Theory of Projections

January 19, 20, 25, 27, 2023

 Projections
 In general, projections transform points in n-dimensional
coordinate space into an image space with dimensions less
than n
 Projection of a 3D object : defined by straight projection
rays (called “projectors”) emanating from a centre of
projection, passing through each point of the object, and
intersecting a projection plane to form the projection

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 Projections
 Affine and Perspective Projections – one 3D space to other
 Vanishing Point: A point representing infinity in the plane
 Affine Geometry (Theorems of Euclidean Geometry)
 Affine transformations: h = 1 plane; bilinear transformations

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 Planar Geometric Projections
Two different
projections of
the same line

 Projections is onto a plane rather than some curved

surface and uses straight rather than curved projectors
 Formed by the intersection of projectors with the
projection plane
 Referred simply as projections and provide the basis for
descriptive geometry 4
Planar Geometric Projections
Projections

Parallel Projection Perspective Projection

Orthographic Axonometric Oblique 1 point

Top View Cabinet 2 point

Side View Cavalier 3 point

Others
Front View (general)

Trimetric Dimetric Isometric

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 Projections
 Two basic methods:
◼ Parallel
◼ Perspective
 The distinction between two basic classes is in the
relation of the center of projection to the projection
plane
 Distance between the center of projection and
projection plane: Infinite: Parallel Projection
 Distance between the center of projection and
projection plane: Finite: Perspective Projection
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 Projections
 Parallel projection: coordinate positions are transformed to
the view plane along parallel lines (projectors are parallel:
center of projection infinitely distant )

 Perspective projection: coordinate positions are

transformed to the view plane along lines that converge to
a point called the projection reference point (or center of
projection) 7
 Projections
 To define
◼ Perspective projection: specify its center of projection
◼ Parallel projection: specify its direction of projection
 A perspective projection whose center is a point at infinity:
parallel projection

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 Projections
 Visual effect of Perspective Projection: Photographic
systems and Human Visual systems: perspective
foreshortening
 Perspective foreshortening: Size of the perspective
projection of an object varies inversely with the distance of
that object from the center of projection

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 Projections
 Parallel projection:
◼ Less realistic views
 Perspective foreshortening is lacking, although there can be
different constant foreshortenings along each axis
◼ Can be used for recording the exact shape and
measurements of the objects
◼ Angles are preserved only on those faces of the object
parallel to the projection plane
◼ Parallel lines do remain parallel 10
 Projections
 Perspective projection:
◼ Tend to look realistic
◼ Not particularly useful for recording the exact shape and
measurements of the objects
◼ Distances can not be taken from the projection
◼ Angles are preserved only on those faces of the object
that are parallel to the projection plane (as perspective
projection)
◼ Parallel lines do not in general project as parallel lines 11
 Projections
 In developing the various transformations for planar
geometric projections, two alternative approaches may be
adopted (although, both are mathematically equivalent)
 First Approach assumes that
◼ Center of projection or eye point is fixed (object
movable)
 Second Approach assumes that:
◼ Object is fixed; Center of projection is free to move
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 Projections
 Designing/viewing an object:
◼ Location of eye is typically fixed
◼ Plane of projection (e.g., face of CRT) is typically
perpendicular to the viewing direction
First approach is generally more appropriate

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 Projections
 If CG display used to simulate:
◼ The motion of a vehicle
◼ Observer moving through a computer-generated model
(case for vehicle simulators)
◼ For an observer strolling through an architectured model
Then second approach is more appropriate
 We will follow the First Approach

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 Projections
 Parallel Projections are affine projections
 Orthographic: Rays perpendicular; Object parallel to plane
of projection
 Axonometric: Rays perpendicular; Object not parallel to
plane of projection
 Isometric: Mechanical Engineers
 Dimetric: People in Furniture Design business
 Oblique: Rays inclined
 Perspective: Artists/Architects – difficult hence not used in
manual technical work
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Orthographic Projections
 Orthographic Parallel Projections
(Multiview Drawings)
 Complete representation
requires two or more views
(projections) of the object
onto different view planes
 Most common types:
◼ Front View
◼ Top View
◼ Side View
 In all these cases, projection
plane is perpendicular to a
principal axis, which is the
direction of projection
Construction of three orthographic projections
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 Orthographic Parallel Projections
(Multiview Drawings)
 Projections on one of the coordinate planes
◼ z = 0 (front view or elevation)
◼ x = 0 (right side view)
◼ y = 0 (top view or plan)

