Section 2.

Lecture 2

Graphs and Displays

 References

Larson, R., Farber, B., Elementary Statistics-Picturing the

world, 5th Ed.
 The Second Lecture
Graphs and Displays

WHAT YOU SHOULD LEARN?

➢ How to construct frequency histograms, frequency
polygons, relative frequency histogram , and
cumulative frequency Graph (ogive)
➢ How to graph and interpret quantitative data sets
using stem-and-leaf plots.
➢ How to graph and interpret qualitative data sets
using: pie charts and pareto charts.
 Graphs and
Displayes
Quantitative Qualitative
data data
Grouped
Ungrouped data pie chart
data
relative cumulative
Polygon Stem Pareto
Histogram frequency frequency
Graph (ogive) and leaf chart
histogram
Representation of Frequency

➢ Frequency Histogram

➢ Frequency Polygon

➢ Relative frequency histogram.

➢ Cumulative frequency Graph (ogive)

A Frequency Histogram
A frequency histogram is a bar graph that
represents the frequency distribution of a data set.
A histogram has the following properties.
1. The horizontal scale is quantitative and
measures the data values.
2. The vertical scale measures the frequencies of
the classes.
3. Consecutive bars must touch.
Larson, R., Farber, B, page 42

“Because consecutive bars of a histogram must touch, bars

must begin and end at class boundaries (True class interval)

instead of class limits. Class boundaries are the numbers that

separate classes without forming gaps between them. If data
entries are integers, subtract 0.5 from each lower limit to find
the lower class boundaries. To find the upper class boundaries,
add 0.5 to each upper limit. The upper boundary of a class will
equal the lower boundary of the next higher class.”
 Example 1 p.g. 39 Larson and Farber :
The following sample data set lists the prices (in dollars) of 30
portable global positioning system (GPS) navigators. Construct a
frequency distribution that has seven classes.
Draw a frequency histogram distribution for this data.

• First class lower boundary is 58.5

• First class upper boundary is 114.5
• The boundaries of the remaining classes are shown in the table.
To construct the histogram, choose possible frequency values for
the vertical scale. You can mark the horizontal scale either at the
midpoints or at the class boundaries. Both histograms are
shown.”
Class interval class boundary frequency

59-114 58.5-114.5 5
115-170 114.5-170.5 8
171-226 170.5-226.5 6
227-282 226.5-282.5 5
283-338 282.5-338.5 2
339-394 338.5-394.5 1
395-450 394.5-450.5 3
Total 30
Interpretation From either histogram, you can see that more than half of
the GPS navigators are priced below $226.50.
 A Frequency Polygon
Larson, R., Farber, B, page 43
“Another way to graph a frequency distribution is to use a
frequency polygon. A frequency polygon is a line graph that
emphasizes the continuous change in frequencies.
Constructing a Frequency Polygon Draw a frequency polygon for
the frequency distribution in Example 1. Describe any patterns.
Solution
To construct the frequency polygon, use the same horizontal and
vertical scales that were used in the histogram labeled with class
midpoints in Example 1. Then plot points that represent the
midpoint and frequency of each class and connect the points in
order from left to right. Because the graph should begin and end on
the horizontal axis, extend the left side to one class width before the
first class midpoint and extend the right side to one class width after
the last class midpoint.”
Interpretation You can see that the frequency of GPS navigators
increases up to $142.50 and then decreases.
 Relative Frequency Histogram
Larson, R., Farber, B, page 44

A relative frequency histogram has the same shape and the same
horizontal scale as the corresponding frequency histogram. The
difference is that the vertical scale measures the relative frequencies,
not frequencies.

EXAMPLE
Constructing a Relative Frequency Histogram Draw a relative
frequency histogram for the frequency distribution in Example 1.
Solution:
The relative frequency histogram is shown. Notice that the shape of
the histogram is the same as the shape of the frequency histogram
constructed in Example 1.The only difference is that the vertical
scale measures the relative frequencies.
Interpretation: From this graph, you can quickly see that 0.27
or 27% of the GPS navigators are priced between $114.50 and
$170.50, which is not as immediately from the frequency
histogram. obvious
cumulative frequency Graph (ogive)

