NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Module 8 APPORTIONMENT AND VOTING
Introduction to Apportionment
Apportionment involves dividing something up, just like fair division. In fair division we are dividing objects among
people while in apportionment we are dividing people among places. Also like fair division, the apportionment processes
that are widely used do not always give the best answer, and apportionment is still an open field of mathematics.
The first step in any apportionment problem is to calculate the standard divisor. This is the ratio of the total
population to the number of seats. It tells us how many people are represented by each seat.
The next step is to find the standard quota for each state. This is the exact number of seats that should be
allocated to each state if decimal values were possible.
Example 1. Finding the Standard Quota
Hamiltonia, a small country consisting of six states is governed by a senate with 25 members. The number of
senators for each state is proportional to the population of the state. The following table shows the population of each
state as of the last census.
Population by State for Hamiltonia
Find the standard divisor and the standard quotas for each of the states of Hamiltonia.
total population 237,000
Standard Divisor: SD = = = 9480
# of seats 25
This means that each seat in the senate corresponds to a population of 9480 people.
Standard Quotas:
state population 24,000
Alpha: SQ = = = 2.532
standard divisor 9480
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
state population 56,000
Beta: SQ = standard divisor = = 5.907
9480
If fractional seats were possible, Alpha would get 2.532 seats and Beta would get 5.907 seats.
Use similar calculations for the other states.
Standard Quotas for Hamiltonia
Example 2. Upper and Lower Quotas for Hamiltonia
Find the lower and upper quotas for each of the states in Hamiltonia.
Upper and Lower Quotas for Hamiltonia
Hamilton’s Method
Alexander Hamilton proposed the first apportionment method to be approved by Congress. Unfortunately for
Hamilton, President Washington vetoed its selection. This veto was the first presidential veto utilized in the new U.S.
government. A different method proposed by Thomas Jefferson was used instead for the next 50 years. Later, Hamilton’s
method was used off and on between 1852 and 1901.
Summary of Hamilton’s Method:
1. Use the standard divisor to find the standard quota for each state.
2. Temporarily allocate to each state its lower quota of seats. At this point, there should be some seats that were not
allocated.
3. Starting with the state that has the largest fractional part and working toward the state with the smallest fractional part,
allocate one additional seat to each state until all the seats have been allocated.
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Example 3. Hamilton’s Method for Hamiltonia
Use Hamilton’s method to finish the allocation of seats in Hamiltonia. Let’s use red numbers below in Table to
rank the fractional parts of the standard quotas from each state in order from largest to smallest. For example, Zeta’s
standard quota, 4.958, has the largest fractional part, 0.958. Also find the sum of the lower quotas to determine how many
seats still need to be allocated.
Fractional Parts for Hamiltonia
Twenty of the 25 seats have been allocated so there are five remaining seats.
Allocate the seats, in order, to Zeta, Gamma, Beta, Epsilon and Delta.
Final Allocation for Hamiltonia Using Hamilton’s Method
Overall, Alpha gets two senators, Beta gets six senators, Gamma gets three senators, Delta gets two senators, Epsilon
gets seven, and Zeta gets five senators.
Example 4. The Alabama Paradox
A mother has an incentive program to get her five children to read more. She has 30 pieces of candy to divide
among her children at the end of the week based on the number of minutes each of them spends reading. The minutes
are listed below in Table.
Reading Times
Use Hamilton’s method to apportion the candy among the children.
750
The standard divisor is SD = = 25. After dividing each child’s time by the standard divisor, and finding the lower
30
quotas for each child, there are three pieces of candy left over. They will go to Ed, Bobby, and Dave, in that order, since
they have the largest fractional parts of their quotas.
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Apportionment with 30 Pieces of Candy
At the last minute, the mother finds another piece of candy and does the apportionment again. This time the standard
divisor will be 24.19. Bobby, Abby, and Charli, in that order, will get the three left over pieces this time.
Apportionment with 31 Pieces of Candy
Notice that adding another piece of candy (a seat) caused Dave to lose a piece while Abby and Charli gain a piece. This
is an example of the Alabama paradox.
Jefferson’s Method
Jefferson’s method divides all populations by a modified divisor and then rounds the results down to the lower
quota. Sometimes the total number of seats will be too large and other times it will be too small. We keep guessing
modified divisors until the method assigns the correct total number of seats. Dividing by a larger modified divisor will make
each quota smaller so the sum of the lower quotas will be smaller. It is easy to remember which way to go. If the sum is
too large, make the divisor larger. If the sum is too small, make the divisor smaller. All the quotas are rounded down so
using the standard divisor will give a sum that is too small. Our guess for the first modified divisor should be a number
smaller than the standard divisor.
Summary of Jefferson’s Method:
total population
1. Find the standard divisor, total population SD = # of seats
.
2. Pick a modified divisor, d, that is slightly less than the standard divisor.
3. Divide each state’s population by the modified divisor to get its modified quota.
4. Round each modified quota down to its lower quota.
5. Find the sum of the lower quotas.
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
6. If the sum is the same as the number of seats to be apportioned, you are done. If the sum is too large, pick a new
modified divisor that is larger than d. If the sum is too small, pick a new modified divisor that is smaller than d. Repeat
steps three through six until the correct number of seats are apportioned.
Example 5. Jefferson’s Method
Use Jefferson’s method to apportion the 25 seats in Hamiltonia from Example table below.
Population by State for Hamiltonia
From the table, we know the standard divisor is 9480 and the sum of the lower quotas is 20. In Jefferson’s method the
standard divisor will always give us a sum that is too small so we begin by making the standard divisor smaller. There is
no formula for this, just guess something. Let’s try the modified divisor, d = 9000.
Quotas for d = 9000
The sum of 24 is too small so we need to try again by making the modified divisor smaller. Let’s try d = 8000
Quotas for d = 8000
This time the sum of 28 is too big. Try again making the modified divisor larger. We know the divisor must be between
8000 and 9000 so let’s try 8500.
Quotas for d = 8500
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
This time the sum is 25 so we are done. Alpha gets two senators, Beta gets six senators, Gamma gets three senators,
Delta gets two senators, Epsilon gets seven senators, and Zeta gets five senators.
Adam’s Method
Adams’s method divides all populations by a modified divisor and then rounds the results up to the upper quota.
Just like Jefferson’s method we keep guessing modified divisors until the method assigns the correct number of seats. All
the quotas are rounded up so the standard divisor will give a sum that is too large. Our guess for the first modified divisor
should be a number larger than the standard divisor.
Summary of Adam’s Method:
total population
1. Find the standard divisor, total population SD = .
# of seats
2. Pick a modified divisor, d, that is slightly more than the standard divisor.
3. Divide each state’s population by the modified divisor to get the modified quota.
4. Round each modified quota up to the upper quota.
5. Find the sum of the upper quotas.
6. If the sum is the same as the number of seats to be apportioned, you are done. If the sum is too big, pick a new modified
divisor that is larger than d. If the sum is too small, pick a new modified divisor that is smaller than d. Repeat steps three
through six until the correct number of seats are apportioned.
Example 6. Adam’s Method
Use Adam’s method to apportion the 25 seats in Hamiltonia from the table below.
Population by State for Hamiltonia
From the table above we know the standard divisor is 9480 and the sum of the upper quotas is 26. In Adams’s method
the standard divisor will always give us a sum that is too big so we begin by making the standard divisor larger. There is
no formula for this, just guess something. Let’s try the modified divisor, d = 10,000.
Quotas for d = 10,000
The total number of seats, 26, is too big so we need to try again by making the modified divisor larger. Try d = 11,000.
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Quotas for d = 11,000
This time the total number of seats is 25, the correct number of seats to be apportioned. Give Alpha three seats, Beta six
seats, Gamma three seats, Delta two seats, Epsilon six seats, and Zeta five seats.
Webster’s Method
Webster’s method divides all populations by a modified divisor and then rounds the results up or down following
the usual rounding rules. Just like Jefferson’s method we keep guessing modified divisors until the method assigns the
correct number of seats. Because some quotas are rounded up and others down, we do not know if the standard divisor
will give a sum that is too large or too small. Our guess for the first modified divisor should be the standard divisor.
Summary of Webster’s Method:
total population
1. Find the standard divisor, total population SD = . Use the standard divisor as the first modified divisor.
# of seats
2. Divide each state’s population by the modified divisor to get the modified quota.
3. Round each modified quota to the nearest integer using conventional rounding rules.
4. Find the sum of the rounded quotas.
5. If the sum is the same as the number of seats to be apportioned, you are done. If the sum is too big, pick a new modified
divisor that is larger than d. If the sum is too small, pick a new modified divisor that is smaller than d. Repeat steps two
through five until the correct number of seats are apportioned.
Example 7. Webster’s Method
Use Webster’s method to apportion the 25 seats in Hamiltonia from the table below.
Population by State for Hamiltonia
From the table above, we know the standard divisor is 9480. Because some quotas will be rounded up and other quotas
will be rounded down, we do not know immediately whether the total number of seats is too big or too small. Unlike
Jefferson’s and Adam’s method, we do not know which way to adjust the modified divisor. This forces us to use the
standard divisor as the first modified divisor.
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Note that we must use more decimal places in this example than in the last few examples. Using two decimal places gives
more information about which way to round correctly. Think about Alpha’s standard quota. Both 2.48 and 2.53 would
round off to 2.5. However, 2.48 should be rounded down to 2 while 2.53 should be rounded up to 3 according to Webster’s
method. This situation has not happened in any of the previous examples.
Quotas for d = 9480
Since the total of 26 seats is too big, we need to make the modified divisor larger. Try d = 11,000.
Quotas for d = 11,000
The total number of seats is smaller like we hoped but 22 is way too small. That means that d = 11,000 is much too big.
We need to pick a new modified divisor between 9480 and 11,000. Try a divisor closer to 9480 such as d = 10,000
Quotas for d = 10,000
Huntington-Hill Method
The Huntington-Hill method is the method currently used to apportion the seats for the U.S. House of
Representatives. As with the other apportionment methods, the method of rounding off the quotas is what distinguishes
this method from the others. The Huntington-Hill method starts out similarly to Webster’s method since some quotas are
rounded up and some quotas are rounded down. The difference is that the cut-off for rounding is not 0.5 anymore. Now
the cut-off depends on the geometric mean between the lower and upper quotas.
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Example 8. Geometric Mean
Find the geometric mean between 5 and 6.
𝐺 = √5 ∙ 6 = √30 ≈ 5.477
Note that the geometric mean between A and B must be a number between A and B. In this example the geometric mean
of 5.477 is between 5 and 6.
Summary of the Huntington-Hill Method:
total population
1. Find the standard divisor, SD = . Use the standard divisor as the first modified divisor.
# of seats
2. Divide each state’s population by the modified divisor to get the modified quota.
3. Round each modified quota to the nearest integer using the geometric mean as the cut off. If the quota is less than the
geometric mean between the upper and lower quotas, round the quota down to the lower quota. If the quota is more than
the geometric mean between the upper and lower quotas, round the quota up to the upper quota.
4. Find the sum of the rounded quotas.
5. If the sum is the same as the number of seats to be apportioned, you are done. If the sum is too big, pick a new modified
divisor that is larger than d. If the sum is too small, pick a new modified divisor that is smaller than d. Repeat steps two
through five until the correct number of seats are apportioned.
Example 9. Huntington-Hill Method
Use the Huntington-Hill method to apportion the 25 seats in Hamiltonia from the table below.
Population by State for Hamiltonia
The first step is to use the standard divisor as the first modified divisor. We also include a row for the geometric mean
between the upper and lower quotas for each state.
Quotas for d = 9480
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
The total number of seats, 26, is too big so we need to try again by making the modified divisor larger. Try d = 10,500.
Quotas for d = 10,500
The total number of seats, 23 is too small. We need to try again with a modified divisor between 9480 and 10,500. Since
23 is further from 25 than 26 is, try a divisor closer to 9480. Try d = 9800.
Quotas for d = 9800
This is the same apportionment we got with most of the other methods.
Example 10. Comparison of all Apportionment Methods
In the city of Adamstown, 42 new firefighters have just completed their training. They are to be assigned to the
five firehouses in town in a manner proportional to the population in each fire district. The populations are listed in the
following table.
Populations for the Fire Districts of Adamstown
Apportion the new firefighters to the fire houses using Hamilton’s, Jefferson’s, Adams’s, Webster’s, and Huntington-Hill’s
methods.
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
69,465
The standard divisor is 𝑆𝐷 = ≈ 1654.
42
Hamilton’s Method:
Hamilton’s Method for Adamstown
Start by dividing each population by the standard divisor and rounding each standard quota down.
Using the lower quotas, there is one firefighter left over. Assign this firefighter to District D since D has the largest fractional
part.
Jefferson’s Method:
Jefferson’s method always rounds down making the sum of the lower quotas too small. Make the standard divisor smaller
to get the first modified divisor. The results are summarized in the table below.
Guess #1: d = 1600. The sum of 41 is still too small so make the modified divisor smaller.
Guess #2: d = 1550. The sum is 42 so we are done.
Jefferson’s Method for Adamstown
Adam’s Method:
Adams’s method always rounds up making the sum of the upper quotas too large. Make the standard divisor larger to get
the first modified divisor. The results are summarized in the table below.