CP at infinity on the +z, +x, +y axes

 The matrix for projection onto the z-plane: 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
Pz =  
 Similarly, 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0  
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 
Px =  Py = 
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
    18
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
 Orthographic Parallel Projections
(Multiview Drawings)
 For objects with planes that are not parallel to one of the
coordinate planes, the standard orthographic views do not
show the correct or true shape of these planes (auxiliary
views are used for this purpose)
 Auxiliary Views: formed by rotating and translating
the object so that the normal to the auxiliary plane
is coincident with one of the coordinate axes
 The result is then projected onto the coordinate
plane perpendicular to that axis
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Auxiliary Views

(a)Trimetric view
(b)Normal coincident with the Z
axis
(c)Projected onto the z = 0 plane

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 Sectional Views
 Complex object: frequently necessary to show details of
the interior
 Accomplished using a sectional view
 Sectional view: constructed by passing a plane, called the
section or ‘cutting’ plane, through the object
 Removing the part of the object on one side of the plane
and projecting the remainder onto the section plane

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 Sectional Views
 Sectional view: constructed by making the normal to the
section plane coincident with one of the coordinate axes
 Clipping the object to one side of the section plane and
 Finally projecting the result onto the coordinate plane
perpendicular to the axis

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Axonometric Projections
 Axonometric Projections
 Single orthographic projection fails to illustrate the general
3D shape of an object
 Axonometric projections overcome this limitation
 Show 3 adjacent faces
 From CP at infinity, projected to one of the 2D planes
 Use projection planes that are not normal to a principal axis
(or the object inclined to plane of projection) and therefore
show several faces of an object at once
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 Axonometric Projections
 They resemble the perspective projection in this way, but
differ in that the foreshortening is uniform rather than
being related to the distance from the center of projection
 Isometric  Dimetric  Trimetric
 Constructed by manipulating the object, using rotations and
translations, such that at least three adjacent faces are
shown
 The result is then projected from a center of projection at
infinity onto one of the coordinate planes, usually the z = 0
plane 25
 Axonometric Projections
 Unless a face is parallel to the plane of projection, an
axonometric projection does not show its true shape
 Relative lengths of originally parallel lines remain constant
(parallel lines are equally foreshortened)
 Foreshortening factor: Ratio of the projected length of a
line to its true length
 Foreshortening = 1 – foreshortening factor

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 Axonometric Projections
Y
 Transformations [T]
1. Rotation @ Y axis through angle ∅ Z

2. Rotation @ X axis through angle θ

3. Projection on z = 0 plane
c ss 0 0
0 c 0 0
Tax  = 
s − cs 0 0
 
0 0 0 1 X

 Original Length = Unity f X = x *2x + y *2x = c 2 + s 2s 2

 Changed length = fX, fY, fZ, all < 1
f Y = x *2y + y *2y = c
 Foreshortening factors: fX, fY, fZ
 Foreshortenings: Δx =1-fx, Δy, Δz f Z = x *2z + y *2z
 Axonometric Projections
 * *
0 1
1 0 0 1  xx yx 
  
U .T = 0 1 0 1.T =  x y
*
y
*
0 1
y 
0 0 1 1  * *
0 1
 x z y z 
• U = Matrix of unit vectors along the untransformed X, Y and Z axes,
respectively
• T = Concatenated Axonometric Projection Matrix
2 2
f = ( x* + y* )
x x x
2 2
*
f = ( x*y + y )
y y
2 2
f = ( x + y* )
* 28
x z z
 Axonometric Projections
 If fX = fY = fZ, then Isometric Projections

 If fX = fY ≠ fZ, then Dimetric Projections

 If fX ≠ fY ≠ fZ, then Trimetric Projections
 If Δx = Δy = Δz : Isometric projection
 If Δx = Δy ≠ Δz : Dimetric projection
 If Δx ≠ Δy ≠ Δz : Trimetric projection

