Nervous system

Angel Clarisse G. Divinagracia

BSN 1-6

1. Discuss the classification of the nervous system

The Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord compose the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS's three
major functions are to receive sensory information, process information, and send out
motor signals. The CNS receives sensory information from the nervous system and directs
the responses of the body. The central nervous system (CNS) is responsible for receiving
information from various parts of the body and then coordinating this activity to produce
the body's responses. The CNS is made up of three major components: the brain, the
spinal cord, and the neurons (or nerve cells). Each component of the CNS is important in
how the body functions, and the three components of the CNS collaborate to take in
information and control how the body responds.

The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is divided into two parts: The Somatic Nervous System and
the Autonomic Nervous System.

Somatic Nervous System- The Somatic Nervous System transports impulses from the
central nervous system to the skeletal muscles. The major components of the Somatic
Nervous System are the cranial and spinal nerves. It is in charge of transporting messages
from the body's exterior.

The somatic nervous system is made up of two types of neurons: sensory neurons, also
known as afferent neurons, and motor neurons, also known as efferent neurons. Afferent
neurons are in charge of sending messages to the central nervous system, where the
data is processed, and afferent neurons are in charge of relaying information from the
central nervous system to various parts of the body via muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System- The response from the central nervous system is transmitted
to the body's smooth muscles and involuntary organs via the autonomic nervous system.
It is also divided into two parts known as the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems.

• Sympathetic Nervous System- Nerves emerge from the spinal cord. It is discovered
to be located between the neck and the waist. The sympathetic nervous system
is stimulated by adrenalin. It is in charge of preparing the body for any violent
actions that may occur as a result of abnormal body conditions.
• Parasympathetic Nervous System- The parasympathetic nervous system is located
anteriorly in the neck and head. The sacral region, on the other hand, is the
location of the posterior. When the violent action is over, this nervous system is
entirely responsible for restoring the body's normal state.

2. Enumerate at least 15 diseases associated with the nervous system and briefly
discuss each

• Alzheimer's disease is a type of dementia that impairs a person's thinking,

behavior, and ability to carry out daily tasks. Alzheimer's disease is caused by an
accumulation of certain proteins and chemicals in the brain, which causes
dementia symptoms to worsen over time. Millions of brain cells (neurons) organize
how the brain stores memories, learns habits, and shapes our personalities. Signals
are carried along the connections between brain cells by chemicals known as
neurotransmitters. Alzheimer's disease affects these cells and chemicals, causing
memory loss, cognitive impairment, and behavioral changes over time.
Alzheimer's patients eventually require long-term care and support.

• Cerebral palsy is a condition that affects body movements as a result of brain

damage. The injury can occur prior to, during, or after birth and does not worsen
over time. Body movement and posture are affected by brain damage. It
frequently manifests as floppy or stiff muscles, as well as involuntary muscle
movements. Movement, coordination, muscle tone, and posture can all be
affected by cerebral palsy. It is also linked to problems with vision, hearing, speech,
eating, and learning. The brain is permanently damaged. There is no treatment. In
mild cerebral palsy, life expectancy is normal or near normal, but the effects of
cerebral palsy can cause stress on the body and premature aging.

• Epilepsy is a long- term brain condition characterized by recurrent seizures (fits).

A single seizure is not considered to be epilepsy; approximately half of those who
have one seizure never have another. Epilepsy is not a single disease. Seizures can
be caused by a variety of conditions. These are episodes of altered electrical
activity in the brain that can vary greatly depending on the part of the brain
involved. Seizures can result in symptoms such as loss of consciousness (passing
out), unusual jerking movements (convulsions), and other unusual feelings,
sensations, and behaviors. Seizures come in a variety of forms. Because
generalized seizures affect the entire brain, the entire body is affected. Only a
portion of the brain is involved in focal seizures.
• Motor neuron disease (MND) refers to a group of illnesses. These diseases affect
motor nerves, also known as motor neurons. These neurons degenerate and die in
MND. As a result, the muscles become weaker and weaker. This ultimately results
in paralysis.

• Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a degenerative disease of the central nervous system.

MS indicates that the protective sheath (known as myelin) that surrounds the nerve
fibers in the brain and spinal cord has been damaged. This damage causes scars,
or lesions, in the nervous system, preventing the nerves from properly sending
signals throughout the body. A person's chances of developing MS are increased
if they have a close relative who has the disease. MS has no known cause, but
theories include that it is an autoimmune disease, that it is caused by genetic or
environmental factors (it is more common the farther you live from the equator),
and that it is caused by a virus.

• Neurofibromatosis is a genetic disorder characterized by the development of

neurofibromas. These are tumors that are usually benign, or non-cancerous, but
can be cancerous in rare cases. Neurofibromas can develop anywhere there are
nerve cells in the body. Neurofibromatosis is not curable, but it is manageable,
and many patients live normal lives.

• Parkinson's disease is a nervous system disorder. It is caused by damage to the

nerve cells that produce dopamine, a chemical required for smooth muscle
control and movement.