Guess #1: d = 1700. The total is too still too large so make the modified divisor larger.
Guess #2: d = 1900. Now the total is too small so make the modified divisor smaller.
Guess #3: d = 1750. The total is too large again so make the modified divisor larger.
Guess #4: d = 1775. The sum is 42 so we are done
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Adam’s Method for Adamstown
Webster’s Method:
Webster’s method rounds the usual way so we cannot tell if the sum is too large or too small right away. Try the standard
divisor as the first modified divisor. The results are summarized in the table below.
Guess #1: d = 1654. The sum of 41 is too small so make the modified divisor smaller.
Guess #2: d = 1600. The sum of 43 is too large so make the modified divisor larger.
Guess #3: d = 1625. The sum is 42 so we are done.
Webster’s Method for Adamstown
Huntington-Hill’s Method:
Huntington-Hill’s method rounds off according to the geometric mean. Use the standard divisor as the first modified divisor.
The results are summarized in the table below.
Guess #1: d = 1654. The sum of 41 is too small so make the modified divisor smaller. Look at District D. It was really close
to being rounded up rather than rounded down so we do not need to change the modified divisor by very much.
Guess #2: d = 1625. The sum is 42 so we are done.
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Huntington-Hill’s Method for Adamstown
Hamilton’s, Adams’s, Webster’s, and Huntington-Hill’s methods all gave the same apportionment: 15 firefighters to District
A, five to District B, seven to District C, six to District D, and nine to District E.
Jefferson’s method gave a different apportionment: 16 firefighters to District A, five to District B, seven to District C, five
to District D, and nine to District E.
Apportionment Paradoxes
Each of the apportionment methods has at least one weakness. Some potentially violate the quota rule and some
are subject to one of the three paradoxes.
Example 11. Quota Rule Violation
A small college has three departments. Department A has 98 faculty, Department B has 689 faculty, and
Department C has 212 faculty. The college has a faculty senate with 100 representatives. Use Jefferson’s method with a
modified divisor of d = 9.83 to apportion the 100 representatives among the departments.
Quota Rule Violation
District B has a standard quota of 68.969 so it should get either its lower quota, 68, or its upper quota, 69, seats. Using
this method, District B received 70 seats, one more than its upper quota. This is a Quota Rule violation.
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Example 12. Population Paradox
A mom decides to split 11 candy bars among three children based on the number of minutes they spend on
chores this week. Abby spends 54 minutes; Bobby spends 243 minutes and Charley spends 703 minutes. Near the end
of the week, Mom reminds the children of the deal and they each do some extra work. Abby does an extra two minutes,
Bobby an extra 12 minutes and Charley an extra 86 minutes. Use Hamilton’s method to apportion the candy bars both
before and after the extra work.
Candy Bars Before the Extra Work
With the extra work:
Abby now has 54 + 2 = 56 minutes
Bobby has 243 + 12 = 255
Charley has 703 + 86 = 789 minutes
Candy Bars After the Extra Work
Abby’s time only increased by 3.7% while Bobby’s time increased by 4.9%. However, Abby gained a candy bar while
Bobby lost one. This is an example of the Population Paradox.
Example 13. New States Paradox
A small city is made up of three districts and governed by a committee with 100 members. District A has a
population of 5310, District B has a population of 1330, and District C has a population of 3308. The city annexes a small
area, District D with a population of 500. At the same time the number of committee members is increased by five. Use
Hamilton’s method to find the apportionment before and after the annexation.
9948
𝑆𝐷 = = 99.48
100
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
NGEC 4 Mathematics in the Modern World DMMMA College of Southern Philippines
Apportionment Before the Annexation
10,448
𝑆𝐷 = = 99.505
105
Apportionment After the Annexation
District D has a population of 500 so it should get five seats. When District D is added with its five seats, District A loses
a seat and District B gains a seat. This is an example of the New-States Paradox.
In 1980, Michael Balinski (State University of New York at Stony Brook) and H. Peyton Young (Johns Hopkins University)
proved that all apportionment methods either violate the quota rule or suffer from one of the paradoxes. This means that
it is impossible to find the “perfect” apportionment method. The methods and their potential flaws are listed in the following
table.
Methods, Quota Rule Violations, and Paradoxes
Prepared by: Allyn Mae D. Rubio, MAED
Reference: https://www.coconino.edu/resources/files/pdfs/academics/arts-and-
sciences/MAT142/Chapter_9_Apportionment.pdf