Larson, R., Farber, B, page 44

If you want to describe the number of data entries that are equal to
or below a certain value, you can easily do so by constructing a
cumulative frequency graph.
Larson, R., Farber, B, page 45
EXAMPLE
-Draw an ogive for the frequency distribution in Example 1.
-Estimate how many GPS navigators cost $300 or less. Also, use
the graph to estimate when the greatest increase in price occurs.
Solution:
Using the cumulative frequencies, you can construct the ogive
shown. The upper class boundaries, frequencies, and cumulative
frequencies are shown in the table. Notice that the graph starts at
58.5,where the cumulative frequency is 0, and the graph ends at
450.5,where the cumulative frequency is 30.
Upper class Cumulative
Frequency
boundary frequency
114.5 5 5
170.5 8 13
226.5 6 19
282.5 5 24
338.5 2 26
394.5 1 27
450.5 3 30
Total 30
 cumulative frequency Graph

Interpretation: From the ogive, you can see that about 25 GPS
navigators cost $300 or less. It is evident that the greatest increase
occurs between $114.50 and $170.50, because the line segment is
steepest between these two class boundaries.
Section 2.2: more graphs and displays page:53
Stem and leaf plot

you will learn a newer way to display quantitative data, called a stem-
and-leaf plot. In a stem-and-leaf plot, each number is separated into a
stem (for instance, the entry’s leftmost digits) and a leaf (for instance,
the rightmost digit). You should have as many leaves as there are
entries in the original data set and the leaves should be single digits. A
stem-and-leaf plot is similar to a histogram but has the advantage that
the graph still contains the original data values. Another advantage of a
stem-and-leaf plot is that it provides an easy way to sort data.
Example:
Use a stem-and-leaf plot to display the data.
The following data represent students’ marks in
Statistics course.

28 46 49 42 58 59 53

50 51 66 62 64 67 69

63 68 67 69 75 70 78

75 74 84 85 88 93 99
 28 46 49 42 58 59 53
Key 2|8=28 50 51 66 62 64 67 69
63 68 67 69 75 70 78
75 74 84 85 88 93 99
2 8
3
4 6 9 2
5 8 9 3 0 1
6 6 2 4 7 9 3 8 7 9
7 5 0 8 5 4
8 4 5 8
9 3 9
Unordered Stem-and-Leaf Plot
 Key 2|8=28

2 8
3
4 2 6 9
5 0 1 3 8 9
6 2 3 4 6 7 7 8 9 9
7 0 4 5 5 8
8 4 5 8
9 3 9 Ordered Stem-and-Leaf Plot

Interpretation: From the display, you can conclude that most of

the scores are in the 60s
Exercise 17 (p. 61): exa
Use a stem-and-leaf plot to display the data.
The data represent the scores of a biology
class on a midterm exam.
Key 7|5=75
Exercises 9 (p. 60),
use the stem-and-leaf plot or dot plot to list the
actual data entries. What is the maximum data
entry? What is the minimum data entry?
Representation of Qualitative
Data

➢ Pie chart
➢ Pareto chart
Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle that is divided into sectors
that represent categories. The area of each sector
is proportional to the frequency of each category.
Example ( p. 56): The numbers of earned degrees
conferred (in thousands) in 2007 are shown in the
table. Use a pie chart to organize the data. What can
you conclude?
Type of degree f Relative frequency angle
Associate 728 0.24 × 360 = 86
728 = 0.24
3007
Bachelor 1525 0.51 × 360 = 184
1525 = 0.51
3007
Master 604 0.20 × 360 = 72
604 = 0.20
3007
F. Professional 90 0.03 × 360 = 11
90 = 0.03
3007
Doctoral 60 0.02 × 360 = 7
60 = 0.02
3007
sum 3007 1 360
Pareto chart
Another way to graph qualitative data is to use a Pareto chart.
A Pareto chart is a vertical bar graph in which the height of
each bar represents frequency or relative frequency. The bars
are positioned in order of decreasing height, with the tallest
bar positioned at the left. Such positioning helps highlight
important data and is used frequently in business.
Example ( p. 57): Constructing a Pareto Chart
In a recent year, the retail industry lost $36.5 billion in
inventory shrinkage. Inventory shrinkage is the loss of
inventory through breakage, pilferage, shoplifting, and
so on.The main causes of inventory shrinkage are
administrative error ($5.4 billion), employee theft
($15.9 billion), shoplifting ($12.7 billion),
and vendor fraud ($1.4 billion). If you were a retailer,
which causes of inventory shrinkage would you address
first?
• Solution
Using frequencies for the vertical axis, you can construct the Pareto chart as
shown.

Interpretation From the graph, it is easy to see that the causes of inventory
shrinkage that should be addressed first are employee theft and shoplifting.
 Homework

• Ex 2.1, P 47: 19,20, 24, 25,26 ,31, 39

• Ex 2.2, P60: 6,10, 13, 14, 18, 23, 25.