J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654
Sycamore fruit seed-based hard carbon anode material
with high cycle stability for sodium-ion battery
Guifang Zhang1, Yabin Zhao1, Lei Yan1, Lijun Zhang1,
and Zhiqiang Shi1,*
1
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Advanced Fibers and Energy Storage, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Tiangong
University, Tianjin 300387, People’s Republic of China
Received: 29 July 2020 ABSTRACT
Accepted: 7 January 2021 Hard carbon is considered to be one of the most promising anodes for sodium-
Published online: ion batteries (SIBs), but high cost and poor cycle stability limit the large-scale
7 February 2021 application for SIBs. Here, a new kind of low-cost sycamore fruit seed hard
carbon was prepared by facile pyrolysis at different temperatures as anode for
Ó The Author(s), under SIBs. With the large interlayer spacing, the reversible specific capacity of syca-
exclusive licence to Springer more fruit seed carbonized at 1100 °C can reach 323 mAh g-1 at the current
Science+Business Media, LLC density of 0.1 C. When cycled at 0.4 C, the reversible specific capacity is 246.9
part of Springer Nature 2021 mAh g-1, following the capacity retention is 87.85% after 300 cycles. Moreover,
we find although the different interlayer spacings (d002 C 0.37 nm) of graphite
crystallites of the obtained hard carbon beneficial for the Na? storage, the
smaller d002 limits the diffusion of Na? inevitably, which affects their cycle
stability. This research furnishes a competitive choice about anode materials for
the industrialized SIBs.
1 Introduction lithium, and it has extremely abundant reserves and
low price, which can be used as a possible substitute
Since 1991, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been for LIBs in the future [3, 4].
well known and widely used in computers, com- So far, SIBs cathode materials have made great
munications, and consumer electronics [1]. However, progress in many aspects, such as high-voltage
the promotion and use of energy vehicles and other polyanion vanadate sodium phosphate and high
large-scale energy storage devices have further specific capacity layered structure ternary sodium-
increasing the demand for LIBs, resulting in a ion compounds [5, 6]. More importantly, the devel-
shortage of lithium resources. The low storage and opment of anode materials suitable for Na? storage
uneven distribution of lithium resources in the has become the focus of research due to the size
earth’s crust will affect the future development of difference between Li? and Na? [7, 8]. Many com-
LIBs inevitably [2]. As an element of the same main mon anode materials, such as alloys [9–11], metal
group, sodium has similar chemical properties to oxides [12], and conductive polymers [13, 14], usually
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-021-05286-x
5646 J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654
exhibit large volume effects after Na? intercalation, 2.2 Materials characterization
leading to poor rate and cycle performances, thus
limit their applications [15, 16]. Among carbonaceous SEM (Hitachi S4800) was used to characterize the
materials, the hard carbon shows high specific surface morphology and structure of the SFS-x. High-
capacity ([ 300 mAh g-1) and large inner structure resolution TEM (HRTEM) and selected area electron
for Na? storage [17–21]. In addition, the low potential diffraction (SAED) were carried out to determine the
platform of the hard carbon usually results in a microcrystalline structure inside the SFS-x. The
higher energy density when applied in full cells, diffraction of the internal microcrystalline structure
which makes it one of the most promising anode can be further obtained by Bruker/D8 Advance X-ray
materials [22]. However, poor cycle stability and high diffraction (XRD) using Cu Ka irradiation
cost have been the two challenges to the large-scale (k = 0.15406 nm) and Raman spectra (Labram Nicolet
application of hard carbon for SIBs. The main reason iS50) with a laser wavelength of 532 nm. The test and
of the high cost is the high price and low carbon yield calculation of the specific surface area and pore size
of precursors, while the poor cycle stability can be distribution of the SFS-x were acquired by a fully
attributed to its internal complex amorphous struc- automated physicochemical adsorption apparatus
ture of hard carbon [23]. (Autosorb-iQ-C) and a BET (Brunauer–Emmett–
Various biomass precursors (such as coconut Teller) model.
endocarp [24], lotus stem [25], orange peel [26], and
rape seed [27]), used as anode materials, can greatly 2.3 Electrochemical measurements
reduce the cost of SIBs due to their rich source, low
cost, reproducibility and easy preparation [28], which The electrode material (SFS-x), conductive carbon
are beneficial to the industrialization of SIBs. In this black (GVXC-72, CABOT), sodium carboxymethyl-
work, a new kind of biomass hard carbon was pre- cellulose (CMC, Aladin) and styrene–butadiene rub-
pared by changing the carbonization conditions ber (SBR, Cnano) emulsion were mixed at a mass
using the precursor of sycamore fruit seed. The short- ratio of 85:10:3:2, and then decomposed with deion-
range ordered microcrystalline structure and defect ized water as a solvent to prepare a viscosity of 3500
structure with the characteristics of hard carbon have mPa s slurry. Then, it was single-sidedly coated on
large microcrystalline interlayer spacing, which are copper foil, and the loading amount of the electrode
suitable for sodium storage. The prepared hard car- was controlled to be about 1.6 mg cm-2. The elec-
bon owns high sodium storage capacity, excellent trode was placed in a blast oven at 60 °C for 12 h, and
rate and cycle stability, which makes it a key anode then cut into a circular electrode of u13 mm, which
material for SIBs industrialization. was used as the working electrode and sodium metal
as the counter electrode. The assembly of the sodium-
ion batteries was carried out in an argon-filled glove
2 Experimental section box. The electrolyte was 1 M NaClO4 in a mixture of
ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate
2.1 Synthesis of SFS-x (DMC) (1:1, v/v), and the separator was made of
glass fiber (GF/F, Whatman). The batteries were
The sycamore fruit seed precursor was repeatedly subjected to galvanostatic charge/discharge test, rate
washed with deionized water, dried at 60 °C in a test, GITT and long cycle test by LAND CT2001A
blast oven, and then crushed into powder by pul- batteries-testing system. Cyclic voltammetry test was
verizer. After that, the obtained powder was car- carried out by the Chenhua CHI604D electrochemical
bonized in a tube furnace at different temperatures workstation at the scan rate of 0.1 mV s-1, the test
(900, 1100, 1300 and 1500 °C) under N2 flow for 3 h, voltage range was 0–2.8 V vs. Na?/Na.
with the heating rate of 3 °C min-1. Finally, the car-
bonized hard carbon was washed with 1 M HCl and
deionized water to obtain the final samples, which
were named as SFS-x (x refers to the carbonization
temperatures).
J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654 5647
3 Results and discussion and the (100) crystal plane of the graphite structure,
respectively. The (002) diffraction peak becomes
As displayed in Fig. 1a, the sycamore fruit seed is sharper and shifts toward the higher angle gradually
ground and carbonized at different temperatures to as the carbonization temperature increases. In
obtain the electrode materials. Figure 1b–e shows the Table 1, all the interlayer spacings of (002) crystal
SEM images of SFS-x samples. It can be seen from the plane (d002), calculated by Bragg’s Law, are greater
images that SFS-x samples have similar irregular than 0.37 nm, which is beneficial for the sodium
block morphology. With the increase of carbonization storage [29–31]. We calculated the average width (La)
temperature, the particle size decreases gradually and thickness (Lc) of graphite-like crystallites
from 10 to 8 lm (Table 1) through the laser particle according to the Scherrer formula. It also can be
size distribution test. The carbonation rate also found that the La and Lc of the graphite-like micro-
decreases gradually with increasing temperature, to crystals increase gradually as the carbonization tem-
28.26%, 26.10%, 25.29% and 23.26%, indicating the perature raise, indicating that the degree of
gradual removal of oxygen-containing functional graphitization is getting higher and higher [21, 32].
groups and other components during the carboniza- The Raman spectra of SFS-x samples are shown in
tion process. Fig. 2b. All the samples show obvious characteristic
As seen from Fig. 2a, all SFS-x samples show sim- bands at around 1350 cm-1 (D-band) and 1580 cm-1
ilar XRD curves with two distinct diffraction peaks at (G-band). The G-band indicates the existence of gra-
23° and 43°, corresponding to the (002) crystal plane phite carbon, whereas the D-band is ascribed to
Fig. 1 a Preparation process
of SFS-x samples; SEM
images of SFS-x, b SFS-900,
c SFS-1100, d SFS-1300, and
e SFS-1500
5648 J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654
Table 1 Structural parameters
of the SFS-x Samples d002a (nm) La b
(nm) Lcc (nm) Nd ArG/ArD SBET (m2 g- 1) D50 (lm)
SFS-900 0.402 3.678 1.233 3 0.311 443.08 10
SFS-1100 0.391 3.883 1.340 4 0.326 129.92 9
SFS-1300 0.386 4.015 1.800 5 0.352 110.73 8
SFS-1500 0.371 4.799 1.954 6 0.480 98.51 8
a k
d002 ¼ 2sin h
[b is the half width of the (002) peak]
b kk
La ¼ bsin h
[b is the half width of the (100) peak]
c kk
Lc ¼ bsin h
[b is the half width of the (002) peak]
d
Average number of graphene layers are calculated by formula N ¼ dLc
002
þ 1.
Fig. 2 a XRD patterns, b Raman spectra and HRTEM images of SFS-x, c SFS-900, d SFS-1100, e SFS-1300, and f SFS-1500
disordered carbon or defects in the graphite struc- structure (graphite-like crystallite structure) are
ture. The degree of graphitization of the hard carbon interlaced. The average length and number of layers
is usually measured by the ratio R (R = ArG/ArD) of of graphite crystallites enlarge gradually as the car-
the integrated area of the G-band and the D-band. It bonization temperature increases. Meanwhile, the
can be seen from Table 1 that the R values gradually graphite crystallite structure is more obviously,
raise with the increase of the carbonization temper- which is consistent with the conclusions in XRD and
ature, which indicates that the higher temperature is Raman [21]. The diffraction ring of the SAED image
more conducive to the formation and growth of gradually becomes clearer as the carbonization tem-
graphite crystallites, while reducing the concentra- perature increases, which also indicates that the
tion of defects. It is consistent with XRD results [33]. degree of graphitization of the SFS-x samples raise
The microstructure of SFS-x samples are charac- [23].
terized by HRTEM and SAED in Fig. 2c–f. All sam- Figure 3a–d shows the first three cycles of charge
ples show an overall structure in which the and discharge curves of the SFS-x electrodes at 0.1 C
amorphous structure and the short-range ordered (1 C = 250 mA g-1), all electrodes have similar
J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654 5649
Fig. 3 a–d SFS-x electrodes first three cycles of charge and discharge curves and e, f capacity contributed by the plateau and slope
regions of discharge and charge process of SFS-x electrodes, respectively
curves between the slope region (0.1–1.5 V) and the ArD and the contribution rate of the plateau capacity
plateau region (0–0.1 V). As we can see, the reversible (Fig. 5h).
specific capacities of SFS-900, SFS-1100, SFS-1300, and
SFS-1500 electrodes are 268, 323, 296, and 249 mAh As shown in Fig. 4a–d, the sodium storage per-
g-1, respectively, showing excellent sodium storage formance of the SFS-x electrodes are analyzed by
performance. The ICE increases from 58.80% of SFS- cyclic voltammetry (CV) at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s-1.
900 to 75.59% of SFS-1500, which is consistent with The SFS-x electrodes showed similar CV curves. It
the conclusions in CV. The plateau capacity contri- can be seen from the figures that an irreversible
bution of the electrodes during discharge and charge reduction peak appears near 0.5 V during the first
are presented in Fig. 3e, f, showing that the propor- cycle of each sample, which may be the decomposi-
tion of the plateau capacity gradually increases as the tion of the electrolyte and the formation of the SEI
carbonization temperature increases. This would be film. As the carbonization temperature increases, the
caused the graphitization degree of the samples integral area of the irreversible reduction peak
gradually increases, and the graphite crystallites gradually decreases, which indicates that the reduc-
continuously generate and grow, therefore providing tion in defect concentration is beneficial to reduce the
more space for the storage of Na?. While the contri- irreversible reaction, thus improving the first Cou-
bution of the slope capacity gradually decreases due lomb efficiency, ICE [34, 35].
to the reducing of the defect concentration [21]. The
varied tendency of plateau capacity and Lc, ArG/ArD The CV test of SFS-x electrodes with different scan
were provided to illustrate the statement. It can be rates can explain the sodium storage mechanism of
seen from the Fig. 5g that as the carbonization tem- hard carbon from an electrochemical point of view.
perature increases, the graphite-like crystallites Using the Eq. (1) for analysis:
gradually grow (Lc becomes larger) and the contri-
i ¼ avb ; ð1Þ
bution rate of the plateau capacity increases, illus-
trating that there is a certain structure–activity where i is the response current (A), v is the scan rate
relationship between the two. At the same time, there (mV s-1), both a and b are constants, simultaneous,
is a similar relationship between the value of ArG/ the size of b reflects the ion diffusion capability and
5650 J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654
Fig. 4 CV curves of SFS-x electrodes a SFS-900, b SFS-1100, c SFS-1300, d SFS-1500, e CV curve at different scan rates and f log (Is)
versus log (v) curve between slope and plateau region of SFS-1100 electrode
can indirectly reflect the sodium storage mechanisms carbon charge and discharge curve, the plateau
of the materials. Specifically, when the value of b is region (0–0.1 V) mainly undergoes a Faraday reaction
0.5, the reaction is a Faraday reaction (for example, an between Na? intercalation or extraction of the gra-
embedded deintercalation reaction). When the b phite-like microcrystalline layer. In the slope region
value is 1, the reaction is a capacitive reaction (such (0.1–1.5 V), a capacitive reaction in which Na? is
as an adsorption–desorption reaction). Figure 4e stored or released at the defect location occurs [21].
shows the CV curve of SFS-1100 electrode with the Figure 5a shows the rate performance of the SFS-x
scan rate ranging from 0.2 to 1 mV s-1. Taking the electrodes at 0.1–4 C. The SFS-1100 electrode displays
logarithm of the two sides of the Formula (1) to get high reversible specific capacity of 323, 287, 246, and
the following Formula (2): 221 mAh g-1 at 0.1–1 C, respectively, exhibiting
logðiÞ ¼ b logðvÞ þ a: ð2Þ superior capacity retention. While the SFS-900 elec-
trode displays better rate performance at the higher
With log(v) as the independent variable and current densities of 2–4 C. This corresponds to the
log(i) as the function, the slope of the obtained values of the specific surface area listed in Table 1. As
straight line is the b value after linear fitting of the reported in previous research, materials having high
data points. The data of the slope region and the specific surface area generally exhibit better rate
plateau region are fitted, respectively, to obtain performance [32]. Additionally, the reversible specific
Fig. 4f. Taking the slope voltage of 0.5 V, the slopes of capacity at different current of the SFS-x electrodes
the charge and discharge curves are calculated to be are divided into the slope region (0.1–1.5 V) and the
1.02 and 0.99, which are close to 1. It indicates that the plateau region (0–0.1 V) to obtain the attenuation of
reaction in the slope region is a capacitive reaction. the slope and plateau region capacity with the
Additionally, taking the plateau voltage of 0.05 V, the increase of the current as seen in Fig. 5b, c. It can be
slopes of the charge and discharge curves are calcu- found that the slope capacity shows slightly attenu-
lated to be 0.47 and 0.49, respectively, which are close ation of a certain proportion as the current increases
to 0.5. This indicates that the reaction in the hard (Fig. 5b), and the absolute value of the proportion is
carbon plateau region is close to the Faraday reaction approximately 13–15. While the capacity of the pla-
[36, 37]. Thus, it can be inferred that in the hard teau region drops sharply (Fig. 5c). When the current
J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654 5651
Fig. 5 a–c Rate performance and capacity contributed by the by the slope and plateau regions of SFS-x electrodes at 0.4 C,
slope and plateau regions of SFS-x electrodes at 0.1–4.0 C, respectively, the varied tendency of g plateau capacity and Lc and
respectively, and d–f cyclic performance and capacity contributed h plateau capacity and ArG/ArD
density is greater than 3 C, the plateau capacity even smaller d002 would undergo large volume change
disappears, which is more obviously at higher tem- during the Na? intercalation process. Furthermore,
peratures. Therefore, it can be inferred that the the repeated volume change of the materials would
attenuation of the capacity is mainly related to the easily make the graphite microcrystal structure
loss of the plateau capacity. This would be caused destructed, leading to the capacity retention reduce
although a relatively narrow d002 could allow the after cycling [21, 39].
storage of Na?, it hinders the rapid storage and The galvanostatic intermittent titration (GITT) test
release of Na?, which is detrimental to the rate per- can be used to investigate the kinetics of sodium
formance at high current [20, 38]. The more suit- storage at the SFS-x electrodes. The SFS-x electrodes
able carbonization temperature is 1100 °C, it makes are charged/discharged for 30 min at 0.1 C and then
the sample not only has rich defect structure, but also allowed to stand for 2 h, the test mode is tested as a
obtains suitable d002, which is favorable for the rapid loop and the result is shown in Fig. 6a, b. Addition-
storage and release of Na?. Therefore, the SFS-1100 ally, the curve is simplified by the simplified equation
electrode displays higher reversible specific capacity of Fick’s second law, then the apparent diffusion
and better rate performance. coefficient of Na? (DNaþ ) under various voltage states
is calculated. The relationship between DNaþ and
The SFS-x electrodes are tested for 300 cycles at voltage is plotted as a line graph, as shown in Fig. 6c,
0.4 C. As seen from Fig. 5d, after 300 cycles, the d. The Formula (3) is as following:
remaining specific capacities of SFS-900, SFS-1100,
4 mB VM 2 DES 2
SFS-1300 and SFS-1500 electrodes are 192.8, 217.9, DNaþ ¼ ; ð3Þ
ps MB S DEs
139.5, and 77.8 mAh g-1, following the capacity
retention are: 88.52%, 88.15%, 75.82%, and 9.91%, where s is the single-cycle applied current time, mB is
respectively. The SFS-900 and SFS-1100 electrodes the mass of the active material, MB is the molar mass of
exhibit better cycle stability and capacity retention. carbon, VM is the molar volume, S is the active area of
Figure 5e, f shows the attenuation of the slope and the electrode, and DES and DEs are the change poten-
plateau region capacity during the cycles. It can be tials caused by constant current and instantaneous
found that the slope capacity of all electrodes shows current, respectively [36, 40, 41]. Figure 6c, d shows
good capacity retention, while the platform capacity that SFS-x electrodes have similar DNaþ –voltage
of the high-temperature carbonized electrodes curves. The diffusion coefficient of the slope region
decreases significantly. This would be caused the (1.5–0.1 V) is significantly higher than the plateau
5652 J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654
Fig. 6 a and b GITT
potential profiles of sodiation
and desodiation, c and d Na?
apparent diffusion coefficients
estimated for sodiation and
desodiation of SFS-
x electrodes during the second
cycle, respectively, and
e effect of interlayer spacing
of graphite crystallites on rate
and cycle performance
region (0–0.1 V). A peak with the decreasing diffusion will hinder the diffusion of Na?, which will affect the
coefficient occurs at about 0.3 V, and a sudden drop to materials rate performance.
minimum at around 0.1 V. This would be caused the Figure 6e can vividly express this phenomenon. As
storage of Na? at the defect is much easier than the the carbonization temperature increases, the inter-
interlayer of graphite crystallite. Graphite crystallites layer spacing of graphite microcrystals gradually
will undergo Na? intercalation reaction at low poten- decreases, which will cause a significant obstacle in
tial. Meanwhile, the small interlayer spacing have the process of Na? intercalation between the graphite
great effect on the rate of Na? intercalation, resulting in microcrystal layers. At the same time, it will also be
a sharp decrease in DNaþ below 0.1 V. Meanwhile, the accompanied by a significant volume effect. This can
lowest DNaþ of SFS-x electrodes at 0.1 V decrease with not only lead to the degradation of the rate perfor-
the increasing of the carbonization temperature, which mance, but also due to the repeated volume changes
indicates that d002 could strongly affect the DNaþ among between the graphite microcrystalline layers
graphite crystallites, and the small interlayer spacing destroying the microcrystalline structure, it will also
J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654 5653
cause the continuous degradation of the cycling 6 H. Zhang, I. Hasa, B.S. Qin, T. Diemant, D. Buchholz, R.J.
performance. Behm, S. Passerini, ChemElectroChem 4, 1256 (2017)
7 K. Hong, L. Qie, R. Zeng, Z. Yi, W. Zhang, D. Wang, W. Yin,
Q. Fan, W. Zhang, Y. Huang, J. Mater. Chem. A 2, 12733
4 Conclusions (2014)
8 V.L. Chevrier, G. Ceder, J. Electrochem. Soc. 158, A1011
In summary, the sycamore fruit seed hard carbon (2011)
was prepared by directed carbonization method, 9 L. Liang, Y. Xu, C. Wang, L. Wen, Y. Fang, Y. Mi, M. Zhou,
following 900, 1100, 1300, 1500 °C. The SFS-1100 H. Zhao, Y. Lei, Energy Environ. Sci. 8, 2954 (2015)
sample obtained by this method has both rich defect 10 M. Saubanère, M.B. Yahia, F. Lemoigno, M.L. Doublet, J.
structure and proper interlayer spacing (d002- Power Sources 280, 695 (2015)
C 0.39 nm), which can facilitate the rapid storage 11 L. Baggetto, M. Marszewski, J. Górka, M. Jaroniec, G.M.
and release of Na? among the graphite layers, Veith, J. Power Sources 243, 699 (2013)
therefore exhibiting higher sodium storage capacity 12 Y. Liu, Z. Cheng, H. Sun, H. Arandiyan, J. Li, M. Ahmad, J.
and better cyclic stability. The SFS-1100 electrode Power Sources 273, 878 (2015)
exhibits excellent electrochemical performances, with 13 Z. Li, J. Zhou, R. Xu, S. Liu, Y. Wang, L. Peng, W. Wu, M.
high capacity of 323 mAh g-1 at 0.1 C. After 300 Wu, Chem. Eng. J. 287, 516 (2016)
cycles at 0.4 C, the capacity retention is still 87.85%, 14 H. Banda, D. Damien, K. Nagarajan, M. Hariharan, M.M.
showing excellent cycle stability. Additionally, due to Shaijumon, J. Mater. Chem. A 3, 10453 (2015)
the abundant source of raw materials, low cost, and 15 K.T. Kim, G. Ali, K.Y. Chung, S.Y. Chong, H. Yashiro, Y.K.
easy preparation, sycamore fruit seed hard carbon Sun, J. Lu, K. Amine, S.T. Myung, Nano Lett. 14, 416 (2014)
anode material not only owns the potential to replace 16 F. Tu, X. Xu, P. Wang, L. Si, X. Zhou, J. Bao, J. Phys. Chem.
LIBs, but also has the practical applications in the C 121, 3261 (2017)
industrialization of SIBs. 17 H. Hou, X. Qiu, W. Wei, Y. Zhang, X. Ji, Adv. Energy Mater.
7, 1602898 (2017)
18 L. Chen, M. Fiore, J.E. Wang, R. Ruffo, D.K. Kim, G. Lon-
Acknowledgements goni, Adv. Sustain. Syst. 2, 1700153 (2018)
19 Y. Li, Y.-S. Hu, M.-M. Titirici, Adv. Energy Mater. 6, 1600659
This work was supported by the National Natural (2016)
Science Foundation of China (51603147), Tianjin 20 C. Bommier, T.W. Surta, M. Dolgos, Nano Lett. 15, 5888
Application Foundation and Advanced Technology (2015)
Research Plan Project (15ZCZDGX00270 and 21 S. Qiu, L.F. Xiao, M.L. Sushko, K.S. Han, Y.Y. Shao, M.Y.
