Module 5: METALS  The limestone is turned into slag

 Molten iron is drawn at the bottom of the

PROPERTIES OF METALS:
furnace and held in a liquid for processing into
 Plastic/Melting – liquefied by heating, solid
a steel
when cool
 Terms:
 Ductile – hammered thin or drawn into wires
 Iron Ore – oxides of iron extracted from
 Conductive- prone to heat and electricity
the earth in mineral form
 Corrosive – corrode by oxidation
 Coke – coal whose volatile constituents
have been distilled ou, leaving only
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS:
carbon
 Ferrous – consisting of iron, less expensive,
 Pig iron or Pig – an oblong mass of metal
strongest, prone to rust
that has been poured while still molten
 Iron Ore into a mold of sand
 Non-Ferrous – expensive, resistant to corrosion  Slag – vitrified matter left from melting
 Alloy – metal mixed with other elements iron
 Ex: Bronze = Copper + Small amount of
tin
STEEL:
 Light in proportion to its strength, suited for
rapid construction, tendency to corrode
 Carbon content determines the properties of
any ferrous met
 Range of alloys of iron that contain less than
2% carbon
 Mild Steel – 1% carbon
 Cast iron – 2-4% carbon (Brittle
 Wrought Iron – less carbon than most
steel alloys (Weak metal)
 History
 Severn River Cast iron bridge – 18th
century in England BASIC OXYGEN PROCESS:
 Cast Iron – blast furnace  Contains 25-35% recycled material
 Wrought Iron – purified by beating it  Hollow lance is lowered into a container of
repeatedly with a hammer, used molten iron
increasingly for framing industrial  Molten iron container and regulated steel scrap
buildings in the 19th century are combined
 Methods:  Oxygen is then blown into the lance
 Bessemer Process – air was blown into a  Flux of lime and fluorspar is added to the metal
vessel of molten iron to burn out the to react with other impurities
impurities  Additional metal elements:
 Open Hearth – developed in Europe in  Manganese – resistance and abrasion to
1868, adopted in America. impact
 Vanadium – strength and toughness
STEEL-MAKING PROCESS:  Molybdenum – strength
 Smelting of the ore into cast iron, done in a  Nickel and Chromium – corrosion
blast furnace resistance, toughness and stiffness
 Charged with iron ore, coke and crushed  Terms:
limestone  Mini Mills
 Coke is burned, turns into carbon monoxide  Blanks – piece of metal ready to be
and reacts with ore, and turned into elemental drawn, pressed or machined into a finish
iron. object
  Blooms – a bar of steel reduced from an  Then eventually passes through a hot saw,
ingot to dimensions suitable for further cooling bed and roller straightener
rolling STRUCTURAL STEEL PRODUCTS:
 Ingot – a mass of metal cast into a  Designation
convenient shape for storage or  I-Beam – American Channel
transportation  W – Wide Flange
 C – American Standard Channel
STEEL ALLOYS  MC – Miscellaneous Channel
 Mild Structural (A36) the most predominant  L – Angle
steel used in building types  WTS – Structural tee
 High Strength Alloy (ASTM 992)  HSS – Hollow Structural Section
 Low Alloy Steel (ASTM A572)  FB – Flat Bar
 Weathering Steel  PL - Plate
 Steel Types:  ¼” thicker – Plate
 A36 – Mild Structural Steel  ¼” less thick – Sheet
 ASTM 992 & A572 – High Strength, Low
Alloy
 ASTM 992 – Wide Flange
 ASTM A36 & A572 – Angles, Channels,
Bars and Plates
 ASTM A588 – Structural Shapes
 ASTM A606 - Thin Sheet
 ASTM A240 & A276 – Stainless Steel
 Stainless Steel – great corrosion resistance,
more expensive than conventional structural
steel
 Terms: TYPES OF STEEL:
 Galvanizing – zinc coating  Cast Steel – poured into a mold and cooled
 Quenching- rapid cooling
 Tempering – partial reheating
 zRecrystallizing – acquire a new granular
structure with new crystals because of
plastic deformation, as when
worked after being molted
 Hot Working- working of metal at
a temperature high enough to
permit recrystallization
 Cold Working – working of metal
below the temperature

