Waste Management: Disposing, Treating,

and Developing Strategies for Sustainable

Growth in Cities
A Comparison of Waste Management
Tactics Across Three Continents

Group 2
Kaarthig Deenadayalan, Nicole Madey,
Måns Rosberg, Loe Selders

2 December 2022

Figure 1: Landfill in the Maldives (Abdulraheem, no date)

1
Abstract
Waste management and prevention strategies remain a global challenge for nations and the
environment. In large quantities, solid waste can damage the environment by polluting oceans,
contaminating soil, and damaging ecosystem services. This paper discusses the waste
management strategies adopted by three major continents: North America, Europe, and Asia.
Local and global efforts are required for reducing waste. The waste management hierarchy
continues to be a guide for continents to follow regarding waste management, however, there are
slight differences in prioritizing waste diversion due to economic development. This is the reason
why a combined hierarchy is used in this paper (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Combined Waste Hierarchy

Through case studies, literature reviews, and figures, waste management strategies are assessed
in conjunction with adhering to the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The many differences in the waste management approaches for various continents become clear
with the help of the case studies. The scale of sorting systems, contrast in climate, the state of
urban water infrastructure and the use of composting waste are the main differences that emerge.
This paper concludes that the waste hierarchy is an important global tactic that can be used for
waste management and is already adopted by Europe and North America. Furthermore, it can be
a viable solution for more developing countries, specifically in Asia.

Keywords: waste management, environmental impacts, sustainable development goals, solid

waste, waste hierarchy, “3R” method, San Francisco, Malmö, Chennai, life cycle, plastic
pollution

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
2
Table of contents:
Abstract 2

1. Introduction 4
Problem Description 4
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 4
Research Questions 5
Methods 5

2. Waste Hierarchy 6
The European Waste Hierarchy 6
The North American (United States) Waste Hierarchy 7
How Asia Manages and Disposes Waste 9
The Combined Waste Hierarchy & Sustainable Development Goals 10

3. Case Studies 12
Europe: Malmö, Sweden 12
Improvements for Waste Management in Europe 14
North America: San Francisco, United States 15
Improvements for Waste Management in North America 16
Asia: Chennai, India 17
Improvements for Waste Management in Asia 18

4. Discussion 20
Global Efforts for Improving Waste Management 21

5. Conclusion 22

References 23

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
3
 1. Introduction
Problem Description
Waste has a significant negative impact on the environment, human health and the economy.
Poor waste management has many disadvantages, such as a contribution to climate change, air
pollution, and affects many ecosystems and organisms. For example, the marine and coastal
ecosystems are especially affected by insufficient management of waste or by littering.
Worldwide, a waste average of 0.74 kilograms per person per day is generated, however this
value ranges globally (The World Bank, no date a). Due to the population growth and
urbanization, the annual waste mass is expected to increase by more than 70% (The World Bank,
no date b). The impacts of waste on the environment can be indirect as well. Every waste product
that is not reused, recycled, or recovered symbolizes a loss of raw material and other inputs in
the life-cycle chain. These environmental impacts in the chain are larger than the impacts in the
waste management phases. Waste also has an impact on the economy and is a burden to our
society. This is because waste management and infrastructure costs money (European
Environment Agency, no date b).

The world has many diverse countries, communities and unique societal conditions. Therefore,
there are differences in addressing and managing waste across each area. Due to these different
conditions, there is no one correct way to handle waste. Diverse waste management methods
create environmental and social problems, and is therefore necessary to analyze the waste
management strategies used between different continents.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The United Nations adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 to protect the planet,
end poverty and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030 (United Nations and
Development Programme, no date). Waste and its impacts affect 8 of the 17 goals. These goals
are specified below:
● Goal 3: Good Health and Well-being
● Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
● Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
● Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
● Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
● Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
● Goal 14: Life Below Water
● Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
4
Waste has a negative effect on human health, and SDG 3, target 3.9 attempts to address this
issue. Target 3.9 states that by 2030, the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous
chemicals and pollution of air, water, and soil should be reduced. Since water, and in some cases
drinking water, are contaminated by waste, SDG 6 and SDG 14 are also impacted by excess
waste production. Discussion of the SDGs will be further discussed later in this paper.

Research Questions
This report analyzes waste management methods with the support of three case studies, across
three different continents. The goal of this report is to assess the negative environmental impacts
of waste globally, by discussing the insufficient management strategies. This report will also
focus on discussing the waste hierarchy across the three studied continents, in addition to the
many different frameworks in place for management. Exploring each continent’s method of
managing waste is crucial to understand their economic development and policy conditions, as
there is no “one-size-fits-all” approach to waste management. A better image of the difference in
waste management on a global level is gained by evaluating each continent’s waste management
tactics. The following will be discussed in the report:
1. How are the case study cities disposing, treating, and managing waste? Which section of
the waste hierarchy contains the most waste?
2. What are the cities doing to mitigate their waste and track their Life Cycle Assessment?
3. Are there improvements to reduce this specific type of waste? Are these solutions
feasible and useful for the long term?

In section two, the waste management hierarchy frameworks for each continent are explained, in
addition to the different types of environmental issues that come with the levels in the hierarchy.
Next, three case studies for specific cities in Europe, North America, and Asia, are presented in
section three. Section four describes the possible improvements to waste management, as well as
comparing and contrasting the waste management systems across each continent. Finally, section
five notes final conclusions about the research questions.

Methods
In order to conduct research on the questions presented above, several literature reviews were
used to obtain general information about waste management and the waste hierarchy. The case
studies are the central scope of the paper, as they are used to assess the differences in waste
management across each continent. Figures were also used to draw comparisons between how
each continent tracks their waste.

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
5
 2. Waste Hierarchy
As waste management becomes a challenging issue to manage worldwide, solutions toward
generating circular economies become desirable. The Waste Hierarchy is designed to rank and
analyze municipal waste management issues at an individual and industrial level. The hierarchy
is shaped as an inverted triangle, to describe the most favorable and least favorable methods
toward disposing waste. There are different hierarchy frameworks for each continent studied. For
example, the European waste hierarchy consists of five levels, whereas North America has only
four levels. These two pyramids are described in the next paragraphs. Asia, for example, does
not have any specific regulations on waste management, as landfilling is a quick, inexpensive
way to dispose of waste. This aspect will be discussed later in the paper.

The European Waste Hierarchy

The levels in the European Waste Hierarchy, starting from top to bottom, consist of waste
prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery, and finally, disposal (Davies, 2021). To achieve this long-
term goal created by the European Union (EU), a transition to a circular economy is needed. This
is done by preventing products and materials from becoming waste and using unavoidable waste
as a resource (European Environment Agency, no date a). Prevention of waste has various
advantages, such as boosting growth, creating employment opportunities, reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and decreasing the EU dependency on raw materials that are imported (European
Commision, no date). To stimulate the transition of Europe towards a more circular economy,
clear aims to increase reusing and recycling are set. Reusing is focused on using the original
product for the same purpose. This section of the waste hierarchy prevents the use of raw
materials or the costs for disposing waste (Davies, 2021). The transition from waste disposal to a
circular economy starts with a shift to recycling materials. The demand for primary resources is
increasing in Europe. This puts pressure on the environment and Europe's material self-
sufficiency. Recycling means replacing the primary resources by secondary materials from
sorted waste. Hereby, environmental issues created by raw materials extraction are avoided
(European Environment Agency, no date c). Below is the figure of the European Waste hierarchy
created by the European Commission under the Waste Framework Directive established in 2008
(Waste Framework Directive, no date):

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
6
 Figure 3: European Waste Hierarchy (Bide, 2020).

Waste-to-energy is a beneficial method of waste burning. The plants recover energy from the
burning process in the form of steam, electricity or hot water. Energy recovery is a hygienic way
of treating waste, decreasing its volume by approximately 90% (‘CEWEP - The Confederation of
European Waste-to-Energy Plants’, no date). Currently, 60% of our worldwide waste is
transported to landfills (Thompson, 2012). Landfills pose a threat to the health of humans and
can also bring diseases and other hazards (Vasarhelyi, 2021). Therefore, disposal is the most
environmentally unfriendly way of waste management. Achieving a circular economy is based
on avoiding the disposal of waste.

The North American (United States) Waste Hierarchy

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) developed a four-tiered plan for
waste management decision making, to minimize waste transported to the landfill. The four tiers
from most preferred to least preferred include source reduction and reuse, recycling/composting,
energy recovery, and treatment and disposal. This is shown in Figure 4 below.

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
7
 Figure 4: North American Waste Hierarchy (US EPA, O. 2015)

The reduce and reuse section of the triangle refers to reducing the amount of waste prior to
market consumption, where the reuse stage allows the material to have another function in its
original form (US EPA, O. 2015). Examples of the reduction stage include donating items,
buying in bulk, and reducing packaging waste during the manufacturing stage of a product (US
EPA, O. 2015). The reduction stage can minimize greenhouse gas emissions, conserve energy,
and save money for businesses and consumers. The reuse stage also incorporates risk
management strategies for the environment, by assessing materials that can be used again in their
original form through refurbishing and repairing durable goods that would otherwise be
transported to the landfill (US EPA, O. 2015). An example of a reuse item would be to retread
tires for cars. The recycling/composting portion of the hierarchy incorporates the collection and
processing of waste products to be formulated as a new product, such as grinding up concrete to
be used for a new asphalt. The energy recovery method from waste takes non-recyclable
materials, and processes them via combustion, pyrolization, or landfill gas (LFG), which can be
used as a heat source, or for electricity (US EPA, O. 2015). This is commonly known as the
waste-to-energy (WTE) process. After the WTE process is complete, approximately 10% of the
volume is disposed of to the landfill in the form of ash (US EPA, O. 2015). This leads to the last
stage: treatment and disposal. The treatment stage alleviates the volume of toxic waste in the
landfill. Such methods for treatment include incineration, physical shredding of the material, and
a biological anaerobic digester additive. Typically, landfill regulation varies from state and local
governments. Once the landfill is capped, the land can be developed for recreational use such as
parks, golf courses, and even ski areas.

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
8
Of the waste consumed in 2018, paper and paperboard products were the largest percentage of
waste generated, making up 23.1% of total generation (US EPA, O. 2017). Luckily, paper and
cardboard products have declined from 87.7 million tons in 2000 to 67.4 million tons in 2018, as
a 23% decline in use (US EPA, O. 2017). Food waste was noted as the second largest
consumption category, at 21.6%, followed by yard trimmings at 12.1% of the total generation in
2018 (US EPA, O. 2017). To divert the food waste, several management methods were put in
place such as making bio-based materials, donating excess food, and using it as animal food (US
EPA, O. 2017). The decline in yard trimmings since the 1990s is due to state laws regulating
diversion of yard waste from the landfill, and transitioning to alternative disposal methods, such
as composting. Unfortunately, plastic generation grew from 8.2% in 1990 to 12% in 2018. This
increase in plastic consumption was due to packaging and containers (US EPA, O. 2017).

How Asia Manages and Disposes Waste

Asia does not have any specific regulations on waste management. There is no waste hierarchy
to help achieve more sustainable waste management. Instead, Asia uses the basic concept of
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, (“3R”) and disposal as a suitable method for handling waste (Terazono,
A. et. al 2005). Figure 5 presents what the distribution of waste is in various Asian countries. The
figure shows a high rate of landfilling. This is mainly because landfilling is a quick, inexpensive
way to dispose of waste. Asia is less developed than Europe and North America and is therefore
not as focused on improving its waste management strategies. However, because of urbanization
and economic growth, solid waste generation and management is becoming a social and
environmental issue (Terazono, A. et. al. 2005). This leads to more and more concern for waste
management and its effects, and poses a challenge to put this concept into practice.

Figure 5: Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in Asian Countries (Terazono, A. et. al. 2005).

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
9
The Combined Waste Hierarchy & Sustainable Development Goals
North America and Europe have slightly different waste hierarchies, due to various
environmental and economic conditions such as individual ecosystem services, in addition to
governmental policies in regards to waste. To develop a global standard for treatment of waste, a
global standard for monitoring waste diversion could be implemented across nations. Although
there is no “one-size-fits-all” approach to waste management, this proposed combined hierarchy
is a suggestion and could be a tracking measure for countries to monitor their waste management
strategies. The proposed global hierarchy is summarized in Figure 6 below. This contains six
major levels: Prevention, Reduction and Minimization, Reuse, Recycling and Composting,
Energy Recovery, and finally, Disposal.

Prevention refers to eliminating excess waste created from sources, such as excess packaging of
goods. The reduction and minimization stage suggests strategies focused on producing as little
waste as possible, once a product is already created. Whereas prevention is about not generating
any waste at all, reduction and minimization is focused on making the production phase more
efficient. The reuse stage occurs when waste is already being generated, where alternative
methods should be implemented to minimize waste. Rather than going directly to the recycling
phase, the reuse stage ensures that the product or goods can be reused in its original form prior to
being downcycled. If the product cannot be reused, then it will reach the recycling and
composting stage, where it will either be recycled into a different product, or disposed of as
compost, such as fertilizer. In the energy recovery stage, the materials are processed to produce
fuel, heat, and power by anaerobic digestion, and incineration. Disposal is the least favorable
aspect of the combined hierarchy, which is why it is noted as red in the diagram below. After
going through the step by step process, disposal should be the last resort of a durable good. This
is where it is disposed of in the landfill after it has attempted to make its way through the five
stages above. Products in the disposal phase go directly to the landfill and are incinerated without
energy recovery. The disposal phase is noted in red below, as a way to emphasize the damage the
disposal phase causes when the product is not efficiently designed to be recycled or reused.

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
10
 Figure 6: Combined Waste Hierarchy

The combined waste hierarchy addresses some of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs). First, SDG 12, “Responsible Consumption and Production”, is designed to target the
waste management system. This goal aims for improving the knowledge of lowering waste,
easier waste sorting systems, recycling of materials and production of heat and electricity
(United Nations and Development Programme, no date). Lowering in waste is linked to the
prevention and reduction levels. Easier waste sorting systems make it possible to recycle and
reuse more materials. The production of heat and electricity is used in the energy recovery stage
of the hierarchy. Another SDG that is more centralized on this is goal seven, “Affordable and
Clean Energy” (United Nations and Development Programme, no date). Energy recovery is a
strategy of giving purpose to waste, which is a more affordable and clean way of producing
energy rather than using coal or gas. However, as shown in the hierarchy, energy recovery is one
of the lowest stages in the pyramid, and it is thus not as sustainable as the methods earlier in the
figure. As a result of increasing economic and technological development, more products are
made, however an increase in technology production leads to additional electronic waste. In goal
nine, “Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure” is considered as a waste management strategy for
technological development. According to this target, environmentally friendly design is
necessary for infrastructure and technology development, as to mitigate excess waste from
developing new products (United Nations and Development Programme, no date). This can be
useful to expand the efficiency of energy recovery, achieve a higher rate of recyclable materials,
reuse more products, and to minimize the need for certain goods, or to prevent them altogether.
Innovation in sorting systems is also mentioned in target 6 of SDG 11, “Sustainable Cities and
Communities”. This target emphasizes the need to reduce the total amount of municipal waste
(United Nations and Development Programme, no date). To link this goal to the combined waste
hierarchy, the focus is the reduction and minimization, and recycling levels. Many sustainable

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
11
development goals are related to various parts of the waste hierarchy, and most are connected to
the higher levels of the pyramid: prevention, reduction, and recycling. Having the goals focused
on the upper stages of the hierarchy is beneficial to ensure sustainable waste management
strategies are put into practice.

3. Case Studies
Europe: Malmö, Sweden
The Swedish waste management system is based on the concept of circular economy, where
waste management should follow the hierarchy of Prevention, Reuse, Recycling materials,
Energy recovery and Landfill, in that order. This waste hierarchy should be followed for Sweden
nation-wide, but is the responsibility of the municipalities to make sure the waste is collected and
handled accordingly. Malmö is a municipality in the south of Sweden that is not excluded from
following the nation wide hierarchy and has been working towards improving the waste
management system in different ways that simplifies reuse and recycling of waste for both
citizens and private actors. This case study will connect the combined waste hierarchy in Figure
6 and sustainable development goals to the waste management system in Malmö (Avfall Sverige,
2022).

Malmö municipality has the obligation to collect and transport municipal waste, done in
collaboration with VA SYD (Vatten och Avlopp Syd), a municipal association that focuses on
waste management, drainage systems and to deliver clean water in the southwest of Sweden. The
definition of municipal waste is waste from households and waste that originates from outside
households but have similar properties as waste that could come from a household, with some
exceptions such as production waste, agricultural waste, fishing waste, sewage waste and
construction waste (Miljödepartementet, 2022). Any company that has waste other than
household waste should on request specify the type, composition, amount and waste handling
that is needed as a basis for the municipalities' waste regulations. It is also important that
household waste falling under the definition of municipal waste from companies is separated
from other types of waste. When separating the household waste, the property owner ensures this
is done correctly. Waste containers and sacks are owned by VA SYD and property owners are
not allowed to move, rebuild or damage them since it could make it difficult for the waste
collectors. The collecting of household waste is mostly done at the property, and the property
owner is responsible for making sure the waste is reachable for the waste collectors. For
collecting waste from companies, the waste is expected to be reachable without the collectors
having to pass through the premises (VA SYD, no date).

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
12
Sysav is another municipal association in Skåne that manages and recycles waste in as many
steps as possible according to the European Waste Hierarchy. Sysav manages the waste stations
in Skåne, where companies and household waste can be disposed of on their own, or have a
waste collection contract. Sysav takes care of different kinds of waste that are not considered
household waste, such as chemical waste and textiles. According to Sysav, they have recycled
98,2% of all collected waste thus far in 2022 and 62,5% of the central heating in Malmö,
including its neighboring municipality Burlöv (Sysav, 2022).

Sysav works actively with the following five of the United Nations Sustainable Development
Goals:
● Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy
● Goal 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure
● Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities
● Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production
● Goal 17: Partnerships for the goals

When it comes to Goal 7, Sysav assesses if the waste can or cannot be reused or recycled, and
instead is used to produce heat and electricity by resource effective production equipped with a
gas filtering system to hinder unwanted emissions. As mentioned before, roughly 60% of the
central heating provided in Malmö and Burlöv municipalities comes from recycled materials.
Sysav also monitors food waste and recycles to biofuel that can be used for electricity
production. This can be linked to Energy recovery from the combined waste hierarchy in Figure
6 and is the last step before disposal. In regards to SDG 9, Sysav claims they are well ahead in
their work. Sysav puts resources into innovations that can improve and develop methods and
techniques that can make waste management as sustainable as possible from an ecological,
economical and societal perspective. Sysav works with SDG 11 by improving waste
management by facilitating easier waste sorting systems, implementing effective and responsible
waste processing methods to valuable resources that can be returned to the society. The work
done by Sysav towards SDG 9 and 11 are similar and relates to improving infrastructure and new
innovations and relates to most of the steps in the combined waste hierarchy in Figure 6 since it
regards innovations, infrastructure and techniques for recycling, reusing and energy recovery.
Sysav also works with improving the knowledge about lowering the amount of waste and how to
improve waste sorting in society. Improving the knowledge of lowering waste, easier waste
sorting systems, recycling of materials and production of heat and electricity is shown by SDG
12 which can be linked to the first two steps in the combined waste hierarchy in Figure 6,
Prevention and Reduction and minimization. Finally, for SDG 17, Sysav collaborates with
different companies and associations that want to develop sustainable business ideas with several
research projects regarding the subject of improving waste management and recycling on both an

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
13
international and national scale. For example one project, related to reusage, currently in practice
is SIPTex, which is the first ever large-scale sorting facility for textiles (Sysav, 2022).

Improvements for Waste Management in Europe

In 2015 a circular economy plan was introduced in the EU to create a more sustainable and
competitive economy. This also meant an introduction to new directives regarding waste
management, such as the waste hierarchy seen in Figure 3. This new circular economy plan has
four main targets regarding waste management. The first target is to make sustainable products
the norm in the EU by putting demands on products on the market to be easy to reuse, repair or
recycle as well as putting more pressure on using recycled material in production, which relates
to the steps in the middle of the waste hierarchy. The second target is to clearly inform customers
about the product they buy, such as information regarding durability and repairability so that
they can make more sustainable choices. This relates to the first step in the hierarchy called
prevention. Another target is to put more focus on making sectors with high resource demand to
minimize their waste and increase their recycling. To minimize waste and increase recycling in
total is the fourth target and is a lot more broad than the first three targets and includes
minimizing export of waste and creating a more clear concept of waste management in the EU
(Severin et.al, 2020).

Municipal waste is a new definition of a waste category and is considered by the EU as

household waste from households, businesses and public institutions in a municipality. This new
definition is meant to ensure that countries within the EU have a similar definition to waste so
that it can be tracked and managed easier. Municipal waste corresponds to about one quarter of
the total waste in the EU (EEA, 2022). This is something the EU wants to change and are
therefore setting goals to minimize municipal waste and increase recycling. By 2025, the EU set
a goal where 55% of all municipal waste should be recycled, and this goal is to increase by 5%
every fifth year until the year 2035. Directives to minimize waste from product packaging and
decrease the amount of waste that goes to landfills have also been introduced. One of these
directives states that 70% of product packaging should be recycled by 2030 and is the
responsibility of the EU to ensure that this goal is reached in each respective country. When it
comes to the amount of waste in landfills, the goal is that no more than 10% of the total waste
should go to landfill by 2035, which is the last step in the hierarchy (Severin et.al, 2020).

To ensure these goals are being met the recycling capacity within the EU is in the progress of
expanding. This is not only a result of the above mentioned directives but also a new directive
that states that the EU will not export waste to third world countries as well as China’s import
ban on several types of waste, forcing EU to take care of their own waste. This step towards
minimizing the so-called “waste tourism” is considered a positive change regarding waste

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
14
management since it can minimize the risk of bad waste management in ill-equipped countries,
create job opportunities as well as increase and improve the production and usage of recycled
material at a local level (Severin et.al, 2020).

North America: San Francisco, United States

In April 2022, San Francisco was ranked the number one most sustainable city in the United
States (Lawnstarter, 2022). This city has been unique in its waste management diversion
techniques since 2002, when they adopted the goal to divert 75% of waste by 2010 through
sorting strategies (US EPA, O. 2017). The goal was reached two years early, in 2008
(Lawnstarter, 2022). Then, in 2009, San Francisco adopted a “Mandatory Recycling and
Composting Ordinance”, requiring residents and businesses to separate recyclables, compost,
and residual waste (Brigham, K. no date). San Francisco diverts its residual food waste to local
farmers, where it can be used as fertilizer. This city has also banned plastic bags and styrofoam
packaging, to eliminate excess hazardous waste in the area (Brigham, K. no date). To encourage
composting and recycling behaviors, the city enacted collection rates much higher for plastic and
residual waste than that of compostable and recyclable products. The city has also set limits on
recycling bin sizes to encourage higher percentages of efficient waste diversion. On a residential
scale, bin sizes vary for each type of waste: 242 L for a recycling bin, 121 L bin for composting,
and a maximum of 60 L for residual waste (Recology, no date). The conventional sizes for trash
bins vary across each state and city. For example, in Huntington Beach, Southern California,
trash cans come in 159 L sizes, with a standard cost of approximately $26/month, regardless of
trash can size (City of Huntington Beach, CA - Trash & Recycling Fees, no date). This city does
not have recycling programs as elaborate as San Francisco. This therefore decreases incentives to
minimize municipal waste, whereas San Francisco charges $43/month for the base bin sizes,
with an upward cost of $74/month for larger trash can sizes (Recology, no date). Businesses in
San Francisco, on the other hand, are charged for the amount of waste they produce, and receive
discounts for correctly sorting their waste (Recology, no date). If compostables end up in
landfill, businesses are then charged for missorting the trash.

On a national scale, the average American produces 2 kg of waste per day, and only 34% of that
daily waste is recycled, according to a report completed in 2018 (US EPA, O. 2017). San
Francisco, however, diverts 80% of its waste to the landfill, saving over 1.5 million tons of waste
away from landfills. San Francisco aims to achieve zero waste by recycling, composting,
reusing, and reducing consumption so no waste ends up in landfills or incinerated (US EPA, O.
2017). San Francisco has diverted roughly 93,437 metric tons of CO2 equivalent/year from
diverting compostable waste to the landfill alone (US EPA, O. 2017).

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
15
Implementing the combined hierarchy proposed in section two would be a smarter alternative to
the current waste hierarchy, as it would incorporate a key step that San Francisco (and many
other states), are lacking. For example, the North American hierarchy does not consider the
“Prevention” aspect, but heavily considers the “Composting” stage in the hierarchy. By
allocating more efforts to the prevention stage of the hierarchy, excess food waste, plastic waste,
and yard waste would have a trickle down effect, where less waste is produced in each section
overall. Additionally, San Francisco heavily focuses on the reuse, recycling, and composting
stages of the hierarchy, which is located in the central section of the triangle. Instead, if the city
pivots its efforts toward prevention, reduction, and minimization, there will be a higher
percentage of waste diversion from the landfill. While these efforts are managed on a local
governmental level, they are still achievable given the immense action San Francisco has taken
toward achieving its waste diversion goals.

Improvements for Waste Management in North America

One practice the US EPA has implemented is the Waste Reduction Model (WARM), which
works in conjunction with the waste hierarchy to estimate economic impacts from waste
management practices such as recycling, anaerobic digestion, combustion, composting, and
landfill (US EPA’s Warm Tool, no date). WARM is a computer software tool to estimate
greenhouse gas emissions, calculating energy units for several material types found in municipal
waste. Emissions are calculated based on taxes ($), wages ($), labor hours, energy units (British
Thermal Units, BTUs), and Metric Tons of CO2 Equivalent (MTCO2E) (US EPA’s Warm Tool,
no date). Rather than calculating the amount of emissions released from materials in the landfill,
this calculation based tool compares emissions associated with the material LCA under a more
sustainable scenario, such as Waste Management Hierarchy practices. It calculates an energy
savings rather than an energy emission (US EPA’s Warm Tool, no date). This tool was designed
in 1998, but has made significant improvements to date. WARM now recognizes the emissions
from 60 material types, from mixed paper, to food waste, and even electronic waste (US EPA, O.
2016b). WARM does include several types of plastics as well, including Low-Density
Polyethylene (LDPE), and High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) (US EPA, O. 2016b).

Many communities use WARM as a waste management modeling technique to model scenarios
to reduce emissions, where organizations can determine which materials to target when
monitoring waste emissions. Some examples include whether recycling corrugated cardboard
versus incinerating it is more or less effective than targeting electronic waste reduction, such as
personal laptops. This strategy analyzes several outcomes by analyzing which solid waste
material leads to a larger emission reduction if sources are reduced. In the state of Colorado, for
example, WARM has been used as a method to set targets for reducing tons of materials or GHG
of emissions (Inventory Case 4: City of Ft. Collins, Colorado, no date). A case study completed

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
16
in 2009 revealed that 40% of materials disposed of in the landfills by the community can be
recycled or composted (Inventory Case 4: City of Ft. Collins, Colorado, no date). Once WARM
was used as an estimation tool, the city could estimate the anticipated savings from their existing
recycling programs, and implemented new Pay As You Throw (PAYT) to divert excess waste
from the landfill (Inventory Case 4: City of Ft. Collins, Colorado, no date).

Asia: Chennai, India

Chennai, located along the Bay of Bengal in South India, holds a population of above eleven
million, making it one of the top 30 most populous urban areas/cities in the world. Having such a
high population also comes with numerous challenges, such as waste management. This includes
collecting, sorting, treatmenting, recycling waste, prevention and reuse.

According to the Waste-to-Energy Research and Technology Council (WTERT), Chennai

generates about 0.71 kg of garbage per capita every day, which is the highest amount in the
country followed by Kolkata at 0.66 kg, then Delhi and Hyderabad at 0.65 kg (TNPCB, 2021 &
“Chennai’s per capita waste at 0.7kg highest in country,” 2014). The total solid waste generation
in Tamil Nadu is 13250 tonnes/day, with around 5000 tonnes/day generated in Chennai alone
(TNPCB, 2021 & “Chennai’s per capita waste at 0.7kg highest in country,” 2014).

The Greater Chennai Corporation consists of various departments, focusing on solid waste
management, storm water drainage, and various special projects. The solid waste management
department includes primary collection, secondary collection (transportation), and waste
disposal. The best practices used for waste management include collecting solid waste at the
source, using media and communication as an awareness mechanism, and creating compost
plants for large volumes of waste. The various types of decentralized compost plants include
ordinary compost, vermi-Compost, biogas, and bio-electrical (BARC) waste types. The
stormwater drain department monitors the construction of stormwater drains and canals, in
addition to the improvement of the micro and macro stormwater drainage network. It is
important to understand the need for stormwater drainage systems, as Chennai is largely affected
by storm waste due to excess flooding caused by heavy rains. The excess flooding is a recent,
negative impact as a result of climate change. However, part of the excess flooding issue is due
to the poor planning and construction of the storm water drain system. The special project
department deals with the new improvements that are done in the city, with the smart city funds
that are allocated by the union government (“Welcome to Greater Chennai Corporation,” no
date).

Plastic Pollution Free Tamil Nadu, a statewide campaign established in 2019, has a vision to
make the state free from plastic pollution, thereby improving the quality of life. The main

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
17
mission was to eradicate single-use plastics from society, and a special task force created as a
result. The waste management approach of the Tamil Nadu government is based on the 2016
Solid Waste Management Rules, and the 2016 Plastic Waste Management Rules, which were
created by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, and the Government of
India. Local bodies are responsible for the collection, transportation, processing, recycling,
treatment, and disposal, as per the 2016 Rules. There was also an Initiative called “Meendum
Manjappai”, where the government installed cloth bag vending machines in public places to
encourage the public to use cloth bags as a substitute for single-use plastic bags (“Plastic
Pollution Free Tamil Nadu,” no date). A ban was created in 2019 for throwaway plastics
including plastic cling film used for food wrapping, plastic plates, plastic coating on paper cups,
plastic tea cups, tumblers, straws, and carry bags. Alternatives suggested for the single use
plastics, for example, include: plantain leaves, lotus leaves, bamboo, paper straws, and cloth
bags. Community cooperation is seen as the major factor which makes an impact per the
government's campaign.

The government has also created several special task forces that inspect shops and seize banned
plastics. If caught, business owners are subject to pay fines. Roughly 50,000 shops were
inspected and around 20,000 kg of the banned single-use plastics were seized between August
2021 and March 2022 (S, 2022). This ban has been imposed within 15 zones of the city. There
were also meetings held with plastic manufacturers associations in 2022, to discuss awareness
mechanisms of banning plastic waste. Roughly 5,000 cloth bags were distributed in wholesale
markets to combat single-use plastics (S, 2022). Banning the plastics is also important in regards
to the flash floods, so the canals do not get clogged. In 2022, the Greater Chennai Corporation
removed around 180 tons of solid plastic waste from canals (S, 2022).

Getting entirely rid of plastic bags is a slow and lengthy process, as Chennai relies heavily on the
use of disposable/single-use plastic bags, which is a significant environmental hazard. India is
the third-largest producer of disposable plastic waste, coming after China and the United States
(Yasir, 2022). This is mainly because in most parts of India, throwaway single-use plastic bags
are used for shopping, and food is often served in single-use plates and trays. However, the
future looks promising with its current campaigns, such as the one in place by the Tamil Nadu
Government (Yasir, 2022).

Improvements for Waste Management in Asia

To improve plastic waste management in the Greater Chennai area, the Chennai Corporation has
suggested the substitution of compostable plastics to conventional plastics, in addition to bulk

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
18
waste generators, and implementing the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) strategy. These
all come under Plastic Waste Management (PWM) by-laws.

The usage of ‘compostable plastics’ is permitted by by-laws. Plastics that could undergo biological
decomposition during the composting process to yield carbon dioxide, water, inorganic
compounds, and biomass, are termed compostable plastics. There is a need for sophisticated
composting facilities for compostable plastics, as they cannot be composted at home or
decomposed naturally in gardens. These composting facilities should have a specific temperature,
water content, aerobic conditions, carbon/nitrogen ratio, and processing conditions for this process.
As there are still certain uncertainties concerning the biodegradability of compostable plastics in
an open environment, and also their toxic nature until they fully degrade. In absence of proper
scientific evidence, the approval for these plastics would be counterproductive. The GCC has
therefore banned compostable plastics until there is proper scientific evidence that supports the
material and infrastructure for separate composting of these plastics are in place. (“Five ways
Chennai Corporation can improve its Plastic Waste Management (PWM) by-laws | CAG,” no
date).

Multi-layered plastic (MLP) is a type of plastic that must be specially mentioned in the plastic
waste management rules, as its non-recyclable and non-energy recoverable should not be used in
the Greater Chennai Corporation limits. MLP consists of at least one layer of plastic, that is
sandwiched between the paper board, polymeric material, or aluminum foils. Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) will lead to more products being diverted from disposal. It creates more jobs
and products that are redesigned so that they can be made more durable, recyclable, and less toxic.
This leads to immense cost savings for the local government. Bulk Waste Generators can be placed
at any residential building, or institution that creates more than 100 kg of waste per day. This
includes shopping malls, marriage halls, restaurants, hotels, and apartments. The by-laws mandate
segregating the plastic waste at the source (“Five ways Chennai Corporation can improve its
Plastic Waste Management (PWM) by-laws | CAG,” no date)

Recently, a municipal solid waste combustor plant was developed indigenously by the Indian
Institute of Technology-Madras (IIT-M) researchers at the Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
(BHEL) facility in Trichy. The plant uses “Rotary Furnace Technology” to process the
unsegregated municipal solid waste. The technology is the first of its kind in India. It can process
up to one ton of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in a day and generate steam, along with clean
gaseous emissions. Ash is produced as a by-product. This process is rather time intensive, taking
about six months from installation to commissioning (“IIT-M develops tech to take on rising solid
waste issue,” 2022).

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
19
The MSW generated in India is around 133 million tons a year, of which 85% end up in landfills
(TNPCB, 2021). In Tamil Nadu alone it is around 14,600 tons per day, with around 5,400 tons
generated per day in Chennai alone (TNPCB, 2021). After segregation, the bio-organic waste can
be utilized for composting, vermicomposting, and biogas production. More than 2,2500 tons of
bio-inorganic waste such as plastics and high calorific matter are dumped in landfills. With MSW
generation increasing at the rate of 1.3% per year, the Indian solid waste management industry is
said to be worth $13.62 billion by 2025 (TNPCB, 2021). This plant was a project funded by BHEL
and the Union Ministry of Education as a part of the Ucchatar Avishkaar Yojana (UAY) project.
This plant is also in relations with the Swachh Bharat Mission. Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean
India Mission) is a country-wide campaign initiated by the government of India in 2014, with aims
toward eliminating open defecation and improving solid waste management (“IIT-M develops tech
to take on rising solid waste issue,” 2022).

There are also several startups in Chennai that contribute towards cleaning waste using new and
innovative technologies. One startup is Samudhyoga, which started as a five-member team
participating in a ‘Carbon Zero Challenge’ organized by the US Embassy in collaboration with IIT
Madras. This startup aims to create a decentralized plastic waste treatment system that can handle
the non-recyclable plastic waste (Mathew, 2021). Since only 9% of plastic waste was recycled
globally, the startup wanted to get seed funds in 2019 (Mathew, 2021). They use Decentralized
Zero Emission Energy-efficient Pyrolysis (DZEEP), which converts 1,000 kg of plastic (mixed
plastic, multi-layered plastic, and polyolefin) into 800 liters of oil, with zero emissions and high
performance through pyrolysis (Mathew, 2021). Roughly 2,500 feet of land is required for the
plant (Mathew, 2021). The oil generated can be used as furnace oil with an appropriate proportion
of diesel, to produce steam in boilers. By efficiently converting plastic waste into oil, this startup
has a small part to play in saving the ocean and earth from microplastics (Mathew, 2021).

4. Discussion
The case studies show that there are many different approaches for waste management strategies.
San Francisco and Malmö have established a local sorting system that is dependent on the people
and companies within the city to sort their household waste correctly. To make sure the citizens
do this properly, the two cities have different approaches. In San Francisco, for example,
economic incentives by collection rates and discounts are the main focus for incentivizing waste
diversion properly. Malmö, however, also uses economic incentives, but instead focuses on
providing good infrastructure and information sharing. Chennai, on the other hand, has minimal
waste management strategies, and focuses on treating the waste after it has been collected.
Rather than having the traditional waste hierarchy, Asia focuses on the “reduce, reuse, and
recycle” methods, which does not cover the prevention stage of waste mitigation. Therefore,

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
20
Chennai incorporates several policies through their WTERT Council and enacts policies by
charging extra fees for plastics, for example, as enacted by Plastic Pollution Free Tamil Nadu
Council.

When it comes to recycling and composting, San Francisco and Chennai both work with
composting waste and use it for agricultural purposes, whereas the Malmö municipality does not
clearly state how excess composting materials are circulated back into the environment. Malmö
municipality also uses waste as fuel for central heating, which is not a major highlight for San
Francisco and Chennai, which could be explained by the differences in climates. For example,
Malmö may require more energy for heating than Chennai and San Francisco, and therefore
focuses on harnessing excess waste for the energy recovery stage.

A major difference between the cities is that Chennai focuses on waste management related to
storm waste, as heavy rain and flooding has become a major concern for this city in the recent
years. Flooding is not currently an issue in San Francisco and Malmö, as these cities have well
equipped drainage systems. Chennai’s main focus is minimizing plastic waste. While San
Francisco and Malmö also focus on this aspect, it is not as much of a larger scale issue because
of their current waste sorting policies enacted on a local level.