14RCHZGX00859). Yan, X.M. Liang, L.Q. Mai, J.W. Feng, Y.L. Cao, X.P. Ai,
H.X. Yang, J. Liu, Adv. Energy Mater. 7, 1700403 (2017)
Compliance with ethical standards
22 C. Wang, J. Huang, H. Qi, L. Cao, Z. Xu, Y. Cheng, X. Zhao,
Conflict of interest The authors declare no com- J. Li, J. Power Sources 358, 85 (2017)
peting interests. 23 P. Wang, L.P. Fan, L. Yan, Z.S. Qiang, J. Alloys Compds. 775,
1028 (2019)
24 F. Wu, L. Liu, Y. Yuan, Y. Li, Y. Bai, T. Li, J. Lu, C. Wu, ACS
References Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 27030 (2018)
25 N. Zhang, Q. Liu, W. Chen, M. Wan, X. Li, L. Wang, L. Xue,
1 Y. Nishi, J. Power Sources 100, 101 (2001) W. Zhang, J. Power Sources 378, 331 (2018)
2 M.D. Slater, D. Kim, E. Lee, C.S. Johnson, Adv. Funct. Mater. 26 J. Xiang, W. Lv, C. Mu, J. Zhao, B. Wang, J. Alloys Compd.
23, 947 (2013) 701, 870 (2017)
3 S.Y. Hong, Y. Kim, Y. Park, A. Choi, N.S. Choi, K.T. Lee, 27 L. Cao, W. Hui, Z. Xu, J. Huang, P. Zheng, J. Li, Q. Sun, J.
Energy Environ. Sci. 6, 2067 (2013) Alloys Compd. 695, 632 (2017)
4 Y. Li, Y. Yuan, Y. Bai, Y. Liu, Z. Wang, L. Li, F. Wu, K. 28 J. Deng, M. Li, Y. Wang, Green Chem. 18, 4824 (2016)
Amine, C. Wu, J. Lu, Adv. Energy Mater. 8, 1702781 (2018) 29 Y. Cao, L. Xiao, M.L. Sushko, W. Wang, B. Schwenzer, J.
5 I. Hasa, D. Buchholz, S. Passerini, B. Scrosati, J. Hassoun, Xiao, Z. Nie, L.V. Saraf, Z. Yang, J. Liu, Nano Lett. 12, 3783
Adv. Energy Mater. 4, 1400083 (2015) (2012)
5654 J Mater Sci: Mater Electron (2021) 32:5645–5654
30 N. Sun, Z.R.X. Guan, Y.W. Liu, Yl. Cao, Q.Z. Zhu, H. Liu, 37 J. Zhang, D.W. Wang, W. Lv, S.W. Zhang, Q.H. Liang, D.Q.
Z.X. Wang, P. Zhang, B. Xu, Adv. Energy Mater. 9, 1901351 Zheng, F.Y. Kang, Q.H. Yang, Energy Environ. 10, 370 (2017)
(2019) 38 Q. Wang, X. Zhu, Y. Liu, Y. Fang, X. Zhou, J. Bao, Carbon
31 Y. Bai, C. Wu, R. Xu, F. Wu, Y. Liu, H. Li, Y. Li, J. Lu, K. 127, 658 (2018)
Amine, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7, 5598 (2015) 39 P. Wang, X. Zhu, Q. Wang, X. Xu, X. Zhou, J. Bao, Adv.
32 J. Wang, L. Yan, Q.J. Ren, L.L. Fan, F.M. Zhang, Z.Q. Shi, Energy Mater. 5, 5761 (2017)
Electrochim. Acta 291, 188 (2018) 40 Z. Li, F. Du, X. Bie, D. Zhang, Y. Cai, X. Cui, C. Wang, G.
33 A.C. Ferrari, J. Robertson, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 362, Chen, Y. Wei, J. Phys. Chem. C 114, 22751 (2010)
2477 (2004) 41 Y. Zhu, C. Wang, Adv. Energy Mater. 114, 2830 (2010)
34 Y. Zhu, M. Chen, Q. Li, C. Yuan, C. Wang, Carbon 129, 695
(2018) Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with
35 F. Wu, R. Dong, Y. Bai, Y. Li, G. Chen, Z. Wang, C. Wu, ACS regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 21335 (2018) institutional affiliations.
36 B.H. Hou, Y.Y. Wang, Q.L. Ning, W.H. Li, X.T. Xi, X. Yang,
H.J. Liang, X. Feng, X.L. Wu, Adv. Mater. 31, 1903125
(2019)