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 Isometric Projections
 Projection plane normal (and therefore the direction of
projection) makes equal angles with each principal axis
 If the projection plane normal is (dx, dy, dz) then we
require that |dx| = |dy| = |dz| or ±dx = ±dy = ±dz
there are just eight directions (one in each octant) that
satisfy this condition (one such direction is (1, -1, -1))
 Useful property: all three principal axes are equally
foreshortened, allowing measurement along the axes to be
made to the same scale
 In addition, the principal axes project so as to make equal
angles one with another 30
 Isometric Projections
 On solving: fX = fY = fZ, we get
 sin2θ = ⅓ i.e. θ = ± 35.26°
 sin2𝜙 = 0.5 𝜙 = ± 45°
 tan𝛼 = tan𝜙.sinθ = sinθ 𝛼 = ± 30°
 Foreshortening factor: f = 0.8165 = 2Τ3
 𝜙 and θ angles of rotation @ Y and X axis resp.
 𝛼 is the angle between projected X axis and horizontal
plane in Isometric
 [1 0 0 1].[Tax] = [cos𝜙 sin𝜙.sinθ 0 1]
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 Axonometric Projections
 Dimetric projections
◼ Projection plane normal (and therefore the direction of
projection) makes equal angles with exactly two of the
principal axes
 Trimetric projections
◼ Projection plane normal (and therefore the direction of
projection) makes unequal angles with the three
principal axes
 The trimetric projection is least restrictive and the
isometric projection the most restrictive 32
 Trimetric Projection
 Axonometric projection: constructed by manipulating the
object, using rotations and translations, such that at least
three adjacent faces are shown
 Trimetric projection: formed by arbitrary rotations, in
arbitrary order, about any or all of the coordinate axes,
followed by parallel projection onto the z = 0 plane
 For any specific trimetric projection, the foreshortening
ratios are obtained by applying the concatenated
transformation matrix to the unit vectors along the
principal axis
 Each projection formed by first rotate @ Y-axis by angle
Φ then @ X-axis by angle θ, followed by parallel
projection onto the Z = 0 plane
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Trimetric
Example

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 Dimetric Projection
 Trimetric projection with two
of the three foreshortening
factors equal (Δx=Δy≠Δz )
 Formed by first rotating @
Y-axis by angle Φ then @ X-
axis by angle θ, followed by
parallel projection onto the Z
= 0 plane
 On solving
 = sin −1 ( f z )
2
Dimetric projections for various
− fZ
 = sin (
1 ) foreshortening factors
(2 − f 2z) 35
Oblique Projections
 Oblique Projections
 Rays inclined (𝛼) but parallel to each other
 Parallel projectors intersect the plane of projection at an
oblique angle
 Center of projection at infinity
 Illustrate the general 3D shape of an object
 Combine properties of the front, top and side orthographic
projections with the properties of axonometric projections
 Best example: Shadow of objects
 Front face (|| to plane of projection) – True Shape & Size
 Depth information – distorted
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Other faces are distorted
Oblique Projections

Oblique Projection

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 Oblique Projections
 Two frequently used Oblique projections:
◼ Cavalier
◼ Cabinet

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 Oblique Projections
 Cavalier Projection
◼ Angle between the oblique projectors and the plane of projection
is 450
◼ Foreshortening factors for all three principal directions are equal
◼ Resulting figure appear too thick

 Cabinet Projection (furniture design people)

◼ Foreshortening factor for edges perpendicular to the plane of
projection is one-half
◼ Angle between the projectors and projection plane is
cot-1(1/2) = 63.430 40
 Transformation Matrix for Oblique
Projections
 Unit vector [0 0 1] along the z-
axis
 Oblique projectors, P1O and PP2
make an angle β with the plane of
projection z = 0
 Allpossible projectors through P
or O making an angle β with the
z = 0 plane lie on the surface of a
cone with apex at P or O
Direction of oblique projection matrix
 Thereare an infinite number of
oblique projections for a given
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angle β
 Transformation Matrix for Oblique
Projections (Contd…)
 In 2D, Projector P1O can be obtained from
PO by translating point P to the point P1 at
[-a -b 1]
 In 3D, Projector P1O can be obtained from
Direction of
shearing of the vector PO in the X and Y
oblique
directions projection matrix
 Req. transformation P1= P.T1

 Projection onto plane Z = 0 : T = T1.Pz 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
 From Figure: a = f.cosα and b = f.sinα T1 =  T =
 − a − b 1 0 − a − b 0 0
α = angle b/w horizontal & projected z-axis    
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
f = projected length of the z-axis unit
vector (OP2)  1 0 0 0
 
 Also, OP/f = tanβ so β = cot (f)-1 0 1 0 0
T = 
− f cos  − f sin  0 0
 Finally, transformation matrix T :  
 0 0 0 1 42
 Transformation Matrix for Oblique
Projections (Contd…)
 1 0 0 0
 0
 = cot −1 f T=  0 1 0
− f cos  − f sin  0 0
 
 0 0 0 1
 f = 0 and β = 900 →
Orthographic projection
 f=1→
 Edges perpendicular to the projection plane are not foreshortened:
condition for a cavalier projection
β = 450; α : still free parameter (commonly used values 300 & 450)
 f = 1/2 : cabinet projection
β = cot-1(1/2) = 63.4350
α : still a free parameter (commonly used values 300 & 450)
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 Oblique Projections

 Particularly suited for illustration of objects with

circular or otherwise curved faces

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Perspective Projections
 Perspective Projections

 When a 3D object is projected onto a view plane using

perspective transformation equations, any set of parallel
lines in the object that are not parallel to the plane are
projected into converging lines 46
 Perspective Projections
 Parallel lines that are parallel to the view plane will be
projected as parallel lines
 Point at which a set of projected parallel lines appears to
converge: Vanishing point
 In general, a scene can have any number of vanishing
points, depending on how many sets of parallel lines there
are in the scene

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 Perspective Projections

 Perspective projection:
◼ Vanishing points (certain set of parallel lines appear to
meet at a point)
◼ Perspective foreshortening (farther an object is from the
center of projection, smaller it appears)

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 Perspective Transformations
 Set of lines parallel to any of the three principal axes:
vanishing point → axis vanishing point
 At most there are three such points corresponding to the
number of principal axes cut by the projection plane
 Ex: if the projection plane cuts only the Z axis (therefore
normal to it), only Z axis has a principal vanishing point
 Lines parallel to either the Y or X axes are also parallel to
the projection plane and have no vanishing point)

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 Perspective Transformations
 Perspective Projection: categorized by their number of
principal vanishing points
(by the number of axes the projection plane cuts)
 Single / Double / Triple Vanishing Points

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 Perspective Transformations
 Parallel lines converge
 Object size reduces with increasing distance from center of
projection (CP)
 Non uniform foreshortening: f(orientation, distance)
 Shape of the object not preserved
 Projection from one 3D space to another 3D space

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 One Point Perspective Projections
 Two different one-
point perspective
projections of a cube
 Figure 1: One-point
projections because
lines parallel to the X
and Y axes do not
converge
Only lines parallel to Z Figure 1
axes do so
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 One Point Perspective Projections
 Figure2:
Construction of a
one-point perspective
with some of the
projectors and with
the projection plane
cutting only the Z
axis
(projection plane
normal is parallel to
z-axis) Figure 2 53
Two/Three Point Perspective Projections
 2-point perspective: in figure, lines parallel to the y-axis
do not converge in the projection
 2-point perspective: used in architectural, engineering,
industrial design, and in advertising drawing
 3-point perspective: used less frequently, since they add
little realism beyond that afforded by the 2-point
perspective

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Two Point Perspective Projections

Projection plane intersects both the X and Z axes but not the Y axis 55
 1-Point Perspective Transformations
1 0 0 0
0 0  x 
x z 1
1 0
= x z rz + 1 = 
y z
y y 1 (Eq.1)
0 0 1 r  rz + 1 rz + 1 rz + 1 
 
0 0 0 1

 Perspective projection onto some 2D viewing plane :

obtained by concatenating an orthographic projection with
the perspective transformation (for projection plane Z = 0 :
T = PPR.Pz)
 Center of projection, ZC = -1/r, Vanishing Point = 1/r
 As ZC tends to infinity, r tends to zero, Axonometric
projection on Z = 0 plane
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1-Point Perspective Transformations
Y
x* x • r = -1/ZC in Eq. 1 leads
= to the identical results
zc zc − z x* P*
• i.e., Center of Projection
x is at -1/r y*

x* =  On points on Z = 0
P

z
1−
z y X
plane, perspective x
zc transformation has no Z
C

y effect
y* =
z • Origin unaffected
1− Z
zc
z* = 0 with orthograph ic projection
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 Perspective Transformations
1 0 0 0
0 0  1 
0 0 1 0
1 0
= 0 0 1 r  = 0 0 1
0 0 1 r  r 
 
0 0 0 1

 Entire semi-infinite space 0 ≤ Z ≤ ∞ transformed into finite

half space 0 ≤ Z* ≤ 1/r
 All lines parallel to Z axis will pass through [0 0 1/r 1]:
VP
 Similarly for along X axis and Y axis
 2 Point Perspective: Two terms in the first three rows of
the fourth column of the 4×4 transformation matrix are
nonzero
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Thank you!