PRODUCTION OF STRUCTURAL
SHAPES:
 Structural Mill or Breakdown mill – the
beam blank is reheated as necessary and
then passed through a succession of
rollers that squeeze the metal into progressively  Custom shaped connections
more refined shapes  Stronger, lighter and attractive
 Cold Worked Steel or Cold Formed (rolled or
bent)
  Used to produce small section steel rods  Rivets
and steel components for open web joists  Bolts
‘  Carbon Steel Bolts (ASTM A307) –
 Cold drawn dies to produce high strength Unfinished or common bolts
wires – wire ropes, bridge cables and  High Strength Bolts (ASTM A325 and
concrete pressing strands A490)
 Light gauge steel formed into C sections –
short span framing members  Bearing Type connection – bolts need only to
 Steel Sheet stock – floor and roof decking be installed to a snug-tight condition.
structures  Stressed in shear
 Hollow Structural Sections (structural  Slip Critical Method (friction-type) – bolts are
tubing) – columns and welded steel preloaded to resist movement between
trusses, space trusses members.
 Subject to torsional twisting or  Stressed in tension
buckling

OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS

 Support floor/roof decks
 Types:
 K Series – spans up to 60ft (18m), depth
if 8-30” (200-760mm)
 LH Series – designated as Longspan as
far as 96ft (29m) their depths range from
18-48” (460-1220 m)
 DLH Deep longspan – series of open-web
joists (for roofs only) are 52-72” deep
(1320-1830mm) and can span up to 144ft
(44m)
 CJ Composite Joists – rated for composite
floor construction

JOINING STEEL MEMBERS:

WASHERS:  Dye Penetrant
 Bolts are inserted into 1/16” (2mm) larger than  Ultrasonic
the diameter of the bolt  Radiographic testing
 May be inserted under one or both ends of the
fastener
 Tightened with an impact wrench

BOLT TENSION METHODS:

 Turn of Nut Method – each bolt is tightened
snug then turned to a specified additional
fraction of a turn
 Load indicator washer (direct tension
indicator) (DTI) – protrusions on the washer
are progressively flattened
 Calibrated Wrench Method – special torque
control wrench is used to tighten the bolts
 Tension Control Bolts – have protruding
splined ends, tightened by a special power
driven shear wrench
 Lockpin and Collar Fastener or Swedge Bolt
– a bolt-like steel pin with annular rings that
relies on a steel collar in lieu of a conventional
nut to hold the pin

WELDING:
 Can join the members of a steel frame as if
they were a monolithic whole.
 May be used in the fabricator’s shop for its
inherent economies
 Stronger than the members they join
 Types of welding
 Electric Arc Welding – an electrical
potential is established between steel
pieces to be joined and a metal electrode
held either by a machine or by a person
 Tig Welding – tungsten welding

 Welding testing OTHER TYPES OF WELDING:

 Magnetic Particle  Slot/Plug or Puddle Weld - Non-structural
 Fillet Weld – Non-Structural MOMENT CONNECTION:
 Groove weld – Structural Weld  Capable of
transmitting bending
forces between a
beam and column
 Full penetration of
groove welds to
connect them both
 Stiffener plates can be
installed if it is
insufficient to accept forces

AISC TYPES OF CONNECTION

 Type 1 – Moment Connection
 Rigid
 Fully restrained
 Type 2 - Shear/Simple Connection
 Non-Rigid
 Unrestrained
 Type 3 – Semi-rigid connection
 Partially restrained

BEAM TO COLUMN CONECTIONS:

 Fully restrained (FR) Moment Connections
 - sufficiently rigid
WELDING FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL
 SMAW - shielded metal arc welding  Partially restrained (PR) Moment Connections
– rigid or semi rigid connections, moment-
 FCAW – flux cored arc welding
resisting building frames
 SAW – submerged arc welding
 Simple Connections (Shear Connections) –
 GMAW – gas metal arc welding
unrestrained rotation, have negligible moment-
 ESW – electroslag welding
resisting capacity
STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEMS
 A. Beam to Column Flange
 B. Beam to Column Web
 C. Welded/Bolted End Plate Beam Column
 D. Coped beam - girder
 E. Bolted column – column

