Introduction

Pavement, in construction, is an outdoor floor or superficial surface

covering. Paving materials include asphalt, concrete, stones such as flagstone,
cobblestone, and setts, artificial stone, bricks, tiles, and sometimes wood. In
landscape architecture, pavements are part of the
Hardscape and are used on sidewalks, road surfaces, patios, courtyards, etc.

The field of pavement design is dynamic: the concepts are changing with
time as technology develops and new equipment emerges for site investigation,
material testing and traffic data collection, and new data become available.
Through the observation of performances of the already constructed roads,
highway engineers became aware that pavement performance is dependent on
the sub-grade soils.
Pavements constructed over plastic soils showed higher distress than those
constructed over granular deposits. With the knowledge of soil mechanics,
pavement design was made with soil classification.
With the increase in traffic and usage and development of heavy transport
means, the deterioration of pavements due to heavy trucks and aircrafts
necessitated a more rational approach of design. This led to full-scale and
laboratory experiments in different countries at different capacities.

Learning out comes (Objectives)

At the end of the module the learner will be able to:
 Plan and prepare work
 Set out sub- base/base/surface work
 Placing and spreading sub- base, base and surfacing materials
 Compact materials

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Overview of Pavement Structures

A pavement is a layered structure that:

Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic
loads, and distribute them over the sub grade soil without overstressing;
Have adequate properties to prevent or minimize the penetration or internal
accumulation of moisture; and
Have a surface that is reasonably smooth and skid resistant at the same time,
as well as, reasonably resistant to wear, distortion and deterioration by vehicle
loads and weather.
A highway pavement is composed of a system of overlaid strata of chosen
processed materials that is positioned on the in-situ soil, termed the subgrade.

Its basic requirement is the provision of a uniform skid resistant running

surface with adequate life and requiring minimum maintenance.

The chief structural purpose of the pavement is the support of vehicle wheel
loads applied to the carriageway and the distribution of them to the subgrade
immediately underneath.
If the road is in cut, the subgrade will consist of the in-situ soil. If it is
constructed on fill, the top layers of the embankment structure are collectively
termed the subgrade.
The pavement designer must develop the most economical combination of
layers that will guarantee adequate dispersion of the incident wheel stresses so
that each layer in the pavement does not become overstressed during the
design life of the highway.

The major variables in the design of a highway pavement are:

1. The thickness of each layer in the pavement

2. The material contained within each layer of the pavement
3. The type of vehicles in the traffic stream
4. The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life
5. The strength of the underlying subgrade soil.

Types of Pavements

 Earth Roads
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
 Rigid Pavements
 Flexible Pavements

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 Earth Roads
Roads are constructed as detailed below:-
Material required: - The materials required for the construction of an ordinary
earth road are natural soil, originally available at site, a suitable stabilizer, if
required. The ideal composition of soil which is recommended for construction
earth roads.
Method of construction of an ordinary earth road: -
Construction work of an ordinary earth road is completed in the following
steps;-
1. Preparing the subgrade: - The subgrade is prepared and the surface is
brought to the required camber and gradient.
2. Rolling a watering: - The surface is role properly and well wetted with
water.
3. Spreading the soil: - after watering, a layer of graded soil, about 10 cm
thick is evenly spread.
4. Rolling: - the layer of soil is rolled at optimum moisture moisture content
(OMC) with a suitable roller and finally finished with a light roller.
The type of roller for compaction is decided based on soil type, desired amount
of compaction and availability of equipment. At least 95 per cent of dry density
of its light compaction is considered desirable.
Note: - Sometimes, a second layer (about 10 cm thick) is spread and rolled
properly to act as wearing course.
5. Checking:-The camber of the finished surface is checked a corrected, if
necessary.
6. Curing: - The rolled surface is watered for four or five days for curing. No
traffic should be allowed to pass over the road surface during this period.
7. Opening to traffic: - After curing, the traffic is allowed to pass but the
surface is sprinkled over with water for a period of 10 to 1 days.
Method of construction of a stabilized earth road:-
Construction work of a stabilized earth road is completed in steps as described
in case of ordinary earth road. For constructing a stabilized earth road, the
subgrade is prepared to the required camber and gradient. Then the base
course is prepared by any suitable method of soil stabilized soil (about 10 cm
thick) is spread over the base course and rolled properly. The surface is then
cured and opened to traffic.
Types of Earth Roads
Earth roads are of the following two types:-
1) Ordinary earth roads: - The earth road having its foundation wearing
surface consisting of one or two compacted layers of natural soil available
along its alignment is called an Ordinary earth road.
This is the lowest form of pavement surface used so far and is considered as
the first stage in the development of road pavement construction. The surface
of these roads is generally dusty and ruts are quickly formed. These roads

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become unserviceable very soon and thus require frequent repair in order to
keep them in serviceable condition for a longer period.

2) Stabilized earth roads: - The earth road having its foundation and wearing
surface consisting of one or two compacted layers of stabilized soil is called
stabilized-earth road.
This is the improved form of earth roads. These roads can carry greater traffic,
load and provide better better service as compared to ordinary earth roads.

Gravel Surface roads

The gravel could have been produced for use as base or cushion material for
a paved road. There are two major differences between surface gravel and base
(cushion) material.
Good gravel for base courses will generally have larger top-sized stone and a
very small percentage of clay or fine material. This is necessary for the strength
and good drain ability needed in base gravels. This material will not form a
crust to keep the material bound together on a gravel road.

Good Gradation

Gravel is a mixture of three sizes or types of material: stone, sand and fines.
Gravel used consists of varying amount of crushed stone, sand, and fines.
Fines are silt or clay particles more than .075 millimeters (0.0030 in), which
can act as a binder. Crushed stone, also called road metal, is used because
gravel with fractured faces will stay in place better than rounded river pebbles.
A good gravel for a gravel road will have a higher percentage of fines than
gravel used as a sub base for a paved road. This often causes problems if a
gravel road is paved without adding sand and gravel sized stone to dilute the
percentage of fines.

Rigid Pavements (Concrete Pavement)

Rigid pavement is the technical term for any road surface made of concrete.
Concrete roads are called rigid while asphalt-covered roads are flexible. These
terms refer to the amount of deformation created in the road surface itself
when in use and over time.)
There are four types of concrete pavement:
 Plain pavements with dowels that use dowels to provide load transfer and
prevent faulting,
 Plain pavements without dowels, in which aggregate interlock transfers
loads across joints and prevents faulting,
 Conventionally reinforced pavements that contain steel reinforcement
and use dowels in contraction joints, and

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  Continuously reinforced pavements that have no contraction joints and
are reinforced with continuous longitudinal steel.

Rigid Pavements are pavement structures constructed of cement concrete

slabs, which derive their capacity to withstand vehicle loads from flexural
strength or beam strength due to high modulus of elasticity.
High flexural strength permits the vehicle load on cement concrete slab to be
distributed over a relatively wider area and to bridge over minor irregularities of
the soil than flexible pavements and thus, variation in the subgrade soil
strength has little influence.
There is always a necessity to build a base course under cement concrete slab
where the subgrade soil cannot provide a uniform support, or for one or more
of the following reasons:
• Control of pumping
• Control of frost action.
• Improvement of drainage
• Control of shrinkage and swell.
• Expedition of Construction

Flexible Pavement (Bituminous Pavement)

A flexible pavement is one, which has low flexural strength, and the load is
largely transmitted to the sub-grade soil through the lateral distribution of
stresses with increasing depth.
Consists of combination of mineral aggregate with bituminous binder ranging
from inexpensive surface treatment ¼ in or less thick to asphaltic concrete.
For good service throughout the full life, bituminous pavement must retain the
following qualities:
 Freedom from cracking or raveling.
 Resistance to weather including the effect of surface water heat and cold.
 Resistance to internal moisture, particularly to water vapors.
 Tight impermeable surface or porous surface (if either is needed for
contained stability of underlying base or subgrade).
 Smooth riding and non-skidding surface.

Types of Flexible Pavement Constructions

 Conventional Flexible Pavement,
 Full-depth Asphalt Pavement, and
 Contained Rock Asphalt mat (CRAM) construction (which is still in the
experimental stage and has not been widely accepted for practical use).

a. Conventional Flexible Pavements

-are multi-layered structures with better materials on top where the intensity
of stress is high and inferior materials at the bottom where the intensity is low.

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This design principle makes possible to use local materials and usually results
in a most economical design.
This is particularly true in regions where high-quality materials are expensive
but local materials of inferior quality are readily available.
Starting from the top, a conventional flexible pavement normally consists of:
 Surface course
 Base course
 Sub base course
 Compacted subgrade
 Natural subgrade.

Surface Course

The surface course is the top course of an asphalt pavement, sometimes

called the wearing course.
It is usually constructed by dense graded hot-mix asphalt.
It is a structural part of the pavement, which must be tough to resist distortion
under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-resistant riding surface.
The surface course must be waterproof to protect the entire pavement and
subgrade from the weakening effect of water.
The surface course or wearing course is the upper layer in roadway, airfield,
and dockyard construction. The term 'surface course' is sometimes used,
however this term is slightly different as it can be used to describe very thin
surface layers such as chip seal.
In rigid pavements the upper layer is a Portland cement concrete slab. In
flexible pavements the upper layer consists of asphalt concrete that is a
construction aggregate with a bituminous binder.
The wearing course is typically placed on the binder course which is then laid
on the base course, which is normally placed on the sub base, which rests on
the subgrade. There are various different types of flexible pavement wearing
course, suitable for different situations. Stone mastic asphalt is a type of
flexible pavement wearing course which is typically used for heavily trafficked
roads.

Base Course

The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface
course.
It may be composed of well-graded crushed stone (unbounded), granular
material mixed with binder, or stabilized materials.
It is the main structural part of the pavement and provides a level surface for
laying the surface layer.
If constructed directly over the sub base/subgrade,
It prevents intrusions of the fine subgrade soils into the pavement structure.

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Base course – the layer of base course material, greater than 50mm in depth,
immediately underlying the pavement wearing surface.
It is the layer immediately under the wearing surface (Applied whether the
wearing surface is bituminous or cement concrete and whether it’s a thick or
thin bituminous layer).
As base course lies close under the pavement surface it is subjected to
severe loading. The material in a base course must be of extremely high quality
and its construction must be done carefully. The LA Abrasion test can
determine the quality of the aggregate for this purpose.
Types of Base Course
1. Granular Base Course:
It is a mixture of soil particles ranging in size from course to fine. Processing
involves crushing oversized particles and screening
Where it is necessary to secure the desired grading.
The requirements of a satisfactory soil aggregate surface are;
 Stability
 Resistance to abrasion
 Resistance to penetration of water
 Capillary properties to replace moisture lost by surface evaporation upon
the addition of wearing course requirement change.

2. Macadam Base:
Successive layers of crushed rock mechanically locked by rolling and bonded
by stone screening (rock duct, stone chips etc.).

3. In-water bound Macadam:

The crushed stones are laid, shaped and compacted and then finer materials
are added and washed into surface to provide a dense material.
4. Treated Bases:
Compose of mineral aggregate and additive to make them strong or more
resistant to moisture. Among the treating agents is bitumen.

Set out sub- base/base/surface work

The methods of constructing roads have changed a lot since the first roads
were built around made of stone and timber. Road construction techniques
were gradually improved by the study of road traffic, stone thickness, road
alignment, and slope gradients, developing to use stones that were laid in a
regular, compact design, and covered with smaller stones to produce a solid
layer.
Modern roads tend to be constructed using asphalt and/or concrete.
Very broadly, the construction of roads can be described by three processes:
 Setting out.
 Earth works.
 Paving construction.

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 Setting out
This is carried out following the dimensions specified in layout drawings. A
commonly used setting out procedure is the profile board method. A series of
boards that show the exact level 1 meter above the completed construction
level are placed at intervals along the proposed line of the road. A profile board
with a fixed height, called the traveler, is used for controlling the excavated
levels between these profile boards. By placing the traveler in the sight-line
between two level boards, it can be seen whether or not the excavation has
been carried out to correct levels and adjusted accordingly.
The level of each profile board is controlled using a line level which is a short
spirit level hung from a nylon string. The line operator moves the string up or
down until the bubble is centered.
Junctions, hammer heads, turning bays and intersecting curves are laid out in
a similar manner.
Earthworks
Earthwork is one of the major works involved in road construction. It
involves the removal of topsoil, along with any vegetation, before scraping and
grading the area to the finished ‘formation level’. This is usually done using a
tractor shovel, grader or bulldozer. Below the formation level, the soil is known
as the ‘subgrade ’. It is essential that the strength of the subgrade is tested
prior to earthwork beginning. Most earthworks are formed by cut-and-fill, and
the type of ‘fill’ material must be considered, not only in terms of its physical
properties, but on the conditions in which it is to be used, and the methods of
compaction.
Depending on its quality, compressible subsoil may be removed or stabilized.
If the cost of full or partial excavation subsoil is uneconomical and would be
likely to result in are sand-filled boreholes beneath the road embankment that
give greater stability to the soil by decreasing the length that water has to
travel in a drainage path, so dissipating water pressure. Sand drains alongside
the road are used to intercept ground water.
Subsoil drainage should be provided to deal with seepage through pavements
and verges, from higher ground and a result of the seasonal rise and fall of the
water table.

Subgrade strength
The required thickness of the pavement is determined by the subgrade
strength, so it is desirable to make the subgrade as strong as possible.
The strength of the subgrade can be achieved by using the following
techniques:
 Removal of poor material in cuttings and replacing with selected fill.
 Compacting subgrade to a high dry density.
 Providing adequate subsoil drainage.

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  Soil stabilization methods such as the use of cement,
Bituminous materials or chemicals.
The subgrade strength will decrease as moisture content increases so
protection may be required if it is to left exposed for any length of time.
Protection covering can be either:
Medium gauge plastic sheeting with 300 mm laps.
Sprayed bituminous binder with a sand topping.
Paving construction
Once the subgrade has been prepared and drainage or buried services
installed, the paving construction can begin. Paving can be either flexible or
rigid. There are pros and cons to each type, with one being selected over the
other depending on the specific needs of a project.
Rigid pavements tend to have lower maintenance costs, a longer design life and
higher flexural strength; but flexible pavements tend to have lower
construction costs and have a higher ability to expand and contract with
temperature and so do not need expansion joints.

Base Course Materials

 Base course material will be approved by the Contract Administrator.
 Base course material will consist of sound, hard, crushed rock, crushed
gravel, or crushed concrete.
 Crushed rock and crushed gravel will be free from organic or soft
material that would disintegrate through decay or weathering.
 Base course material will consist of sound durable particles produced by
crushing, screening and grading of recovered materials, free from soft
material that would decay or disintegrate from weathering.
 Crushed concrete base course material is limited to a maximum of two
percent of the total dry weight of deleterious material.
 The base course material will be well graded and conform to the following
grading requirements:

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TABLE – Base Course Material Grading Requirements

CANADIAN PERCENT OF TOTAL DRY WEIGHT PASSING

METRIC SIEVE EACH SIEVE
SIZE
Granular Crushed Crushed
Concrete Limestone

25000 100%
20000 80% - 100%
5000 40% - 70% 100% 100%
2500 25%- 55% 40% - 70% 40% - 70%
315 13% 30% 25% 60% 25% 60%
80 5%- 15% 8%- 25% 8%- 25%
6%- 17% 6%- 17%

Test base course material using an Atterberg Limits Test in accordance with
ASTM D4318. The material passing the 315 sieve will have a liquid limit not
greater than 25 and a plasticity index not greater than 6.

Surface Course:
The top layers of pavement which is in direct contact with the wheel of the
vehicle. Usually constructed of material in which bitumen is used as binder
materials.

Sub base Course

The sub base course is the layer of material beneath the base course
constructed using local and cheaper materials for economic reason on top of
the subgrade.
It provides additional help to the base and the upper layers in distributing the
load.
It facilitates drainage of free water that might get accumulated below the
pavement.
If the base course is open graded, the sub base course with more fines can
serve as a filter between the subgrade and the base course.
Sub-base – where required, the layer of material provided between the sub-
grade and the base course.
Sub base is the layer of aggregate material laid on the sub grade, on which
the base course layer is located. It may be omitted when there will be only foot
traffic on the pavement, but it is necessary for surfaces used by vehicles.