Another trend that can be seen in both the EU and North America is the policy making strategies
to establish a more uniform classification, as shown by the waste hierarchy. This will make it
easier to keep track of waste management on a more international or cross-state level since the
definitions on certain waste types, like household waste, differ between countries or states. This
increases the knowledge of the public and minimizes confusion when discussing and making
decisions about waste management on a global level.

Global Efforts for Improving Waste Management

While waste management efforts vary across continents, the United Nations created a treaty on
Plastic Pollution Management. As declared by the UN, plastic pollution has been increasing
exponentially, currently amounting to 400 million tons per year. This statistic is expected to
double by 2040 (United Nations Environmental Program, May 2022).

This treaty was established in March 2022, with goals to omit single-use plastic waste.
According to the Executive Director of the UNEP, this treaty “is the most significant
environmental multilateral deal since the Paris Accord” (United Nations Environmental
Program, May 2022). This legally binding agreement was signed by 175 countries in March
2022, and plans to end plastic pollution by 2024 (United Nations Environmental Program, May
2022). Rather than providing a waste management approach, this treaty is designed to analyze

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
21
the prevention phase of plastics. The resolution reviews the full life cycle of plastic, from
production, to design, and finally disposal. In conjunction with the United Nations
Environmental Program (UNEP), a forum at the end of 2022 will be held to discuss best
practices for plastic waste prevention globally, by facilitating discussions designed to inform
nations of progress until 2024. The UNEP will also work with businesses and governments to
develop strategies away from single-use plastics.

The UNEA Resolution 5/14 outlines the strategies in place to reach the 2024 goal of eliminating
plastic waste. The resolution recommends implementing circular economy approaches by
investing in a financial framework under operative four (United Nations Environmental Program,
May 2022). Furthermore, the resolution emphasizes the efforts needed to change the design of
plastics, in addition to assessing progress of plastic waste management. While not much progress
has happened since the strategies and forums will begin taking place this autumn, the resolution
outlines the major goals needed to accomplish plastic waste reduction.

5. Conclusion
There are many environmental consequences for not managing waste properly, such as
environmental hazards for ecosystems, as well as human health. Both global and local efforts are
required for reducing the waste, and the waste hierarchy is one global tactic that can be used for
waste management. From the research above, it is clear that the more advanced waste
management strategies are implemented in more developed economies, where clear policies can
be in practice by local governments. This is seen by San Francisco and Malmö, where there are
stricter regulations in place for waste sorting in comparison to Chennai, where the “3R” method
is the main tactic for waste management. The waste hierarchy constitutes a strong effort to
mitigate waste production, as the earlier stages of the hierarchy focus on mitigation, prevention
and reuse. The development of the combined hierarchy incorporates two strongly developed
continents: Europe and North America, which can be a model for more developing continents,
such as Asia and Africa.

As populations continue to grow, more effective and efficient waste management strategies are
necessary to reduce excess waste from production and consumption of durable goods.
Sustainable waste management strategies continue to develop, as economies become more
affluent and develop strict policies, in addition to acknowledging global frameworks, such as the
2022 Treaty on Plastic Pollution Management. A standard, general guideline for waste
management, such as the waste hierarchy, is one strategy adopted by the Americas and Europe,
and can be a viable solution for Asia, as the continent continues to develop.

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
22
References
2022’s Most Sustainable Cities in America (2022) Lawnstarter. Available at:
https://www.lawnstarter.com/blog/studies/most-sustainable-cities/ (Accessed: 14 November
2022).

Avfall Sverige. Swedish Waste Management, July 2022.

https://www.avfallsverige.se/media/lbdg3vcp/svensk_avfallshantering_2021_en.pdf. (Accessed:
14 November 2022).

Brigham, K. (no date) How San Francisco sends less trash to the landfill than any other major
U.S. city, CNBC. Available at: https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/13/how-san-francisco-became-a-
global-leader-in-waste-management.html (Accessed: 14 November 2022).

‘CEWEP - The Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants’ (no date). Available at:
https://www.cewep.eu/what-is-waste-to-energy/ (Accessed: 16 November 2022).

Chennai’s per capita waste at 0.7kg highest in country (2014) Times India. Available at:
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/chennais-per-capita-waste-at-0-7kg-highest-in-
country/articleshow/28256852.cms (Accessed: 14 November 2022).

City of Huntington Beach, CA - Trash & Recycling Fees (no date). Available at:
https://www.huntingtonbeachca.gov/government/departments/finance/municipal-services-
payments/trash-refuse-and-recycling-fees/ (Accessed: 14 November 2022).

Davies, R. (2021) ‘What Is a Waste Management Hierarchy? | Axil-IS’, Axil Integrated Services,
6 August. Available at: https://axil-is.com/blogs-articles/waste-management-hierarchy/
(Accessed: 16 November 2022).

Diversion of waste from landfill in Europe (no date). Available at:

https://www.eea.europa.eu/ims/diversion-of-waste-from-landfill (Accessed: 16 November 2022).

European Commision (no date). Waste prevention and management - Environment - European
Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/green-growth/waste-prevention-and-
management/index_en.htm (Accessed: 16 November 2022).

European Environment Agency (no date a). Diversion of waste from landfill in Europe.
Available at: https://www.eea.europa.eu/ims/diversion-of-waste-from-landfill (Accessed: 16
November 2022).

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
23
European Environment Agency. ”Reaching 2030’s residual municipal waste target — why
recycling is not enough”. European Environment Agency, 07 juli 2022.
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/reaching-2030s-residual-municipal-waste. (Accessed: 25
November 2022).

European Environment Agency (no date b). Waste: a problem or a resource. Available at:
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/signals-2014/articles/waste-a-problem-or-a-resource
(Accessed: 16 November 2022).

European Environment Agency (no date c). Waste recycling in Europe. Available at:
https://www.eea.europa.eu/ims/waste-recycling-in-europe (Accessed: 16 November 2022).

Figure 3: The waste hierarchy as described in the EU Waste Framework... (no date)
ResearchGate. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-waste-hierarchy-as-
described-in-the-EU-Waste-Framework-Directive-14_fig3_339796148 (Accessed: 16 November
2022).

Five ways Chennai Corporation can improve its Plastic Waste Management (PWM) by-laws |
CAG. Available at: https://www.cag.org.in/newsletters/public-newsense/five-ways-chennai-
corporation-can-improve-its-plastic-waste-management (Accessed: 2 December 2022)

Food to the Rescue: San Francisco Composting (no date) NRDC. Available at:
https://www.nrdc.org/resources/san-francisco-composting (Accessed: 14 November 2022).