SHEAR
CONNECTION:
 Joins only the
web of the beam,
but not the
flanges, to the
column
 Transmitting
vertical forces SAMPLES OF CONNECTIONS:
(shear) from a beam to column  Single-Tab Shear – for
Bolted Beam to Column Flange light load connections
 Has a single
connector plate
 welded to the column and beam is bolted STABILIZING BUILDING FRAME
on-site ELEMENTS:
 Welded connections  Braced Frames – diagonal bracing for stable
 The angles are triangular configurations
welded to the beam  Bear shear connections
in the shop  Shear Walls – made of steel, concrete or
 The angles are not reinforced concrete masonry.
welded to the column  Act the same way as diagonal bracing
to allow the angles to  Moment-resisting frames – rely on stronger and
flex slightly to allow stiffer moment connections between beams and
the beam to rotate columns
away from the column as it bends  Lateral stability
 Seated Beam-to-Column Web  Eccentrically braced frames – diagonally offset
 Connect a column to a web when there is braces, greater energy absorbing capacity
usually insufficient space between the  Shear connection between beams and
column flanges to insert a power wrench columns
to tighten all the bolts in a framed
connection
 Welded beam to column web
 When rigid
connection is
required
 A vertical shear tab is
welded into the web
of the column at its
centerline
 A horizontal stiffener
plate is welded inside the column flanges
and are thicker than the beam flanges and
extend out beyond the column flanges.
BRACING ARRANGEMENTS FOR TALL
 Welded/Bolted End plate
BUILDINGS
beam-column
 Rigid Perimeter (Tube Structures) – stabilizing
 Semi-rigid, can be
elements are spread further apart
used to support a short
 Shear connections – transmit sufficient vertical
cantilever beam
loads
 Diagonal bracing, Shear Wall, Beam to
 Coped beam-girder shear
Column Moment connections – lateral force
 The top flanges of
resistance
the beam are cut
 More structurally efficient frames
away
THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS:
A. Bolted Column to
Column
B. Partial Penetration Weld
C. Welded Butt Plate
 Shim Plates – make up for the difference in
flange thickness
 Partial penetration weld – allows one column to
rest on the other prior to welding
 Structural Engineer
 Specifier
 Steel Detailer
 Fabricator
 Erector (Ironworkers)
 Assembling into a frame on the building
site the steel components furnished by the
fabricator

 The last beam in a steel frame/act of placing

the last beam

DECKING
 Form Decking – thin depth, shoring
BASE PLATE CONNECTION: underneath, metal framing
 Additional reinforcing
 1 ½” to 2 ½” thickness
 Composite Decking – metal
frame and concrete material
 Acts as steel reinforcing
 Bonds to concrete
 Bonds to the welded
steel rods
 Exposed steel
decking (dovetail
channel)
 No reinforcement needed
 1 ½” – 3” thick
TOPPING OUT
 Cellular Decking – sheet under the deck
(composite or roof deck)
 The deck in itself

Other fireproofing columns

 Enclosure in metal lath and plaster
 Lose insulating fill inside a sheet metal
enclosure
 Water filled box column of wide falnge along
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION with added steel plate
 Designed to work together with the concrete
floor topping to make a stiff, lightweight, SPRAY-APPLIED FIRE RESISTIVE
economical deck MATERIALS (SFRM)
 Metal deck as a tensile reinforcement for  Consist of a fiber and a binder of a
concrete cementitious mixture
 Shear Studs  Act to primarily insulate the steel from high
 Welded every few inches to the top of temperatures
each beam  12-40 pounds per cubic foot (190-640
 Create a strong shear connection between kg/m3)
the concrete slab and the steel beam  Least expensive
 Applied after the steel has been erected

LONG SPANS AND HIGH-CAPACITY

COLUMNS:
 Standard wide flange beams
 Longer span structural devices
 Applied in hotels, apartment, stores
 Castellated Beams
- Has teeth, has a higher depth beam, thus
STRUCTURAL STEEL FIREPROOFING
spans can be wider
 Plate Girder
 Rigid Frames
 Trusses and Space Frames
 Tensile Structures
 Fabric Structures

AND LONG-SPAN STRUCTURES

LIGHT GAUGE STEEL FRAMING
CONSTRUCTION
 Closely spaced studs, joists, and rafters
 May be insulated, sheathed, wired and
finished inside and out
 Gauge: relative thinness of the steel sheet
 Identifies using standard nomenclature
 Stud and Joist Sections (C-Secions)
 Walll, floor and roof framnig
 Track Sections – top and bottom plates, slightly
oversized so that stud or joist members can nest
into them
 Channel Sections and Furring Channels –
lighter bracing and framing tasks \
STANDARD ACCESSORIES FOR LIGHT
GAUGE STEEL FRAMING
 End Clips – join members that meet at right
angles
 Foundation Clips – attach ground-floor
platform to anchor bolts embedded in the
foundation
 Joist Hangers – connect joists to headers and
trimmers around openings
 Web Stiffener – two-piece assembly that is
inserted inside a joist and screwed to its
vertical web to help transmit wall loads
vertically through the joist

LIGHT GAUGE FRAMING DETAILS: