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65 views11 pagesDesign 1
design-1-criteria design
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 11
Functional requirements
Bridge wiath
a Commuter trai
ae = Rusnhowr
&
Tale can Pt
Pedestrian concentration
5 apy pean Serta
cay 025 5 ya PH PS A) 9H 2H
‘Pin
6 Wiest
10
Fig. 5 shows dependencies of various
pedostrian flows, which can be defined
ina linear relationship between trafic,
density and speed. In the case of event
traffic for example, the following function
results
v=-0.45-d+ 1.55 [m/s] Ul)
Ityou are designing a pedestian bridge
with a maximum flow capacity, Q, for
2 certain type of pedestrian vattic, the
density and speed at which this value
is at ts maximum must be identified,
Using (in (I) results in a quactatie func:
tion for event tate Fig. 6).
Q=-0,45- a2 + 1,85- 0 [P/m-s]
‘Tis function has its maximum at a speod
and related density of v = 0.78 m/s and
d= 1,72 Pim, Its capacity would there-
{ore be 4.829 P/h per metre of bridge
width. Conversely, a bridge's required
‘width can be calculated oased on the
capacity called for. Ifthe requirement is,
for example, that 15,000 people should
be able to leave @ large-scale event
within 10 minutes, the pedestrian bridge
will have to be 18,63 m wide,
It hauld also be noted that these ara
maximum values, wich should be used
tomanage large numbers of pedestrians
and pravent the tisk of panic breaking
‘ut in very dense crowds of people,
Many pedestrian bridges rarely or never
reach the limits of the capacity, Thelr
function doas however often determine
their width, ensuring that pedestrians or
pedestrians and cyclists can move easily
fon the bridge without getting in each
other's way. This resulls in most cases
in usable widths of 2.50 to 3.50 m,
While static loads do not depend on a
bridge's use, itis recommended that Tronhiy fra rail
Sonal ra, ati)
+ Brceptons
Usage: ‘Comfort classes:
SSRI ax. vat) (20% Mase
Sse mane)
= Gea Mmm
+ Co Unaceontable
“Trae classes:
"To! very Fgh (<0.2 Pi)
Tortght 2 Pim)
‘Tesheaty SP im)
Tot very heavy (10 Pt
Top exceptenal heavy (1.5 Pi
d 1
I
Sate actors
Visraton benavour
‘Goncenvaton of pedestiane
distinctions be made between various
dosign situations in considering dynamic
aspects,
Acistinetion is made between trafic
classes, which basically define concen-
trations of pedestrians, and comfort
classes, which determine how much
a pedestrian bridge can be allowed to
vibrate and what speeds are permissible
onit. These trafic classes are divided
Into five categories ranging trom very
light tatfic with a density of less than
(0.2 Pm? up to exceptionally heavy traffic
of 1.5 Prim’, The comfort classes are
divided into four categories defining
requirements on the dynamic behaviour
of bridges. Class CC1 allows for lats of
movornent, in a suspension bridge for
hikers, for example, By contrast, Class
(6G4 allows only very slight movement, for
inner-city bridges, for example (Fig. 7)
‘Those classifications must be individually
applied depending on the planned use of
the bridge and dynamic considerations
then based on thom. This approach is
not regulated in any particular standard
it was developed based on the results
of the research project RFS-CR-02019
Advanced Load Models for Synchro-
nous Pedestrian Excitation anc Optimised
Design Guidelines for Steel Footbridges
(SYNPEX)« [1]
Nevigaten charnol
a
Clearance
Podostiian bridges cross a very diverse
spectrum of obstacles, ranging from val-
leye and rivers, roads and paths right
Up to allway lines. A clearance gauge
is defined for all existing trafic routes,
A clearance gauge is a line defining an
‘open space that must be kepl free of
objects of any kind, including built struc
‘ures. Fig. 8 shows typical clearances
for waterways, railway tracks, roads and
paths. The clearance gauge prescribed
‘or the traffic route or waterway to be
crossed will determine a bridge’s height
in many cases. The clearance gauge for
a waterway also depends on the highest
waler level of the river being crossed.
Depending on use of the route as a road
or rallway line or for shipping, adjacent
structural olamants must also be do-
signed to take impact loads. Compared
‘with other impacts on a pedestrian bridge,
‘these loads are very high and can thus.
determine dimensions in a bridge's
design. Is advisable to avoid pasition-
ing structural elements in those critical
areas as far as possible in the design.
A clearance gauge often has to be
maintained during construction and
may only be lited for very brief breaks,
which can have decisive effects on the
process of manufacturing and installing
a bridge.
Functional requirements
Glearance
1 Overiow of commen stands ules fer pecs
Wan brdges wert
2. Pedesian bags wit ight vate: comierabe
free rovemen’ an overasng i posse.
4: Peden rns ey ae ae:
verent'spossibie overlong may be
4 Pedestrian begs ith very hea at
Free movements estcted overakong no hnger
possble
The relionship between speed and atic dent
ty depends onthe ype of Waie
1 Capacty @ inpersons per second por a of
badge wate
Nargnal conctions er fotbage design
yplesl cesrance gouges:
"Been b aleve Foopatn d Road
Waterways
Depending on the extent and type of
Use by shipping, rivers and canals are
subject to a range of very different clear-
ance requirements, which are prescribed
by local offices of the Waterways and
Shipping Acminstration (Wasser- und
Schifffahrisamter—WSA). For some rivers
there is ro specified clearance gauge,
on others thoy cover the waterway's entiro
width
Itmay also be partly necessary to keap
banks clear to prevent damaged ships
from endangering a pedestrian bridge's,
stability. On some shipping routes there
are also “danger zones" if parts of a
bridge's support structure are positioned
in those zones, thay and the bridge must
bbe able to bear the impact of a collision,
Which is simulated eithor through a single
static load or by compensation (diss pa-
tion) by a prescribed impact absorption,
‘This is designed to pravant bridges trom
collapsing if, for example, a ship’s super
structure is torn off while the ship is pass-
ing under the bridge. Its often advisable
to avoid these large impact loads and
danger zones, even if the consequent
higher position of the superstructure re-
sults in longer ramps,
" Functional requirements
Route layout and access
allway ines
Podestrian bridges near railways bear
the risk of people coming into contact
with ive electrical parts and being injured
as a result. Protective measures such as
distance or barriers must be adopted to
prevent this ftom occurring. A protective
distance from live parts accessible to
contact is regarded as sufficient when
thera is a radius of at laast 3.50 m from
where a person would be standing, The
DIN EN 50 122-1 standard on »Railway
applications - Fixed installations ~ Electr-
cal safety, earthing and the return circuit
provides more orecise details on this
topic. If this distance cannot be adhered
to, barriers preventing direct contact
must be installed. Their implomentation
depends on the position of the bridge
floor and the distance betwaen the bart-
fers and the Ive parts. The dimensions
of bartiers must be chosen so that the
live parts accessible to contact cannot
bbe unintentionally touched by someone
reaching out ina straight line.
‘Tho Federal Highway Rosoarch Institute
(Bundesanstalt far StraBenwesen - BAS
publishes “Civil Engineering Specifica’
tion Diagrams”, (»Richtzeicnnungen fur
Ingenieurbauten« —RiZ-ING), while the
German railway company, Deutsche Bahn,
12
regulates such matters in its guideline
997.0101 and specification diagrams FBS
92.08.19, Barriers to prevent people from
touching I've parts can be installed in the
{orm of horizontal or vertical obstacles,
such as plates that function as spacers,
Since these elements can also influence
a pedestrian bridge's design, such
measures should be appropriately imole-
‘mantod in coordination with the relevant
specialist departments, Planners should
take advantage ofthe leeway available
to tham in choosing the type of consttuc-
tion andl materials,
Inthe case of tramways, the regulations
and requirements of individual local oper:
's apply. Here too, there are few re~
Stictions in ragard to materials; concrete
and steel as well as glass can be used,
‘Apart from incorporating elements
protect against accidental contact with
live components, bridges that cross elec-
tttied railway ines must be grounded
This means that itis necessary to install
grounding rods at tho lower edge of the
Supersttucture near the rails and connect,
them with the rails by means of conduc~
tive transverse sactions, using welded
reinforcement rods running through the
structure, for example,
“rate routes
Acloarance gauge of 2.50 mis pre-
soribed for pedestrian bridges. While
this is easily achieved with beam bridges,
itcan greatly influence the geometry
and form of bridge support structures, in
particular of curving cable bridges and
arched bridges. A clearance gauge of
4.50 mis usually prescribed for roads for
vohiclo tac, but a clearance gauge of
4.70 m may also be stipulated so that
subsequent road resurfacing can easily
be cartied out
Route layout and access
Tho highest priaty in building a pedes-
trian bridge is to bring people from one
place to another — over a river, a road or
a valley ~ by the shortest possible rout
‘Architects and engineers must therefore
Create the shortest possible access paths
and an appropriate route layout
When designing the layout of bridges
and ramps itis advisable to incorporate
flowing paths and to avoid hazardous
corners and turns, espacially for cyclists.
Because pedestrian and cycle trafic
moves at slow speeds, there are few m=
tations in tarms of the radius of curvature,
A wide range of free forms can be used,
so narrow curves and multi-armed ramos 8
4 150_ 490
that optimally connect to existing net-
‘works of paths can be choson. Broaking
‘out of two-dimensionality into the third
dimension can also result in exciting
spatial structures. A pedestrian bridge's
superstructure can be freely formed and
strongly curved in its layout, making
crossing a bridge a unique spalial exper-
tence for pedestrians (see Design and
Construction, 9. 60H.)
stare
Germany's restriction on the permitted
ramp gradient of 8% often makes for long
access paths to bridges, such that it can
sometimes be expedient to offer direct,
and quick access by providing stairs as
woll as a ramp,
DIN 18065 on “Stairs for buildings”
(»Gebaudetreppens) regulates the form
of such stairs, providing precise details,
on their geometry, the formation of steps,
gradionts, landings and railings.
‘Tho following values aro stipulated:
+ Staircase pitch s of atleast 14 om,
or amaximum of 19 em
+ Stair vead a of at least 26 em, or a
maximum of 87 em,
+ Rso-to run ratio of 89 to 85 emin
ez.
accordance with step length measure-
ments 2 ¢ + (¢ = rise [em]; a = voad
run fom)
+ Minimum useable tight width © of
100.em
+ I there are more than 18 steps, inter
mediate landing with a langth of 90 cm
's required
+ Handrail on both sides ata height of
85 em above the deck surface
Possible stair construction variants range
‘rom single-fight stairs twyough spiral or
platform stairways up to Laurin stairs,
which have variable gradients and riser
heights (Fig. 9)
Ira ramp cannot be installed due to lack
of space, a bridge can be made barrier~
‘treo with a it (Figs. 11 and 12). Lifts
in public space must be very robust (to
‘withstand vandalism for example) anc
‘operational safety and failsafe function-
ing, especially during operation at night,
must also be takan into accou
Rules on barrier-free building included in
DIN 18024 apply to the dimensions and
design of its. A it car must have a mi:
mum clear width of 110 em and a clear
depth of 140 em for itto be suitable for
Functional requirements
Route layout and access
“
wheelchair users, so that there is room
for up to two people standing and one
person in a wheelchair (Fig. 10)
‘The length of an access ramo will result
from the prescribed clearance gauge,
the bridge's construction heigh! and the
permissible gradients (Fig. 13). A ramp
‘can basically have a maxmum gradiont
(f 6% so that it meets the requirements
of people whose mobil is restricted, In
Germany ths is regulated by DIN 18024-1.
Other countries apply diferent values.
Ih Australia for example, a gradient of
2.5% Is allowed for footbridge ramps
(Fig. 1, p.9). 'can often be dificut to
Giroetly connect a ramp to an existing
network of paths, To create a smooth
transition between a network of paths
and a bridge they should be coordinated
and modified where necessary
‘The following values are stipulated:
* Maximum ramp gradient 6%
+ Minimum useful fight wieth between
‘edge deflectors 120 cm (suitable for
\whealchair users)
+ For ramps longer than 600 em an inter-
mediate landing 180 em in length is
required
1 Nemum dimensions of sie
f agleg ae
10. Mesrnum dimensions ofits
11 Staind ty Brg fr Deutsche Telekom,
Bann (2 2010 seh lnch bergermann sc partner
12 Sars and, Stnenstog, Bac Rspnonsu (0),
2008, senbich bergermens uns pare’
tedgraden of 8% and sn intermediate angng
wath manirurn ortho @
14 Regared vercal meth 5B 0 covering band
15. Ramos end ndings, Romerstontes
St Margershen (4) 3008,
losis Greer ated Functional requirements
Railings, surface
10 cm high edge deflectors
+ Handtails on both sides at a height of
85 cm above the deck surface
+ at the beginning and end of the ramp
free space of 180 x 180.em
Intermediate landings on ramos longer
than 600 cm prevent people using the
ramp from tirng quickly. Thase inter
mediate landings rosur in the walking
surface looking bent and reduce aver-
age gradiants, from 6 to 5.3% (Fig. 13,
p. 19). This is determined by the following
formula:
2, average gradient [9]
1 length
This means that the ramp must be ex-
tended by a further 13%. This bent sur-
face can be concealed by installing a
corclon, which results in a continuous
view. The required vertical width AB
of the cordon can be determined using
the following formula (Fig. 14, p. 13):
AB = (5-5) -L,
+L, Im]
Railings
Various demands are made onpedest
fn bridge railings. On the one hand thoy
serve to protect people from falling off
the bridge, so they must be able to wit
stand horizontal loads of up t0 0.8 kN/m.
On the other hand they are designed
to offer support and guidance, especial
ly for people whose mobility is impaired
The prescribed height of handrails for
odestrians is 1.01.10 m and for oy-
lists 1.20 m, The Forschungsgesell-
schatt fir StraSan- und Verkohrswesen
©.V. (Road and Transportation Research
Association) in Cologne actually recom-
mends a height of 1.20 m for cycle trattic
{acilties. I there are railings at that height
it will be useful also install a separate
handrail at an appropriate height of ap~
proximately 85 om (Fig. 16). The *Adai-
tional technical terms of contract and
‘uidelines for civil engineering works"
(+Zusatzliche Technische Vertragsbe-
ddingungen und Richtinien far Ingenieur:
bautens ~ ZTV-ING) prescribe not only
the height of railings but also provide
precise specifications on the dimensions
of posts and handrails and the distances
between them (Figs. 20 and 21).
‘These very conservative guidelines
apply to road trafic bridges as well as
to pedestrian bridges, so they should
serve orly as a guide for relevant safety
aspects and not as rules for construction.
They would otrerwise make fligres rall-
ings, which can greatly contribute to a
pedestrian bridge's transparenoy, im
possible,
Railing infil must be install so that
there is no danger of people ~ especially
small children ~ sipping through thom or
climbing on them. Flat, clossd elements
(Fig. 17) or relieved elements can be
installed to avoid this danger (Figs. 18,
18 and 19), Horizontal of vertical rods
and wire or cable nets prevent people
‘rom slipping through open ill For rall-
ings with vertical infil rods, the maximum
distance betwoon the rods should bo
12 cm, People must be prevented from
climbing on or over horizontal infil rocs
by inward sloping railings or handrails
(see Finishing, p. 681f), Choosing a nar-
row-gauge mesh with a maximum of 60 x
40 mm for cable net railings will prevent
people from climbing on it
Surface
A pedestrian bridge's surface has many
‘unetions. It provides the necessary slip-
resistance as well as @ continuous final
finish to the pedestrian deck. The sur- {face also seals the bridge's transverse
section, minimising corrosion and pro-
tecting the stucture from mechanical
damage.
No slip resistance specifications are pro-
vided in bridge construction regulations.
BGR 181 issued by the “Berutsgenos-
senschaft Handel und Warendistribution”
(Retail and Goods Distribution Liability
and Insurance Association’) is helpful
here, Itoutlines five categories specifying
degrees of slip resistance. Surfaces in
the RG category must comply with the
lowest and those in category R13 must
comply with the highest dagrees of slip
Minimum emensions fr stelralings
Falrareaht wa llpeghiol 12m
atel aeghtat > 12m
or
ular alnge a
‘larance between bases and edges
‘raters us
Hancra no share
+ Lener section
15/60/8005
Gross eam CEE
Shor poste 0x00
paths end pewestan ond
jam alings and range
herpes Mecod linge
20/28, BRUESIENIT, 5728 x4
resistance. A slip resistance in category
R10 or R11 is proscribed for outdoor
walkways. This degree of slip resistance
can be easily achioved by instaling bitu-
rminous or mineral surfaces,
Bituminous surfaces are tried and tested,
but have the disadvantage of also being
very thick (60-100 mm) and thus very
heavy. So-called ‘thin film surfaces’ made
of epoxy resins can be used as an aker-
native, These are 5 to 10 mm thick and
are interspersed with quartz sand to form
a surface. Thay can be laid on concrete
and steal, so they are particularly suitable
‘or the construction of pedestrian bridges.
1800 2000 men
280mm
nm
wax28
wax78
Functional requirements
Surface
Wood, glass or grid surfaces can also
bbe load-bearing oloments, however, thoy
may have to be adapted to local single
loads, such as for the wheel load of a
light commercial vehicle. These surfaces
require additional slip resistance meas-
lures when they are wet. More slip-re-
sistant wood surfaces can be created
by grooving the wood or installing epoxy
rosin strips with a sand finish. Glass can
bbe made more slip-resistant by etching
or sandblasting the surface. The slip
resistance of grid surfaces can be im-
proved by profiling the grid bars (see
Finishing, p. 65.)
TP Rating made of gas
Singles
1g ang made ct woven stot
ance nit ZTV-ING, Part &
fo 50 a tornt
nesses fr steering
rise Beige Guanes fo
(SYNE, 2008 Statics and dynamics
Pedlestrian bridges must be designed
to bo both static and dynamic. To tost
their stability, various impacts are simu-
lated and a static calculation is used to
determine the bridge's dimensions and
behaviour.
Statics
Static loads for pedestiian bridges are
preseribod in individual countries’ roqula-
tions, In Germany itis the DIN Technical
Roport 101 "Impacts on bridges” (DIN-
Fachbericht 101 »Einwirkungen aut
Bracken), that specifies the load of a
bridge's own weight as well as traffic
loads, wind, temperature, impact and
snow loads. European standardisation
moans that Eurocodes are due to replace
the DIN technical report but they wil
adopt the technical report's main ap-
proaches, s0 no fundamental changes
are expected,
Vertcatlonds
‘Abridge’s own weight and traffic loads
are the main vertical loads. Wind and
snow loads are less important
Traffe loads
‘The vertical traffic lad on a pedestrian
bridge is estimated at § kN/m? for bridges
with spans of up to 10m. Loads are lower
for bridges with wider spans in accord
ance with the following formula
320
T4230
2854,
+ 550 [kN/nr]
|, Individual span im]
G,, Distributed area load [kN/m]
This reduces tattc aroa loads for 25 m
spans to 4.18 kN/m’, for 60 m spans
103.50 kN/v and for 100 m spans to
2.92 kN/m
Figure 1 makes it clear that the maximum
load per m’ is only reached with very
large crowds of people. Even dense
pedestrian vac usually consists of just
1.5 persons/mé, which is a trafic load
of 1.20 kNinv, not even a quarter of the
‘estimated maximum load. Itis advisable
to estimate the probabilly of such un-
Usual crowding in advance and from this
to derive a more nuanced and realistic,
assessment of the maximum load, which
can also result in lower dimensions and
costs, The usual standards (Fig. 2, p. 18)
do not allow for any differentiation in this
area, 50 a Iitle-used bridge for hikers
must be designed to have the same dis-
tributed area load as an access bridge
‘for an event hall
‘A more differentiated approach would
also be appropriate in determining load
distributions in a lateral direction, Itis
highly unlikely that a crowd of panicked
people would be on just one side of a
bridge with nobody on the other side,
DIN Technical Report 101, however, only
allows for a more differentiated consider
ation of loads for bridges with a deck
\wiath of 6 m and over. Yet even for nar-
rower bridges a differentiation between
loads on the two sides of just $0% would
certainly be more realistic and given the
torsional stress that often determines
2 bridge's dimansions, whicn would
also be reduced by 60%, would result
inmajor savings on the cross section
(Fig. 3p. 18)
‘Two approaches can be used in the
local analysis of individual structural
components: either an individual load
of 10 KN can be taken into account
or if emergency or service vehicles
dive on it, the bridge's load can be
calculated with a load model based on
2 2-axlo light ruck with a total weight of
421 (120N) (Fig. 4, p. 18). For second-
ary structural components in particular
(e.g. cross girders), such a model can
be relevant tothe bridge's overall mes-
surements,
Horizontal loads
Podostiian bridges ofton have a very
low width to length ratio, so horizontal
transverse loads can influence their di-
mensions, especially i they have broad
spans, In contrast, horizontal longitudinal
‘forces play a subordinate role,
Trafic loads
Horizontal attic loads with a longituai-
ral direction are estimated across the
board at 10% of the vertical distriouted
area load and with the addition of vehi-
cle loads at 60% of the bridge's own
vertical load,
Rallings must also be designed to take
horizontal loads, which wil determine
‘he dimensions of balusters and their
anchoring in the superstructure, Horizon-
tal loads are usually bypassed in the
support system, so that no loads from the
bridge deck affect the support columns.
fr abutment. The beam load on the hand-
rail, directed either outwards or inwards,
is sot at 0.80 kN/m,
ScoTaBe Statics and dynamics
Statics
18
05x bridge
50% Trae oae
LLL
be
rctan ane rage as
ae aaa He
le Spécial 72-21
2a toads 92 AUS
2 (cr85¢ CON
Impact load
DIN Technical Report 101 specitios a
horizontal impact load for structural com-
ponents expased to danger of 1,000 kN
in the traffic rection and 600 KN ata
right angle to the trafic direction at an
impact height of 1.25 m (for bridges
over roads). These loads are declared
exceptional impacts and may therefore
bo subject to lower safety levels. Thay
are however so large that they basically
preclude slender suppor pillars. If thes
are stll desired, it must be proven that
their stabilly will be ensured, even if the
pillars tal or become vary daformed.
Otherwise, the only solution is to build
thick support pillars, a massive, impact-
rosistant baso or a robust protactive or
delleciive structure,
Wind loads
Another component that often determines
a bridge’s dimensions, and for bridges
with broad spans sometimes also its
design, is wind load. Appendix N of DIN
Technical Roport 101 contains wind load
specifications. Wind speeds dspenc on
a bridge's location (wind load zone) and
height. A bridge's cross-sectional shape
also influences the wind load on its struc
ture. The wind load resuting from wind
flow around a bridge Is determined by
the aerodynamic shape parameter c, and
by its surtace area.
Fig, 6 shows the values for wind loads
con some common bridge cross sections
in zones 3 and 4. I there are pedestrians
or eyclists on the bridge, the cross sec
tion the wind is flowing around changes
accordingly. This can be accounted for
in the design with a rectangular trattic
platform bult at a height of 1.80 m. Tho
wind load W can range trom 0.8 kN/m*
for slander piers close to the ground
inwind load zone 1 up to 4.7 kN/m* for
very high, compact superstructures near
windy coaste (wine! load zone 4}. Com-
woo we T8D 200
Leng
— dN Teorrica Report 101 EU
385809 (681
= sass 016-1969 29, we 7188 15)
Footbridge Design Code 1979
mon types of cross sections can be ex:
posed to wind loads ranging from 1.0 10
3,0 KN per metre,
Measurements made on many bridges
have shown that the loads specified in
the standard ara set mainly highar than
the values measured. Since the standard
makes only generalised statements, it
is often more usotul to ident more real
istic wind loads with a wind tunnel test
In these tests, a madol of the structure
built to scale with appropriate pressure
sensors is placed in a wind tunnel ana
exposed to a turbulence flow similar to
that of lows expected at the structure’s
site (Fig. 8)
Iris well worth using wind tunnel tests
to realistically assess loads, especially
‘when building large bridges, so that the
structures can be designed to be more
efficient and profitable, The costs of test-
ing will be more than offset by the sav-
ings made on materials and optimised
crass sections.
Light pedostian bridges are also often
susceptible to vibration, This form of exci-
tation by wind can easily be tested in a
wind tunnel
Temperature loads
‘Temperature loads may become impor-
tant if they cause deformation and affect
a structure's fitness for purpose. A tom-
perature change of 20°C can cause a
stressed ribbon bridge with a 100 m
span and a 2 mribbon sag to warp in
mmid-span by approx, 20 cm ~ a consider
able magnitude.
Substantial forces can be induced if
expansions or contractions due to tem-
poraturo changos aro obstructad in stat
cally-indeterminate structwes, Integral
bridges having no bearings can only
react to changes in the superstructure’s
length with increased secondary stress.
Chapter V of DIN Technical Report 101 Ettect of wind W N/a
Etoct of wind W IKN/m
‘wth rate
‘without tate
we Himan stim Simanetwm Zein Mmanesom somaneiw
Tao 195 228 1s 1
‘on lls and pers?
Pry 240 340
defines the temperature loads that com-
bine in a cross section made of various
‘components (Fig. 7, p. 20). Even temper-
ature changes (Fig. 7a) and the linear
variable temperature rate (Figs. 7b and c)
are usually estimated for bridges,
‘Temperature changes in structural com-
ponents can range from 35 to +40 K. The
linear variable temperatures in the cross
section can range from +18 to -18 K.
Adverse stresses can also be caused
by temperature differences between di-
erent structural elemants (e.g. tension
member and arch or hanger/cable stays
and superstructure). As well as a con-
stant rate for all structural components,
15K must be taken inlo account as a
possible diforontial
Vandaism
Vandalism is often discussed, although
Its impact is less of @ load than a case
of destructive activitias and a relatad fail
Ure of indivicual structural components
modifying the static system and reducing
the bridge's load-boaring capacity. A risk
assessment should be able to realistically
assess the probability of vandalism and
its effects on a structure's safety, ensur-
ing that no excessive demands will have
a significant effect.
Dynamics
Podostrian bridge vioration is an impor
tant but often neglected topic, Excessive
vibration can greatly impair a bridge's
{itness for purpose and disturb pedest
ans. Various effects can make a bridge
vibrate, especially itis very flexible and
has a light cross section or broad spans.
Two dynamic excitations are especially
significant:
+ human-induced vibrations, including
daliberate excitation or vandalism
lifpeople make a bridge vibrate ex-
cessively by rhythmical jumping, knee
bends or rocking)
fons win cued corars wih a rae or. he rac tthe curve,
+ wind-induced vibration, such as tur
bulenco-induced transverse vibration
and aeroslastic instabilty (e.g, litter
cr galloping, see p. 22)
Fluctuations in air pressure caused by
passing vehicles can also make pedes-
trian bridges crossing just above roads
or railway lines vibrate
‘The issue of vibration in pedestrian
bridges is as old as bridge construction
itgel. Historic suspension bridges, such
as the Saint Georges bridge over the
Saéne in Lyon show, however, that vibra-
tion does not automatically cause prob-
lems. This footbridge connects two Lyon
suburbs and many people walk across it
every day. Its vibrations can be olearly
‘elt but do not affect pedestrians. Many
of these suspension bridges remain in
Use for several decades and none is.
known ta have collapsed du to fatigue
or vandalism.
(On the other hand, prominent examples
such as the Millennium Bridge in London
and the Passerelle Solférino in the centre
of Paris, show that excessive vibration
‘can greatly impair a bridge's fitness for
purpose ifthe vibrations are strong enough
‘to make ithard for users to walk or to sub-
stantially decrease their comfort.
Both bridges attracted negative publio-
ity, The Millennium Bridge was in partic~
Ular subject to horizontal vibration, which
is especialy uncomfortable for pedesti-
ans. In both cases, the bridges were
expensively refurbished and additional
damper elements were installed after
completion (Fig. 8, p. 20). This is some-
thing of a balancing act, because on
the one hand, dampers and tuned mass
dampers should be avoided for economic
and often for design reasons, but on the
other hand a bridge cannot be allowed
to move unpleasantly or accelerate such
Statics and dynamics
Dynamics
that it negatively affect its users.
‘Two approaches to controlling pedestrian
bridges’ dynamic behaviour are there-
fore taken in their design:
+ Avoidance of winc-induced vibration
and in particular aeroelastic instability
due to wind
+ Avoidance of excessive vibration
and the resulting restriction of the
bridge's fitnoss for purpose due to
human-induced vibrations
Potential vibration problams should be
dealt with at an early stage in the pedes-
trian bridge's design when they can stil
be responded to appropriately. During
the dasign process, when there is stil no
preciso data avallablo on footing, damp-
ing, fnal cross sections and any pre-load
forces in the support cables, pre-static
calculations should also be made to iden.
tity the bridge's natural frequencies and
normal modes. These calculations can
provide a wealth of information on a
structure's expected vipration behaviour,
allowing planners to react to possible
excessive vibrations in the design phase
‘and to easily incorporate counter-moa-
sures. Extra dampers can, for example,
be optimally integrated into the design
and any necessary anchoring or rein-
forcement provided!
\arous pedestion vate censtes
2 rc or antianbogesvaroue
43. Diferoisios vosrano!loace ne vent of
Unistertiac fase
«Pant ead ota ig
leu incu
te oxcoptiona ta
5 Wing tunra est‘r a pedestian brig in Lyon
6 Wind ace on Briags for he win loa zones
Sind in|
1 "Brdge deck wit
Tap age neigh: neu itary
Toner edge othe supoor salu)
2, Wndrescting Slatics and dynamics
Dynamics
‘As the two examples mentioned above
show, itis possible to subsequontly im-
prove the vibration behaviour of a com-
pleted bridge through measures such
as the installation of dampers. Dampers
do not however always ft optimally into
2 design and can tend to look like extra-
neous elements.
