LECTURE 12: Loop Antennas

(Radiation parameters of a small loop. Circular loop of constant current.

Equivalent circuit of the loop antenna. The small loop as a receiving antenna.
Ferrite loops.)
Equation Section 12
1. Introduction
Loop antennas feature simplicity, low cost and versatility. They may have
various shapes: circular, triangular, square, elliptical, etc. They are widely used
in communication links up to the microwave bands (up to ≈ 3 GHz). They are
also used as electromagnetic (EM) field probes in the microwave bands.
Electrically small loops are widely used as compact transmitting and receiving
antennas in the low MHz range (3 MHz to 30 MHz, or wavelengths of about 10
m to 100 m).
Loop antennas are usually classified as electrically small ( C < λ / 3 ) and
electrically large ( C ∼ λ ). Here, C denotes the loop’s circumference.
The small loops of a single turn have small radiation resistance (< 1 Ω) usually
comparable to their loss resistance. Their radiation resistance, however, can be
improved by adding more turns. Also, the small loops are narrowband. Typical
bandwidths are less than 1%. However, clever impedance matching can provide
low-reflection transition from a coaxial cable to a loop antenna with a tuning
frequency range as high as 1:10.1 Moreover, in the HF and VHF bands where the
loop diameters are on the order of a half a meter to several meters, the loop can
be made of large-diameter tubing or coaxial cable, or wide copper tape, which
can drastically reduce the loss.
feed point

+−

−
feed point +

Fig. 1: Shielded Faraday loops used to inductively feed electrically small loop antennas. [©2012, Frank Dörenberg, used with
permission; see https://www.nonstopsystems.com/radio/frank_radio_antenna_magloop.htm. Additional resource: L. Turner
VK5KLT, “An overview of the underestimated magnetic loop HF antenna,”]

1
John H. Dunlavy Jr., US Patent 13,588,905: “Wide range tunable transmitting loop antenna”, 1967.

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 The small loops, regardless of their shape, have a far-field pattern very similar
to that of a small electric dipole perpendicular to the plane of the loop. This is
expected because the small loops are effectively magnetic dipoles. Note,
however, that the field polarization is orthogonal to that of the electric dipole (Eϕ
instead of Eθ ).
As the circumference of the loop increases beyond λ / 3 , the pattern
maximum shifts towards the loop’s axis and when C ≈ λ , the maximum of the
pattern is along the loop’s axis.

2. Radiation Characteristics of a Small Loop

A small loop is by definition a loop of constant current. Its radius must satisfy
λ
a< ≈ 0.053λ , (12.1)
6π
or, equivalently, C < λ / 3 , in order to be able to approximate its far field as that
of an infinitesimal magnetic dipole. The limit (12.1) is mathematically derived
later in this Lecture from the first-order approximation of the Bessel function of
the first order J1 ( x ) in the general solution for a loop of constant current.
In fact, to make sure that the current has near-constant distribution along the
loop, a tighter limit must be imposed:
a < 0.03λ , (12.2)
or, C < λ / 5 . The approximate model of the small loop is the infinitesimal loop
(or the infinitesimal magnetic dipole).
The expressions for the field components of an infinitesimal loop of electric
current of area A were already derived in Lecture 3. Here, we give only the far-
field components of the loop, the axis of which is along z:
2
e− j β r
Eϕ = ηβ ⋅ ( IA) ⋅ ⋅ sin θ , (12.3)
4π r
2
e− jβ r
Hθ = − β ⋅ ( IA) ⋅ ⋅ sin θ . (12.4)
4π r
It is obvious that the far-field pattern,
Eϕ (θ ) = sin θ , (12.5)

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is identical to that of a z-directed infinitesimal electric dipole although the
polarization is orthogonal. The power pattern is identical to that of the
infinitesimal electric dipole:
F (θ ) = sin 2 θ . (12.6)
Radiated power:
1
Π=  2η
| Eϕ |2 ⋅ r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ ,
ds