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Sub base is often the main load-bearing layer of the pavement. Its role is to
spread the load evenly over the subgrade.
It is layer of granular material provided above sub-grade generally natural
gravel. It is usually not provided on sub-grade of good quality.
The materials used may be either unbound granular, or cement-bound. The
quality of sub-base is very important for the useful life of the road and can
outlive the life of the surface, which can be scrapped off and after checking that
the sub-base is still in good condition, a new layer can be applied.
(Unbound granular materials are usually crushed stone, crushed slag or
concrete, or slate.)
Cement-bound materials come in multiple types. Mass concrete is used
where exceptional loads are expected, with thickness usually 100 to 150
millimeters (4 to 6 in), and optional reinforcement with steel mesh or polymer
fibers. Other cement bound materials (CBM), with less strength but also lower
cost, are used. They are rated by strength, from the weakest CBM 1 (also
formerly known as soil cement) through CBM 2 to CBM 3, 4, and 5, which are
more similar to concrete and are called "lean mix".
The thickness of sub base can range from 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in) for
garden paths through 100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in) for driveways and public
footpaths, to 150 to 225 mm (6 to 9 in) for heavy used roads, and more for
highways.
Low quality sub base material, including large pieces of rock and concrete,
which was hardly acceptable heretofore, can now be re-used when crushed in-
situ with conventional milling machines to obtain a homogenous grain size. It
may then be treated normally with hydraulic binders, augmented by specific
polymer formulations.

Sub-Base Materials

Sub-base material of the type(s) shown on the Drawings or indicated in the

Specifications will be supplied in accordance with the following requirements:
 Suitable site sub-base material will be of a type approved by the Contract
Administrator.
 Clay borrow sub-base material will be of a type approved by the Contract
Administrator.
 Crushed sub-base material will be crushed aggregate, crushed granite,
crushed limestone
Or crushed concrete pavement.
 Crushed sub-base material will be well-graded and conform to the
following grading requirements:

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 TABLE - Crushed Sub-Base Material Grading Requirements

CANADIAN PERCENT OF TOTAL DRY WEIGHT PASSING

METRIC SIEVE EACH SIEVE
SIZE
50 mm MAX. 100mm 150 mm

200 000 100%

150 000 90% - 100%

100 000 97% - 100% 65% - 85%

50 000 100%

25 000 30% - 50% 0% - 40%

5 000 25% - 60%

80 4% - 15% 8% max.

The content composition of crushed concrete pavement shall be based on

weight as follows:
- Minimum of 85% Crushed Recycled Concrete
- Maximum of 15% of recycled asphaltic concrete
- Maximum of 3% clay
- Maximum of 1% deleterious material
150 and 100 millimeter crushed sub-base material when subjected to the
abrasion test will have a loss of not more than 40% when tested in accordance
with grading 1 of ASTM C535, Test for Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size
Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.
50 millimeter crushed sub-base material when subjected to the abrasion test
will have a loss of not more than 40% when tested in accordance with grading
A of ASTM C131, Test for resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse
Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.

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 Subgrade
Subgrade is the foundation on which the vehicle load and the weight of the
pavement layers finally rest.
It is an in situ or a layer of selected material compacted to the desirable density
near the optimum moisture content.
It is graded into a proper shape, properly drained, and compacted to receive the
pavement layers.
Sub grade is the natural in-situ material.
Subgrade is the native material underneath a constructed road, pavement or
railway track (US: railroad track). It is also called formation level.
The term can also refer to imported material that has been used to build an
embankment.
Subgrades are commonly compacted before the construction of a road,
pavement or railway track, and are sometimes stabilized by the addition of
asphalt, lime, Portland cement or other modifiers. The subgrade is the
foundation of the pavement structure, on which the sub base is laid down.
The load-bearing strength of subgrade is measured by California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) test, falling weight deflect meter back calculations and other methods.
Subsoil is the layer of soil under the topsoil on the surface of the ground.
Like topsoil, it is composed of a variable mixture of small particles such as
sand, silt and clay, but with a much lower percentage of organic matter and
humus. Below the subsoil is the substratum, which can be residual bedrock,
sediments, or Aeolian deposits. As it is lacking in dark humus, subsoil is
usually paler in color than the overlying topsoil. It may contain the deeper
roots of some plants, such as trees, but a majority of plant roots lie within the
topsoil.
Clay-based subsoil has been the primary source of material for adobe, cob,
rammed earth, wattle and daub, and other earthen construction methods for
millennia. Coarse sand, the other ingredient in most of these materials, is also
found in subsoil.
Although by no means sterile, subsoil is relatively barren in terms of soil
organisms compared to humus-rich topsoil.
The sub-grade material should be clean and free from organic matter and
should be able to be compacted by roller, to form stable sub- base. The
material should have the following characteristics:
 Well graded, uniformity coefficient (D60/D10) should not be less than 3.
 Fraction passing sieve #200 shall not be greater than 2/3rd of the
fraction passing sieve #40.
 Should have a L.L not greater than 25%.
 P.I not greater than 6
 CBR should not be less than 25.

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  In coarse rain, aggregate retained by #10 sieve, %age of wear shall not be
greater than 5%.
 The maximum diameter of any particle shall not be greater than 2/3rd of
the layer thickness of sub-base.

FINE GRAINED SAND

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely

divided rock and mineral particles. The composition of sand is highly
variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the
most common constituent of sand in land continental settings and
non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide) usually in the
form of quartz.
In terms of particle size as used by geologists sand particles range in
a diameter from 0.0625mm or 1/16mm to2mm.
Sand grains are between gravel (with particles range from 2mm up
to 64mm) and silt (particles smaller than 0.0625mm down to
0.004mm).

Aggregate base (AB

Aggregate base (AB) is typically made of a recipe of mixing different sizes of

crushed rock together forming the aggregate which has certain desirable
properties. 20 mm or 3 ⁄ 4 in Aggregate Base, Class 2 , is used in roadways and
is an aggregate made of a specific recipe of different sizes and quality of rock
inclusive of 20 mm ( 3 ⁄ 4 in) to fine dust.
An aggregate is normally made from newly quarried rock, or it is sometimes
allowed to be made from recycled asphalt concrete and/or Portland cement
concrete.

b. Full-depth Asphalt Pavements

-are constructed by placing one or more layers of hot-mix asphalt directly on

the subgrade or improved subgrade.
This concept was conceived by the Asphalt Institute and is generally
considered the most cost-effective and dependable type of asphalt pavement for
heavy traffic and quite popular in areas where local materials are not available.

C. Contained rock asphalt mats

-are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers in between

two asphalt layers.

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Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the subgrade will
significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on a soil subgrade and
protect from surface water.

Compaction materials
Principles of Soil Compaction
Compaction is the process of removing the air and moisture.
 Compaction occurs naturally over time with rain and the weight of upper
level soil applying pressure to the lower levels. This is a long process
taking months or even years before the fill is stable.
 Using mechanical compaction equipment can achieve the required
results quickly.

Importance of Compaction

Compaction is a significant part of the building and civil construction process

to ensure stable foundations and safe roads and bridges.
Soil or other fill materials do not achieve full strength until all the particles are
jammed tightly against each other and air voids are eliminated. Compaction
pushes the rock or soil particles together so that they form a mechanical
interlock. The resulting friction resists movement by sliding or rolling. This
ensures that the material has greater stability, especially if the material is very
dense. Stability is also provided to some extent by the cementing action of fine
soil particles developed during compaction.

Compaction is essential to:

• increase the load-bearing capacity
• increase the ground stability
• reduce ground settlement
• reduce swelling and contraction
• reduce water seepage
• prevent frost damage.
Poor Compacting Techniques
Incomplete compaction may result in structural damage and unnecessary
repair costs.
During building construction if the fill material is not compacted tightly:
• The material settling over time may cause the building to crack or collapse.
• Voids will form, allowing water to infiltrate and weaken the fill.
•the resulting damage can be dangerous and expensive.

If fill is not properly compacted in roads, the road surface will fail leading to:
 pot holes
 humps

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  broken pavement
Depressions in sealed road surfaces are often the result of poor compaction of
backfill material after a trench has been cut through the road for cable or pipe
laying purposes.

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