Experience gained systematically in
‘ocont yoars in the area of human-
induced vibration and research into
the synchronisation of pedestrians with
lateral viorations have helped te make
it possible to calculate excessive viora-
tion in advance and thus avoid *. The
EU-tunded SYNPEX and HIVOSS [1]
research projects and the French road
construction authority SETRA havo oval.
‘oped new methods of measuring human-
induced vibration that planning enginoers
can easily use. Thase make it easy 10
estimate expected accelerations and
compare tham withthe limits stipulated
in the comfort classes.
Wind engineers, who can cary out wind
tunnel tests if necessary, should be con-
sulted on designs likely to be subject
to wind-induced vibration and aaroetastic
instability
Natural equencies and normal modes
A pedestrian bridge, lke every structur,
is a system capable of vibration. Ita
bridge is briefly excited by an impact
to its deck, for example, i vibrates for
2 cortain period at a cortain natural tro-
quency, $0 this is a major Kay figure in
assessing is susceptibility to vibration,
The natural frequency of a beam bridge
for example, depends mainly on its span
lenath, bending stiffness and the mass
cof the bridge's deck.
‘The greater the bridge's bending stit-
ness, the higher its natural frequency will
bo. The longer or heavier the bridge, the
lower its natural frequency. Every pedes-
‘rian bridge has its own vibration pattern
20
©
Like a guitar string, but much slower,
ithas fundamental frequencies and
harmonies, which are also called natu
ral modes. These are consecutively
numbered according to their oscillation
periods, with the longest oscillation
period referred to as the frst normal
mode. Normal mode is also referred to
as mode shape. It describes the bridge
ina doflectad state, Ike a pendulum at
maximum deflection,
Normal medas can be uses to dltferen-
tiate vertical and horizontal bending v-
brations as well as torsional or rotational
vibrations, of a beam bridge for example
(Fig. 10). The cables of suspension
bridges mean that coupled normal
modes combining torsional and banding
vibrations can often occur in this type
of bridge (Fig. 11),
Simple bridges’ natural frequencies can
be identified by means of tables or pen
and-paper calculations. The natural fr.
‘quencies and normal modes of more
complex loac-bearing systems, such as
suspension bridges, support stucturas,
twussed with sag rods or ourved bridges,
can be calculated by using the Finite
Element Method! (FEM). This calculation
method Is now used in the design phase
{or preliminary calculations, allowing
an initial assessment of the bridge's
expected behaviour to be made at a
vory carly stage. In calculating natural
frequencies, it must be noted that all
additional loads such as the surfacing
deck structure and railings and thei
masses must also be taken into account.
This additional mass leads to a lowering
of natural frequencies. A 20% increase
in the mass of a beam bridge means a
10% incroase in the bridge's vibration
period or, to put it another way, a 10%
Fecuction in its natural frequency. For
light bridges, where the ratio between
the bridge deck mass and the mass of
pedlestiians is low (ratio bridge /people
<< 0.8), the additional mass of pedest-
fans in a continuous stream of pedestrians
should be taken into account, because
this further lowers the natural requency.
‘The mass of individual people or groups
of up to ten people can however gener
ally be safaly neglected,
‘Tho modal mass of every normal made
can also be calculated. FEM programmes
often display this value in the eigenvalue
calculation, It shows which mass is active
ina vibration, tis not hard to transfor
‘the vioration problem from the complex
caalevlation model in the FEM programme
to an easily calculable single mass oscil-
lator. This makes it possible to carry
ut the calculation with a concentrated
mass, which is postioned on a spring
with the same vibration period as the
bridge (Fig. 9),
Excitation system response, resonance
Dynamic excitations include loads that
change thelr position or size with varying
speed (¢.9. pedestrians), and sudden
loads, such as those caused by wind
dusts, The bridge, and especially the
bridge deck, responds with an elastic
deformation, depending on the load,
Observing deformation changes over a
period of time willreveal the sgeds and
accelerations, which can be used to
assess the pedestrian bridge's comfor.
Acbridgo’s abilty to vibrate will only
become a problem in the presence
of a rolovant excitation. If there is @
great disparity between a pedestrian
bridge's excitation frequency and its
natural trequency, any vibration willbe
barely perceptible. however, dynamic
excitation frequencies correspond with
the bridge's natural requaney, raso-
nance, ie. an amplified resonance re-
sponse from the system, will occur. This