1 2
Π= ηβ 4 ( IA) . (12.7)
12π
Radiation resistance:
2
8  A
Rr = η π 3  2  . (12.8)
3 λ 
In free space, η = 120π Ω, and
Rr ≈ 31171( A / λ 2 ) 2 . (12.9)
Equation (12.9) gives the radiation resistance of a single loop. If the loop antenna
has N turns, then the radiation resistance increases with a factor of N 2 (because
the radiated power increases as I 2):
2
8  A
Rr = η π 3  N 2  . (12.10)
3  λ 
The relation in (12.10) provides a handy mechanism to increase Rr and the
radiated power Π . Unfortunately, the losses of the loop antenna also increase
(although only as ∼ N ) and this may result in low efficiency.
The directivity is the same as that of an infinitesimal dipole:
U max
D0 = 4π = 1.5 . (12.11)
Π rad

3. Circular Loop of Constant Current – General Solution

So far, we have assumed that the loop is of infinitesimal radius a, which
allows the use of the expressions for the infinitesimal magnetic dipole. Now, we
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derive the far field of a circular loop, which might not be necessarily very small,
but still has constant current distribution. This derivation illustrates the general
loop-antenna analysis as the approach is used in the solutions to circular loop
problems of nonuniform distributions, too.
The circular loop can be divided into an infinite number of infinitesimal
current elements. With reference to the figure below, the position of a current
element in the xy plane is characterized by 0 ≤ ϕ ′ < 360 and θ ′ = 90 . The
position of the observation point P is defined by (θ ,ϕ ) .
The far-field approximations are
R ≈ r − a cosψ , for the phase term,
1 1 (12.12)
≈ , for the amplitude term.
R r
In general, the solution for A does not depend on ϕ because of the cylindrical
symmetry of the problem. Here, we set ϕ = 0 . The angle between the position
vector of the source point Q and that of the observation point P is determined as
cosψ = rˆ ⋅ rˆ ′ = (xˆ sin θ cos ϕ + yˆ sin θ sin ϕ + zˆ cosθ ) ⋅ (xˆ cos ϕ ′ + yˆ sin ϕ ′) ,
 cosψ = sin θ cos ϕ ′ . (12.13)
Now the vector potential integral can be solved for the far zone:
µ e − j β ( r − a sin θ cos ϕ ′)
A ( r ,θ , ϕ ) =
4π  I0 r
dl (12.14)
C

θ R
a ψ
ϕ
ϕ′ r′
Q
I0

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where dl = φˆ ′adϕ ′ is the linear element of the loop contour. The current element
changes its direction along the loop and its contribution depends on the angle
between its direction and the respective A component. Since all current elements
are directed along φ̂ , we conclude that the vector potential has only Aϕ
component, i.e., A = Aϕ φˆ , where
2π
µ e− j β r
Aϕ ( r,θ ,ϕ ) = φˆ ⋅ A ( r,θ ,ϕ ) =
4π
( I 0a )
r  (φˆ ⋅ φˆ ′)e jβ a sinθ cosϕ ′dϕ ′ . (12.15)
0

Since
φˆ ⋅ φˆ ′ = (xˆ cos ϕ + yˆ sin ϕ ) ⋅ (xˆ cos ϕ ′ + yˆ sin ϕ ′) =
= cos ϕ cos ϕ ′ + sin ϕ sin ϕ ′ = (12.16)
= cos(ϕ − ϕ ′) ϕ =0 = cos ϕ ′,
the vector potential is
2π
µ e− jβ r
Aϕ (θ ,0) =
4π
( I 0 a)
r  cosϕ ′ ⋅ e jβ a sin θ cosϕ ′dϕ ′ , (12.17)
0

µ π
e− jβ r
2π

Aϕ (θ ) = ( I0 a)  cos ϕ ′ ⋅ e j β a sin θ cos ϕ ′
d ϕ ′ +  cos ϕ ′ ⋅ e j β a sin θ cos ϕ ′ dϕ ′ .