• A brain aneurysm (also known as a cerebral aneurysm or an intracranial

aneurysm) is a ballooning in the brain caused by a weakened area in the wall of
a blood vessel. If the brain aneurysm grows in size and the blood vessel wall
becomes too thin, the aneurysm will rupture and bleed into the brain space. This
is known as a subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), and it can result in a hemorrhagic
(bleeding) stroke.

• Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is also known as acute inflammatory

demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (AIDP). It is a neurological disorder in
which the immune system of the body attacks the peripheral nervous system,
which is the part of the nervous system that is not connected to the brain and
spinal cord. GBS can strike suddenly and unexpectedly, necessitating immediate
hospitalization. It can develop in a matter of days or weeks, with the greatest
weakness occurring within the first couple of weeks after symptoms appear.
• Neurocutaneous syndromes are brain, spinal cord, organ, skin, and bone
disorders. The diseases are chronic conditions that can lead to tumor growth in
these areas. They can also result in other issues such as hearing loss, seizures, and
developmental issues. Each disorder has its own set of symptoms. Skin growths are
caused by the most common childhood disorders.

• Cluster headaches are rare when compared to other types of headaches. The
pain they produce is severe and tends to recur in the same way each time. They
occur in groups, or clusters, and each attack lasts about 1 to 3 hours on average.
The frequency of occurrence may range from every other day to multiple times a
day. Cluster periods are followed by remissions that may last months or years.

• Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain's active tissues caused by an

infection or an autoimmune response. The inflammation causes the brain to swell,
resulting in headaches, stiff neck, light sensitivity, mental confusion, and seizures.

• X-linked Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is one of a group of genetic disorders

called the leukodystrophies that cause damage to the myelin sheath, an
insulating membrane that surrounds nerve cells in the brain. Women have two X
chromosomes and are the carriers of the disease, but since men only have one X
chromosome and lack the protective effect of the extra X chromosome, they are
more severely affected. People with X-ALD accumulate high levels of saturated,
very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA) in the brain and adrenal cortex. The loss of
myelin and the progressive dysfunction of the adrenal gland are the primary
characteristics of X-ALD.

• Binswanger's disease (BD) also called subcortical vascular dementia, is a type

of dementia caused by widespread, microscopic areas of damage to the deep
layers of white matter in the brain. The damage is the result of the thickening and
narrowing (atherosclerosis) of arteries that feed the subcortical areas of the brain.
Atherosclerosis (commonly known as "hardening of the arteries") is a systemic
process that affects blood vessels throughout the body. It begins late in the fourth
decade of life and increases in severity with age. As the arteries become more
and more narrowed, the blood supplied by those arteries decreases and brain
tissue dies. A characteristic pattern of BD-damaged brain tissue can be seen with
modern brain imaging techniques such as CT scans or magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI).

• Cerebral atrophy is a common feature of many of the diseases that affect the
brain. Atrophy of any tissue means loss of cells. In brain tissue, atrophy describes a
loss of neurons and the connections between them. Atrophy can be generalized,
which means that all of the brain has shrunk; or it can be focal, affecting only a
limited area of the brain and resulting in a decrease of the functions that area of
the brain controls. If the cerebral hemispheres (the two lobes of the brain that form
 the cerebrum) are affected, conscious thought and voluntary processes may be
impaired.

• Dyslexia is a brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a

person's ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower
than expected despite having normal intelligence. Although the disorder varies
from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are
difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling,
and/or rapid visual-verbal responding. In individuals with adult onset of dyslexia, it
usually occurs as a result of brain injury or in the context of dementia; this contrasts
with individuals with dyslexia who simply were never identified as children or
adolescents. Dyslexia can be inherited in some families, and recent studies have
identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing
dyslexia.

