Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic
(KCS-303)
Algebraic Structures
Course Instructor:
Prof.Vipin Deval,
KIET Group of Institutions
Syllabus
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Algebraic systems
Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said to be a
binary operation (closed operation) on a non empty set A, if a
* b A for all a, b A (Closure property).
Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition and
multiplication but not w.r.t subtraction and division.
Algebraic System: A set ‘A’ with one or more binary(closed)
operations defined on it is called an algebraic system.
Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ), ({1, -1}, *) are
algebraic systems.
(N, -), ({1, -1}, +) are not algebraic structures.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Properties
Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A. The operation
* is said to be commutative in A if
a * b= b * a ∀ a, b A
Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A. The operation *
is said to be associative in A if
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) ∀ a, b, c A
Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to be
an identity element of A if
a*e=e*a=a ∀aA
Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is
unique.
Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be an
element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Semi group
Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi
group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
Example: (N, +) is a semi group.
1. Closure property : We know that sum of two natural numbers is
again a natural number.
i.e., a+b N ∀ a, b N
Summation is a closed operation for set N.
2. Associativity : Summation of natural numbers is associative.
i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) ∀ a, b, c N
Example: (N, .) is a semi group.
Example: (N, – ) is not a semi group. Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Monoid
Monoid: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid
if the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Monoid Example
Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to
multiplication.
Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}
1. Closure property : We know that product of two natural
numbers is again a natural number.
i.e., a.b or b.a N ∀ a,b N
Multiplication is a closed operation.
2. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) ∀ a,b,c N
3. Identity : We have, 1 N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a ∀ a N.
Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Subsemigroup & submonoid
Subsemigroup : Let (S, * ) be a semigroup and let T be a
subset of S. If T is closed under operation * and it
satisfies the associative property , then (T, * ) is called a
subsemigroup of (S, * ).
Ex: (N, .) is semigroup and T is set of multiples of
positive integer m then (T,.) is a sub semigroup.
for example m=3 then T = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …}
Submonoid : Let (S, * ) be a monoid with identity e, and
let T be a non- empty subset of S. If T is closed under the
operation *, it satisfies the associative property and eT,
then (T, * ) is called a submonoid of (S, * ).
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Group
Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group
if the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.
Example: (N, .) is not a group.
Inverse of a natural number is not a member of natural
number.
Example: (Z, + ) is a group.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Abelian Group
Abelian group (Commutative group): A group (G, *)
is said to be abelian (or commutative) if
a*b =b*a ∀ a,bG
Example: (Z, + ) is an abelian group.
Example: Let S be the set of 2 × 2 matrices with rational
entries under the operation of matrix multiplication. Then
S is not a group since inverses do not always exist.
However, if G be the subset of 2 × 2 matrices with a
nonzero determinant. Then G is a group under matrix
multiplication.
But, G is not an abelian group since matrix multiplication
is non-commutative. Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Algebraic Structures
Abelian Group
Group
Monoid
Semi-Group
Algebraic Structures
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Properties of a Group
In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good
1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c b = c (left cancellation law)
a * c = b * c a = b (Right cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
Note: In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.
Order of a group : The number of elements in a group is
called order of the group.
Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite, then G
is called a finite group.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Examples
Question: Show that, the set of all integers is a group with respect
to addition.
Solution:
1. Closure property : We know that, Sum of two integers is again an
integer.
i.e., a + b Z for all a,b Z
2. Associativity: We know that addition of integers is associative.
i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a,b,c Z.
3. Identity : We have 0 Z and a + 0 = a for all a Z .
Identity element exists, and ‘0’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a Z , we have – a Z such that
a+(–a )=0
Each element in Z has an inverse.
Hence Proved !!! Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
In fact…
The Group is also an Abelian group…
5. Commutativity: We know that addition of integers is
commutative.
i.e., a + b = b +a for all a,b Z.
Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Examples
Question: Show that set of all non zero real numbers is an
Abelian group with respect to multiplication .
Solution:
Let R* = set of all non zero real numbers and a, b, c are any
three elements of R* .
1. Closure property : We know that, product of two nonzero real
numbers is again a nonzero real number .
i.e., a . b R* for all a,b R* .
2. Associativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c R*
3. Identity : We have 1 R* and a .1 = a for all a R*
Identity element exists, and ‘1’ is the identity element.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Examples
4. Inverse: To each a R* , we have 1/a R* such that
a .(1/a) = 1 i.e., Each element in R* has
an inverse.
5.Commutativity: We know that multiplication of real
numbers is commutative.
i.e., a . b = b . a for all a,b R*.
Hence, ( R* , . ) is an abelian group.
Hence Proved !!!
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Examples
Question: Show that set of all real numbers ‘R’ is not a group
with respect to multiplication.
Solution:
The system (R, *) satisfies
Closure Property
Associative property
Existence of identity
But … it does not satisfy the “Existence of Inverse” property
Proof:
We have 0 R .
The multiplicative inverse of 0 does not exist.
Hence. R is not a group.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Examples
Question: Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the
set of integers and the operation * is defined by
n * m = maximum of (n, m)
Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Is (Z, *) a monoid ?
Answer: Let a , b and c are any three integers.
Closure property: Now, a * b = maximum of (a, b) Z for all
a,b Z.
Hence, closure property is satisfied.
Associativity : (a * b) * c = maximum of (maximum of (a,b),c) =
maximum of (a, maximum of (b,c)) = a * (b * c)
Hence, Associativity is satisfied.
(Z, *) is a semi group. Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Examples
Question: Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the
set of integers and the operation * is defined by
n * m = maximum of (n, m)
Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Is (Z, *) a monoid ?
Answer:
Identity : There is no integer x such that
a * x = maximum of (a, x) = a for all a Z
Identity element does not exist.
Hence, (Z, *) is not a monoid.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Examples
Question: Determine whether the set of all strings ‘S’ is a monoid
under the operation ‘concatenation of strings’.
Solution: Let us denote the operation ‘concatenation of strings’
by + .
Let s1, s2, s3 are three arbitrary strings in S.
Closure property: Concatenation of two strings is again a string.
i.e., s1+s2 S
Associativity: Concatenation of strings is associative.
(s1+ s2 ) + s3 = s1+ (s2 + s3 )
Identity: We have null string S such that s1 + = s1
S is a monoid.
Note: (S, +) is not a group, because the inverse of a non empty string
does not exist under concatenation of strings Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Examples
Question: . If M is set of all non singular matrices of order ‘n x n’.
then show that M is a group w.r.t. matrix multiplication.
Is (M, *) an abelian group?
Answer: Let A,B,C M
1.Closure property : Product of two non singular matrices is again a
non singular matrix, because
AB = A . B 0 ( Since, A and B are nonsingular)
i.e., AB M for all A,B M .
2. Associativity: Marix multiplication is associative.
i.e., (AB)C = A(BC) for all A,B,C M .
3. Identity : We have In M and AIn = A = InA for all A M .
Identity element exists, and ‘In’ is the identity element.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
Examples
Question: . If M is set of all non singular matrices of order ‘n x n’.
then show that M is a group w.r.t. matrix multiplication.
Is (M, *) an abelian group?
Answer:
4. Inverse: To each A M, we have A-1 M such that
A A-1 = In i.e., Each element in M has an inverse.
M is a group w.r.t. matrix multiplication.
We know that, matrix multiplication is not commutative.
Hence, M is not an abelian group.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic (KCS-303)
(Prof.Vipin Deval, KIET Group of Institutions)