4π  0
r π 
We apply the following substitution in the second integral: ϕ ′ = ϕ ′′ + π . Then,
µ I 0 a e− jβ r π π 
Aϕ (θ ) =  cos ϕ ′⋅ e 
j β a sin θ cos ϕ ′ dϕ ′ − cos ϕ ′′⋅e − j β a sin θ cos ϕ ′′ dϕ ′′ . (12.18)

4π r  0 0 
The integrals in (12.18) can be expressed in terms of Bessel functions, which are
defined as
π

 cos(nϕ )e jz cosϕ dϕ = π j n J n ( z ) . (12.19)

0

Here, J n ( z ) is the Bessel function of the first kind of order n. From (12.18) and
(12.19), it follows that
µ e− jβ r
Aϕ (θ ) = ( I 0 a) π j  J1 ( β a sin θ ) − J1 ( − β a sin θ )  . (12.20)
4π r
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Since
J n (− z ) = (−1) n J n ( z ) , (12.21)
equation (12.20) reduces to
e− jβ r
µ
Aϕ (θ ) = j ( I 0 a) J1 ( β a sin θ ) . (12.22)
2 r
The Bessel function of the first kind of order n = 1 is plotted below.
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
J1(x)

0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
x

Now, the far-zone field components are derived as

e− jβ r
Eϕ (θ ) = βη ( I 0 a ) J1 ( β a sin θ ),
2r
(12.23)
Eϕ e− j β r
Hθ (θ ) = − = − β ( I 0 a) J1 ( β a sin θ ).
η 2r
The patterns of constant-current loops obtained from (12.23) are shown below:

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 [Balanis]

The small-loop field solution in (12.3)-(12.4) is actually a first-order

approximation of the solution in (12.23). This becomes obvious when the Bessel
function is expanded in series as
1 1
J1 ( β a sin θ ) = ( β a sin θ ) − ( β a sin θ )3 + ⋯ . (12.24)
2 16

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For small values of the argument ( β a < 1 / 3 ), the first-order approximation is
acceptable, i.e.,
1
J1 ( β a sin θ ) ≈ ( β a sin θ ) . (12.25)
2
The substitution of (12.25) in (12.23) yields (12.3)-(12.4).
It can be shown that the maximum of the pattern given by (12.23) is in the
direction θ = 90 for all loops, which have circumference C < 1.84λ .

Radiated power and radiation resistance

We substitute the Eϕ expression (12.23) in
1
Π =  | Eϕ |2 ⋅ r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ ,
2η
ds
which yields
π
(ωµ ) 2 2
Π= ( I 0 A) ⋅  J12 ( β a sin θ )sin θ dθ . (12.26)
4η 0

Here, A = π a 2 is the loop’s area. The integral in (12.26) does not have a closed
form solution but, if necessary, it can be reduced to a highly convergent series:
π 2β a
1 2 ∞
 1
J 2 ( β a sin θ )sin θ dθ =
βa  J 2 ( x)dx =  J 2m+3 (2β a) . (12.27)
β a m=0
0 0

The radiation resistance is obtained as

2 π
2Π (ωµ )
Rr = 2 = A ⋅  J12 ( β a sin θ )sin θ dθ . (12.28)
I0 2η 0

The radiation resistance of small loops is very small. For example, for
λ / 100 < a < λ / 30 the radiation resistance varies from ≈ 3 × 10−3 Ω to ≈ 0.5 Ω.
This is often less than the loss resistance of the loop. That is why small loop
antennas are constructed with multiple turns and on ferromagnetic cores. Such
loop antennas have large inductive reactance, which is compensated by a
capacitor. This is convenient in narrowband receivers, where the antenna itself is
a very efficient filter (together with the tuning capacitor), which can be tuned for

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different frequency bands. Low-loss capacitors must be used to prevent further
increase in the loss.