Historic day in the campaign to beat plastic pollution: Nations commit to develop a legally
binding agreement (2022) UN Environment. Available at: http://www.unep.org/news-and-
stories/press-release/historic-day-campaign-beat-plastic-pollution-nations-commit-develop
(Accessed: 14 November 2022).

IIT-M develops tech to take on rising solid waste issue [WWW Document], 2022. . Deccan Her.
Available at: https://www.deccanherald.com/national/south/iit-m-develops-tech-to-take-on-
rising-solid-waste-issue-1113023.html (Accessed: 2 December 2022)

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
24
Inventory Case 4: City of Ft. Collins, Colorado (inventory) | West Coast Climate and Materials
Management Forum (no date). Available at: https://westcoastclimateforum.com/casestudy/ city-
ft-collins-colorado-inventory (Accessed: 14 November 2022).

Mathew, A.A., 2021. This Chennai startup is recycling about 250 kg of plastic waste per day
entering the sea. YourStory.com. Available at:
https://yourstory.com/socialstory/2021/04/chennai-startup-single-use-plastic-recycling-
samudhyoga-waste-chakra (Accessed: 2 December 2022)

Miljödepartementet. Miljöbalk. Regeringskansliet, 2022.

https://rkrattsbaser.gov.se/sfst?bet=1998:808. (Accessed: 25 November 2022).

S, M.I., 2022. Drive against single-use plastics intensified, Greater Chennai Corporation tells
Madras HC. The Hindu. Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/drive-
against-single-use-plastics-intensified-corporation-tells-hc/article65246870.ece (Accessed: 14
November 2022)

Sysav. Så Jobbar Sysav Med FNs Globala Hållbarhetsmål, April 8, 2022.

https://www.sysav.se/om-oss/miljo-och-
hallbarhet/Sa_jobbar_Sysav_med_FNs_globala_hallbarhetsmal/. (Accessed: 15 November
2022).

Tackling Increasing Plastic Waste (no date). Available at: https://datatopics.worldbank.org/

what-a-waste/tackling_increasing_plastic_waste.html (Accessed: 16 November 2022).
Terazono, A. et. al (2005). Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. Waste Management
and Recycling in Asia. Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 447-498.

The Hidden Damage of Landfills (2021) Environmental Center. Available at:

https://www.colorado.edu/ecenter/2021/04/15/hidden-damage-landfills (Accessed: 16 November
2022).

The World Bank (no date a.). Solid Waste Management. Available at:
https://www.worldbank.org /en/topic/urbandevelopment/brief/solid-waste-management
(Accessed: 22 November 2022).

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
25
The World Bank (no date b.). Trends in Solid Waste Management. Available at:
https://datatopics.worldbank.org/what-a-waste/trends_in_solid_waste_management.html
(Accessed: 22 November 2022).

Thompson, D. (2012) 2.6 Trillion Pounds of Garbage: Where Does the World’s Trash Go?, The
Atlantic. Available at:https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2012/06/26-trillion-pounds-
of-garbage-where-does-the-worlds-trash-go/258234/ (Accessed: 16 November 2022).

Plastic Pollution Free Tamil Nadu (no date). Available at:

https://tnpcb.gov.in/PPFTN/vision&mission.php (Accessed: 14 November 2022)

Recology (no date) Rates, Recology. Available at: https://www.recology.com/recology-san-

francisco/rates/ (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

United Nations and Development Programme (no date) Sustainable Development Goals | United
Nations Development Programme, UNDP. Available at: https://www.undp.org/sustainable-
development-goals (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

United Nations Environmental Program (May 2022). UNEA Resolution 5/14 entitled ‘End
Plastic Pollution: Towards an International Legally Binding Instrument.’ United Nations
Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environmental Programme Fifth Session.

US EPA, O. (2015) Waste Management Hierarchy and Homeland Security Incidents. Available
at: https://www.epa.gov/homeland-security-waste/waste-management-hierarchy-and-homeland -
security-incidents (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

US EPA, O. (2016a) Basic Information about the Waste Reduction Model (WARM). Available at:
https://www.epa.gov/warm/basic-information-about-waste-reduction-model-warm (Accessed: 14
November 2022).

US EPA, O. (2016b) Documentation for the Waste Reduction Model (WARM). Available at:
https://www.epa.gov/warm/documentation-waste-reduction-model-warm (Accessed: 14
November 2022).

US EPA, O. (2017) National Overview: Facts and Figures on Materials, Wastes and Recycling.
Available at:https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/
national-overview-facts-and-figures-materials (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
26
US EPA’s Warm Tool | West Coast Climate and Materials Management Forum (no date).
Available at: https://westcoastclimateforum.com/content/us-epas-warm-tool (Accessed: 14
November 2022).

VA SYD. FÖRESKRIFTER FÖR AVFALLSHANTERING, no date.

https://malmo.se/download/18.63ff91a0177da8ae74357f6/1615196588649/Avfallsf%C3%B6res
krifter%202021-2030_burl%C3%B6v-malm%C3%B6.pdf. (Accessed: 15 November 2022).

Varbova, Venelina, Astrid Severin, and Ruslan Zhechkov. Sustainable Waste Management in a
Circular Economy. Policy Learning Platform on Environment and resource efficiency, March
2020.
https://www.interregeurope.eu/sites/default/files/inline/Policy_brief_on_waste_management.pdf.
(Accessed: 25 November 2022).

Waste Framework Directive (no date). Available at:https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/

waste-and-recycling/waste-framework-directive_en (Accessed: 1 December 2022).

Waste prevention and management - Environment - European Commission (no date). Available
at: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/green-growth/waste-prevention-and-management/index_
en.htm (Accessed: 16 November 2022).

Waste recycling in Europe (no date). Available at: https://www.eea.europa.eu/ims/waste-

recycling-in-europe (Accessed: 16 November 2022).

Welcome to Greater Chennai Corporation (no date) Available at:

https://chennaicorporation.gov.in/gcc/department/ (Accessed: 15 November 2022)

What you need to know about the plastic pollution resolution (2022) UNEP. Available at:
http://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/what-you-need-know-about-plastic-pollution-
resolution (Accessed: 14 November 2022).

Yasir, S., 2022. As India Takes On Throwaway Plastic, This State Shows How It’s Done. N. Y.
Times. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/31/world/asia/india-plastic-ban.html
(Accessed: 15 November 2022)

Lunds Tekniska Högskola

FMIF20: Environmental Issues
Autumn Term 2022
27