3. Tabulate the 12 cranial nerves and give their functions

Cranial nerve function

• Olfactory nerve - The olfactory nerve sends sensory information to your brain
about smells that you encounter. When you inhale molecules with a scent, known
as aromatic molecules, they dissolve in a moist lining at the roof of your nasal
cavity. This lining is called the olfactory epithelium. It stimulates receptors that
generate nerve impulses that move to your olfactory bulb. Your olfactory bulb is
an oval-shaped structure that contains specialized groups of nerve cells. From the
olfactory bulb, nerves pass into your olfactory tract, which is located below
the frontal lobe of your brain. Nerve signals are then sent to areas of your brain
concerned with memory and recognition of smells.
• Optic nerve - The optic nerve is the sensory nerve that involves vision. When light
enters your eye, it comes into contact with special receptors in your retina called
rods and cones. Rods are found in large numbers and are highly sensitive to light.
They’re more specialized for black and white or night vision. Cones are present in
smaller numbers. They have a lower light sensitivity than rods and are more
involved with color vision. The information received by your rods and cones is sent
from your retina to your optic nerve. Once inside your skull, both of your optic
nerves meet to form something called the optic chiasm. At the optic chiasm,
nerve fibers from half of each retina form two separate optic tracts. Through each
optic tract, the nerve impulses eventually reach your visual cortex, which then
processes the information. Your visual cortex is located in the back part of your
brain.
• Oculomotor nerve - The oculomotor nerve has two different motor functions:
muscle function and pupil response. Muscle function. Your oculomotor nerve
 provides motor function to four of the six muscles around your eyes. These muscles
help your eyes move and focus on objects. Pupil response. It also helps to control
the size of your pupil as it responds to light. This nerve originates in the front part of
your midbrain, which is a part of your brainstem. It moves forward from that area
until it reaches the area of your eye sockets.
• Trochlear nerve - The trochlear nerve controls your superior oblique muscle. This is
the muscle that’s in charge of downward, outward, and inward eye movements.
It emerges from the back part of your midbrain. Like your oculomotor nerve, it
moves forward until it reaches your eye sockets, where it stimulates the superior
oblique muscle.
• Trigeminal nerve - The trigeminal nerve is the largest of your cranial nerves and has
both sensory and motor functions. The trigeminal nerve has three divisions, which
are: Ophthalmic. The ophthalmic division sends sensory information from the
upper part of your face, including your forehead, scalp, and upper eyelids.
Maxillary. This division communicates sensory information from the middle part of
your face, including your cheeks, upper lip, and nasal cavity. Mandibular. The
mandibular division has both a sensory and a motor function. It sends sensory
information from your ears, lower lip, and chin. It also controls the movement of
muscles within your jaw and ear. The trigeminal nerve originates from a group of
nuclei — which is a collection of nerve cells — in the midbrain and medulla regions
of your brainstem. Eventually, these nuclei form a separate sensory root and motor
root. The sensory root of your trigeminal nerve branches into the ophthalmic,
maxillary, and mandibular divisions. The motor root of your trigeminal nerve passes
below the sensory root and only connects to the mandibular division.
• Abducens nerve - The abducens nerve controls another muscle that’s associated
with eye movement called the lateral rectus muscle. This muscle is involved in
outward eye movement. For example, you would use it to look to the side. This
nerve, also called the abducens nerve, starts in the pons region of your brainstem.
It eventually enters your eye socket, where it controls the lateral rectus muscle.
• Facial nerve - The facial nerve provides both sensory and motor functions,
including: moving muscles used for facial expressions as well as some muscles in
your jaw providing a sense of taste for most of your tongue supplying glands in
your head or neck area, such as salivary glands and tear-producing glands
sending sensations from the outer parts of your ear. Your facial nerve has a very
complex path. It originates in the pons area of your brainstem, where it has both
a motor and sensory root. Eventually, the two nerves fuse together to form the
facial nerve. Both within and outside of your skull, the facial nerve branches further
into smaller nerve fibers that stimulate muscles and glands or provide sensory
information.

• Vestibulocochlear nerve - Your vestibulocochlear nerve has sensory functions

involving hearing and balance. It consists of two parts, the cochlear portion and
vestibular portion: Cochlear portion. Specialized cells within your ear detect
 vibrations from sound based on the sound’s loudness and pitch. This generates
nerve impulses that are sent to the cochlear nerve. Vestibular portion. Another set
of special cells in this portion can track both linear and rotational movements of
your head. This information is transmitted to the vestibular nerve and used to adjust
your balance and equilibrium. The cochlear and vestibular portions of your
vestibulocochlear nerve originate in separate areas of the brain. The cochlear
portion starts in an area of your brain called the inferior cerebellar peduncle. The
vestibular portion begins in your pons and medulla. Both portions combine to form
the vestibulocochlear nerve.
• Glossopharyngeal nerve - The glossopharyngeal nerve has both motor and
sensory functions, including: sending sensory information from your sinuses, the
back of your throat, parts of your inner ear, and the back part of your tongue
providing a sense of taste for the back part of your tongue stimulating voluntary
movement of a muscle in the back of your throat called the stylopharyngeus. The
glossopharyngeal nerve originates in a part of your brainstem called the medulla
oblongata. It eventually extends into your neck and throat region.
• Vagus nerve - The vagus nerve is a very diverse nerve. It has both sensory and
motor functions, including: conveying sensation information from your ear canal
and parts of your throat sending sensory information from organs in your chest and
trunk, such as your heart and intestines allowing motor control of muscles in your
throat stimulating the muscles of organs in your chest and trunk, including those
that move food through your digestive tract providing a sense of taste near the
root of your tongue. Out of all of the cranial nerves, the vagus nerve has the
longest pathway. It extends from your head all the way into your abdomen. It
originates in the part of your brainstem called the medulla.
• Accessory nerve - Your accessory nerve is a motor nerve that controls the muscles
in your neck. These muscles allow you to rotate, flex, and extend your neck and
shoulders. It’s divided into two parts: spinal and cranial. The spinal portion
originates in the upper part of your spinal cord. The cranial part starts in your
medulla oblongata. These parts meet briefly before the spinal part of the nerve
moves to supply the muscles of your neck. The cranial part follows the vagus nerve.
• Hypoglossal nerve - Your hypoglossal nerve is the 12th cranial nerve. It’s
responsible for the movement of most of the muscles in your tongue. It starts in the
medulla oblongata and moves down into the jaw, where it reaches the tongue.
CITATION:

https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/nervous-system-diseases

https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/neurological-
disorders

https://www.healthline.com/health/12-cranial-nerves#signs-and-symptoms