4. Circular Loop of Nonuniform Current

When the loop radius becomes larger than 0.2λ , the non-uniformity of the
current distribution cannot be ignored. A common assumption is the cosine
distribution.2,3 Lindsay, Jr.,4 considers the circular loop to be a deformation of a
shorted parallel-wire line. If I s is the current magnitude at the “shorted” end, i.e.,
the point opposite to the feed point where ϕ ′ = π , then
I (α ) = I s cosh(γ aα ) (12.29)
where α = π − ϕ ′ is the angle with respect to the shorted end, γ is the line
propagation constant and a is the loop radius. If we assume loss-free
transmission-line model, then γ = j β and cosh(γ aα ) = cos( β aα ) . For a loop in
open space, β is assumed to be the free-space wave number ( β = ω µ0ε 0 ).
The cosine distribution is not very accurate, especially close to the terminals,
and this has a negative impact on the accuracy of the computed input impedance.
This situation is similar to the assumption of a sinusoidal current distribution on
an electrical dipole, which, too, is not accurate at the dipole’s terminals. For this
reason, in loops, the current is often represented by a Fourier series:5,6
N
I (ϕ ′) = I 0 + 2 I n cos(nϕ ′) . (12.30)
n =1

Here, ϕ ′ is measured from the feed point. This way, the derivative of the current
distribution with respect to ϕ ′ at ϕ ′ = π (the point diametrically opposite to the
feed point) is always zero. This imposes the requirement for a symmetrical
current distribution on both sides of the diameter from ϕ ′ = 0 to ϕ ′ = π . The
complete analysis of this general case will be left out, and only some important
results will be given. When the circumference of the loop approaches λ , the
maximum of the radiation pattern shifts exactly along the loop’s normal. Then,

2
E.A. Wolff, Antenna Analysis, Wiley, New York, 1966.
3
A. Richtscheid, “Calculation of the radiation resistance of loop antennas with sinusoidal current distribution,” IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., Nov. 1976, pp. 889-891.
4
J. E. Lindsay, Jr., “A circular loop antenna with non-uniform current distribution,” IRE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-8,
No. 4, July 1960, pp. 439-441.
5
H. C. Pocklington, “Electrical oscillations in wire,” in Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 9, 1897, pp. 324–332.
6
J. E. Storer, “Input impedance of circular loop antennas,” Am. Inst. Electr. Eng. Trans., vol. 75, Nov. 1956.

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the input resistance of the antenna is also good (about 50 to 70 Ω). The maximum
directivity occurs when C ≈ 1.4λ but then the input impedance is too large. The
input resistance and reactance of the large circular loop are given below.

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(Note: typo in author’s name, read as J. E. Storer)

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 The large circular loop is very similar in its performance to the large square
loop. An approximate solution of very good accuracy for the square-loop antenna
can be found in
W.L. Stutzman and G.A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 2nd Ed., John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998.
There, it is assumed that the total antenna loop is exactly one wavelength and has
a cosine current distribution along the loop’s wire.

λ
x 4

The principal plane patterns obtained through the cosine-current assumption

(solid line) and using numerical methods (dash line) are shown below:

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 3D Gain Pattern (FEKO simulation)

5. Equivalent Circuit of a Loop Antenna

Rr

LA
Cr

Li

Rl
Z in′ Z in
Cr - resonance (tuning) capacitor
Rl - loss resistance of the loop antenna
Rr - radiation resistance
LA - inductance of the loop
Li - inductance of the loop conductor (wire)
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 (a) Loss resistance
Usually, it is assumed that the loss resistance of a loosely wound loop equals
the high-frequency loss resistance of a straight wire of the same length as the
loop and of the same current distribution. In the case of a uniform current
distribution on the contour of the wire’s cross-section, the high-frequency
resistance is calculated as
l π fµ
Rhf = Rs , Rs = , Ω (12.31)
p σ
where l is the length of the wire, and p is the perimeter of the wire’s cross-section.
We are not concerned with the current distribution along the wire’s length now
because it can be always taken into account in the same way as it is done for the
dipole/monopole antennas. However, another important phenomenon must be
taken into account, namely the proximity effect, which distorts the uniformity of
the current density distribution along the contour of the wire’s cross-section as
shown below.

