the surfaces may become corroded as a result of the

interaction between the fluids and the material used for construction of
the heat exchanger. In either event, this coating represents an additional
resistance to the heat flow, and thus results in decreased performance.
The overall effect is usually represented by a fouling factor, or fouling
resistance, , which must be included along with the other thermal
resistances making up the overall heat-transfer coefficient.
D

Fouling factors must be obtained experimentally by determining the

values of for both clean and dirty conditions in the heat exchanger.
The fouling factor is thus defined as

087
Temperature profiles for
(a) parallel flow and
(b) counterflow in double-pipe
heat exchanger.

rab
A
ar
mm
We propose to calculate the heat transfer in this double-pipe
arrangement with
where
r. A

U = overall heat-transfer coefficient

A = surface area for heat transfer consistent with definition of U
= suitable mean temperature difference across heat exchanger
For the parallel-flow heat exchanger, the heat transferred through an
element of area A may be written
(1)
D

where the subscripts h and c designate the hot and cold fluids,
respectively. The heat transfer could also be expressed
(2)
From Equation (1)

088
 D
r. A
mm
ar
A

089
rab
If a heat exchanger other than the double-pipe type is used, the heat
transfer is calculated by using a correction factor applied to the LMTD

. The heat-transfer equation then takes the

form

rab
A
ar
mm
r. A
D

090
 D
r. A
mm
ar
A

091
rab
 rab
A
ar
mm
When a phase change is involved, as in condensation or boiling
(evaporation), the fluid normally remains at essentially constant
temperature and the relations are simplified. For this condition, P or R
becomes zero and we obtain
r. A

EXAMPLE: Calculation of Heat-Exchanger Size from Known

Temperatures
Water at the rate of 68 kg/min is heated from 35 to 75 C by an oil
having a specific heat of 1.9 kJ/kg C. The fluids are used in a
D

counterflow double-pipe heat exchanger, and the oil enters the

exchanger at 110 C and leaves at 75 C. The overall heat-transfer
coefficient is 320 W/m2 C. Calculate the heat-exchanger area.

092
Solution
The total heat transfer is determined from the energy absorbed by the
water:

Since all the fluid temperatures are known, the LMTD can be calculated

rab
by using the temperature scheme in below figure:

A
ar
mm
EXAMPLE: Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
Water at the rate of 68 kg/min is heated from 35 to 75 C by an oil having
a specific heat of 1.9 kJ/kg C. The fluids are used in a shell-and-tube
r. A

exchanger with the water making one shell pass and the oil making two
tube passes, and the oil enters the exchanger at 110 C and leaves at 75 C.
Calculate the area required for this exchanger, assuming that the overall
heat-transfer coefficient remains at 320 W/m2 C.
Solution
To solve this problem, we determine a correction factor from Figure 10-8
to be used with the LMTD calculated on the basis of a counterflow
D

exchanger. The parameters according to the nomenclature of Figure 10-8

are

093
 rab
A
ar
mm
EXAMPLE: Design of Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
Water at the rate of 30,000 lbm/h [3.783 kg/s] is heated from 100 to
130 F [37.78 to 54.44 C] in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. On the
shell side one pass is used with water as the heating fluid, 15,000 lbm/h
r. A

[1.892 kg/s], entering the exchanger at 200 F [93.33 C]. The overall
heat-transfer coefficient is 250 Btu/h ft2 F [1419 W/m2 C], and the
average water velocity in the 3/4-in [1.905-cm] diameter tubes is 1.2
ft/s [0.366 m/s]. Because of space limitations, the tube length must not
be longer than 8 ft [2.438 m]. Calculate the number of tube passes, the
number of tubes per pass, and the length of the tubes, consistent with
this restriction.
D

Solution
We first assume one tube pass and check to see if it satisfies the
conditions of this problem. The exit temperature of the hot water is
calculated from

094
 rab
A
Using the average water velocity in the tubes and the flow rate, we

ar
calculate the total flow area with
mm
r. A
D

We recall that the total surface area required for a one-tube-pass

exchanger was calculated in Equation (b) as 6.238 m2.We may thus
compute the length of tube for this type of exchanger from

095
This length is greater than the allowable 2.438 m, so we must use more
than one tube pass. When we increase the number of passes, we
correspondingly increase the total surface area required because of the
reduction in LMTD caused by the correction factor F. We next try two
tube passes. From Figure 10-8,
F =0.88

rab
and thus

The number of tubes per pass is still 36 because of the velocity

A
requirement. For the two-tube-pass exchanger the total surface area is
now related to the length by

ar
mm
This length is within the 2.438-m requirement, so the final design choice
is
Number of tubes per pass = 36
r. A

Number of passes = 2
Length of tube per pass = 1.646 m [5.4 ft]

EXAMPLE: Cross-Flow Exchanger with One Fluid Mixed

A heat exchanger like that shown in below figure is used to heat an oil in
the tubes (c=1.9 kJ/kg C) from 15 C to 85 C. Blowing across the
D

outside of the tubes is steam that enters at 130 C and leaves at 110 C with
a mass flow of 5.2 kg/sec. The overall heat-transfer coefficient is 275
W/m2 C and c for steam is 1.86 kJ/kg C. Calculate the surface area of
the heat exchanger.

096
Solution
The total heat transfer may be
obtained from an energy balance
on the steam

rab
We can solve for the area from

The value of Tm is calculated as if the exchanger

A
were counterflow double pipe. Thus,

ar
mm
Now, from Figure 10-11, t1 and t2 will represent the unmixed fluid (the
oil) and T1 and T2 will represent the mixed fluid (the steam) so that
r. A

and we calculate

Consulting Figure 10-11 we find

so the area is calculated from

D

097