J1 J2

When the spacing between the turns of the wound wire is very small, the EM
field is strongly suppressed in-between the wires, reducing its ability to drive the
high-frequency current on the adjacent metal surfaces. Thus, the loss resistance
is made much worse by the proximity effect compared to the skin effect alone.
The following formula is used to calculate the loss resistance of a loop with N
turns, wire radius b, and turn separation 2c:
Na  R p 
Rl = Rs  + 1 (12.32)
b  R0 
where
Rs , Ω, is the surface resistance (see (12.31)),
R p , Ω / m, is the equivalent loss resistance per unit length due to the
proximity effect,
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 R0 = NRs / (2π b) = Rhf / l , Ω / m , is the loss resistance per unit length due
to the skin effect; see Rhf in (12.31).
Note that the ratio Na / b = N ⋅ 2π a / (2π b) = l / p is the ratio of the total wire
length l to the perimeter p of its cross-section and, therefore, the term in front
of the brackets in (12.32) is the high-frequency loss resistance Rhf in (12.31).
2a Thus, (12.32) can also be written as
 Rp ⋅ l 
Rl = Rhf  + 1 (12.33)
 R hf 
2c
which clarifies the meaning of the term
in the brackets as a correction factor
for the loss resistance Rhf , which takes
2b into account only the skin effect.
The ratio R p / R0 has been calculated for different relative spacings c / b , for
loops with 2 ≤ N ≤ 8 in:
G.N. Smith, “The proximity effect in systems of parallel conductors,” J. Appl.
Phys., vol. 43, No. 5, May 1972, pp. 2196-2203.
The results are shown below:

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 (b) Loop inductance
The inductance of a single circular loop of radius a made of wire of radius b is
  8a  
Lcirc
A1 = µ a ln   − 2 , H. (12.34)
   
b
The inductance of a square loop with sides a and wire radius b is calculated as
a  a 
LsqA1 = 2 µ ln − 0.774  , H. (12.35)
π   b  
The inductance of a multi-turn coil is obtained from the inductance of a single-
turn loop multiplied by N 2 , where N is the number of turns.
The inductance of the wire itself (internal inductance) is very small and is
often neglected. It can be shown that the HF self-inductance per unit length of a
straight wire of cylindrical cross-section is

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 µ0  b 4 − 4b 2 c 2 + 3c 4 + 4c 4 ln(b / c) 
′ =
Lint   , H/m, (12.36)
8π  (b 2 − c 2 )2 
where c = b − δ and δ is the skin depth. To obtain the total internal inductance
of the wire, simply multiply Lint ′ by the overall length of the wire used to
construct the multi-turn loop antenna.

(c) Tuning capacitor

The susceptance of the capacitor Br must be chosen to eliminate the
susceptance of the loop. Assume that the equivalent admittance of the loop is
1 1
Yin = = (12.37)
Zin Rin + jX in
where
Rin = Rr + Rl ,
X in = jω ( LA + Lint ) .
The following transformation holds:
Yin = Gin + jBin (12.38)
where
Rin − X in
Gin = , Bin = . (12.39)
Rin2 + X in2 Rin2 + X in2
The susceptance of the capacitor is
Br = ωCr . (12.40)
For resonance to occur at f 0 = ω0 / (2π ) when the capacitor is in parallel with
the loop, the condition
Br = − Bin (12.41)
must be fulfilled. Therefore,
X in
2π f 0Cr = , (12.42)
Rin2 + X in2

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 1 X in
 Cr = . (12.43)
2π f ( Rin2 + X in2 )
Under resonance, the input impedance Zin′ becomes
1 1 R 2 + X in2
Z in′ = Rin′ = = = in , (12.44)
Gin′ Gin Rin
X in2
 Z in′ = Rin + , Ω. (12.45)
Rin

5. The Small Loop as a Receiving Antenna

The small loop antennas have the following features:
1) high radiation resistance provided multi-turn ferrite-core constructions
are used;
2) high losses, therefore, low radiation efficiency;
3) simple construction, small size and weight.
Small loops are usually not used as transmitting antennas due to their low
efficiency. However, they are much preferred as receiving antennas in AM radio-
receivers because of their high signal-to-noise ratio (they can be easily tuned to
form a very high-Q resonant circuit), their small size and low cost.
Loops are constructed as magnetic field probes to measure magnetic flux
densities. At higher frequencies (UHF and microwave), loops are used to
measure the EM field intensity. In this case, ferrite rods are not used.
Since the loop is a typical linearly polarized antenna, it has to be oriented
properly to optimize reception. The optimal case is a linearly polarized wave with
the H-field aligned with the loop’s axis.

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 [G.S. Smith, Ch. 5 in Antenna Eng.
Handbook, McGraw-Hill 2007]

The open-circuit voltage at the loop terminals is induced by the time-varying

magnetic flux through the loop:
Voc = jωΨ m = jω B ⋅ s = jωµ H z ⋅ π a 2 , (12.46)
H z = H i cosψ sin θ i . (12.47)
Here,
Ψ m is the magnetic flux, Wb;
θi is the angle between z (the loop’s axis) and the Poynting vector of the
incident wave;
ϕi is the angle between the x axis (defined by the center of the loop and the
feed point) and the plane of incidence (the plane defined by the z axis and the
Poynting vector Pi (or the wave vector k i ));
ψ is the angle between the H i vector and the plane of incidence.
Finally, the open-circuit voltage can be expressed as
Voc = jωµ SH i cosψ sin θi = j β SE i cosψ sin θi . (12.48)
Here, S = π a 2 denotes the area of the loop, and β = ω µε is the phase constant.
Voc is maximum for θi = 90 and ψ = 0 .

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6. Ferrite Loops
The radiation resistance and radiation efficiency can be raised by inserting a
ferrite core, which has high magnetic permeability in the operating frequency
band. Large magnetic permeability µ = µ0 µ r means large magnetic flux Ψ m ,
and therefore large induced voltage Voc . The radiation resistance of a small loop
was already derived in (12.10) to include the number of turns, and it was shown
that it increases as ∼ N 2 . Now the magnetic properties of the loop will be
included in the expression for Rr .
The magnetic properties of a ferrite core depend not only on the relative
magnetic permeability µ r of the material it is made of but also on its geometry.
The increase in the magnetic flux is then more realistically represented by the
effective relative permeability µreff . We show next that the radiation resistance
of a ferrite-core loop is ( µ reff ) 2 times larger than the radiation resistance of the
air-core loop of the same geometry. When we calculated the far fields of a small
loop, we used the equivalence between an electric current loop and a magnetic
current element:
jωµ ( IA) = I ml . (12.49)
From (12.49) it is obvious that the equivalent magnetic current is proportional to
µ . The field magnitudes are proportional to I m , and therefore they are
proportional to µ as well. This means that the radiated power Π rad is
proportional to µ 2 , and therefore the radiation resistance increases as ∼ ( µ reff ) 2 .
Finally, we can express the radiation resistance as
2
8  A
Rr = η0 π 3  N µreff 2  . (12.50)
3  λ 
Here, A = π a 2 is the loop area, and η0 = µ0 / ε 0 is the intrinsic impedance of
vacuum. An equivalent form of (12.50) is
4
2(N
C

Rr ≈ 20π µreff )2  (12.51)
λ
where we have used the approximate expression η0 ≈ 120π and C is the
circumference of the loop, C = 2π a .
Some notes are made below with regard to the properties of ferrite cores:

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 • The effective magnetic constant of a ferrite core is always less than the
magnetic constant of the ferromagnetic material it is made of, i.e.,
µ reff < µ r . Toroidal cores have the highest µreff , and ferrite-stick cores have
the lowest µreff .
• The effective magnetic constant is frequency dependent. One has to be
careful when picking the right core for the application at hand.
• The magnetic losses of ferromagnetic materials increase with frequency.
At very high (microwave) frequencies, the magnetic losses are very high.
They have to be calculated and represented in the equivalent circuit of the
antenna as a shunt conductance Gm .

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