Bachelor of Architecture

Cosmos College of Management and

Technology

Structure IV
Course Coordinator:

Dr Bharat Pradhan (B.Eng., M.Sc., P.hD.)

Chairman (Pro Eth. Pvt. Ltd.)
Technical Advisor (Avtech Company Pvt. Ltd.)
Scientific Committee Member (ReLUIS, Italy)

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Structural Systems and their
Behaviour under Load

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3
Load transfer mechanism

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Elements/Members of Structural systems

• Beams
• Columns
• Slabs/plates/shells
• Walls
• Footings
• Trusses

Typical elements of a RC Building

Image: Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, USA

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 Elements/Members of Structural systems

Footings

Courtesy: N. Subramanian

a) Wall Footing b)Isolated Spread footing c) Sloped footing c) Combined Footing

e) Mat/Raft foundation f) Pile foundation

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Elements/Members of Structural systems

Columns

a) Circular b) Rectangular c) L-Shaped c) T- Shaped e) Cross Shaped

Courtesy: N. Subramanian
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 Elements/Members of Structural systems

Columns

Courtesy: N. Subramanian

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Column Elements
Defn: Members subject to bending, shear, and axial loads

F
L V
F d
3
M V E,I,A M d1,Q1 d2,Q2

Elastic Properties:
ka = EA/L (axial) sa = F/A (normal stress)
kb = f ( EI/Ln) (bending) sb = My/I (normal stress)
ks = GA/L (shear) v = VQ/Ib (shear stress)
db = f (load, support conditions, L, E, I, A) (normal)

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Beam Elements
Defn: Members subject to bending and shear loads

A beam is a structural
element that is primarily
subjected to
bending.

Beams support the slabs and

transfer the load applied
on slabs to columns

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Beam Elements

Defn: Members subject to bending and shear loads

L V
M M
V E,I,A d1,Q1 d2,Q2

Elastic Properties:
kb = f ( EI/Ln) (bending) s = My/I (normal stress)
ks = GA/L (shear) v = VQ/Ib (shear stress)
db = f (load, support conditions, L, E, I) (bending)

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Walls

Defn: Members subject to shear

y
Vx and Vy
x
dx and dy

Walls are vertical elements and are of masonry or RC construction

Load-bearing walls – support gravity load

Shear Wall – support lateral load 12
Walls

Courtesy: N. Subramanian

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Trusses
For covering long-span industrial buildings, precast RC trusses with prestressed
tie member are often used

Courtesy: N. Subramanian

Fig: Typical configuration of precast RC trusses with prestressed tie member (a)
Bowstring configuration (b) Trapezoidal truss (c) Polygonal truss configuration with
typical member sizes 14
Slab/Plate Elements

Defn: Members subject to bi-directional bending & shear

z
y
Mx, My, and Vz
x
Qx, Qy, and dz

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Floor/Slab System

Slabs are classified as One-

Way slab and Two-Way slab

(a) One-Way Slab

(b) Two-Way Slab

Courtesy: N. Subramanian
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One-Way Joist Floor System (Ribbed Slab)

Ribbed (joist) slab : (One-way bending)

2D gravity or
lateral frames

2D lateral frames Lateral space frame

Floor joists Floor joists

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One-Way Joist Floor System

Advantages:
• Longer spans with heavy loads
• Reduced dead load due to voids
• Electrical, mechanical etc. can be placed between voids
• Good vibration resistance

Typical Applications:
• Medium-to-long spans with heavy loading
• For 30” modules, 35’ – 40’ spans
• For 53” & 66” modules, 35’ – 50’ spans

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Two-Way Joist Floor System(Waffle slab)

Waffle slab : (Two-way bending)

2D lateral frames

Waffle pans,
type

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Two-Way Joist Floor System(Waffle slab)

Advantages:
• Longer spans with heavy loads
• Reduced dead load due to voids
• Electrical, mechanical etc. can be placed in voids
• Good vibration resistance
• Attractive Ceiling

Typical Applications:
• Long spans with heavy loading
• For 3’, 4’, and 5’ modules, 40’ – 50’ spans and beyond

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Two Way Flat plate

Flat plate floors are uniformly thick two-way reinforced

slabs, supported by columns or masonry walls.

- Spans up to 8 m using RC
- Spans up to 11 m when post-tensioned

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Two Way Flat slab

Two-way flat slabs are similar to flat plates, but have

column capitals or drop panels, or both, at the top of the
columns

The capitals increase the shear capacity

of slabs, and the drop panels increase
both the shear and negative moment
capacities at the supports.
Flat slabs are used for heavier loading and
longer spans and require less concrete
and reinforcement than flat plate

- Spans up to 10 m using RC

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Waffle Flat slab

Waffle flat slabs have a square

grid of closely spaced joists with
filler panels over the columns .

Courtesy: N. Subramanian

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Grid Floors

Grid floor consists of beams spaced

at regular intervals in perpendicular
directions, cast monolithically with
the concrete slab.

Grid floors are suitable for large

panels with spans greater than
10 m.

They are used as floor or roof

Fig: Types of grid floors (a) Rectangular grid,
systems for large assembly halls and
(b) Diagrid, (c) Continuous grid
auditorium.
Courtesy: N. Subramanian

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

1. Rigid (Moment Resisting) frame system

(Beams and columns with flat plate/slab, solid slabs or waffle slab)
2. Shear wall systems
3. Dual systems (frames and shear walls)
5. Outrigger and Belt Truss systems
5. Tube system

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 Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Rigid (Moment Resisting) Frame System

Flat plate/ Flat slab system Solid slab Wafle Slab

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Shear Wall System

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Shear Wall System

Shear wall Edge column Shear deformations

generally govern

Elevation
Interior gravity
frames
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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Shear Wall System

Elevator shaft configuration

Gravity frames

Shear walls
Hole
Coupling
beams

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Dual System (Shear Wall +Frames)

Wall-Frame Dual System:

Lateral frames
– 25% of lateral
load, minimum

Hole
Shear walls

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Outrigger and Belt Truss System

The outrigger system

comprises a central core,
including either braced frames
or shear walls, with horizontal
‘outrigger’ trusses or girders
connecting the core to the
external columns.

In most cases, the external

columns are interconnected by
exterior belt girder.

Courtesy: N. Subramanian 31
Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Outrigger and Belt Truss System

508.2m tall, 101 storey tall Taipei 101, Tapei, Taiwan

(Taipei World Financial Center)

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Outrigger and Belt Truss System

The 420.5m tall, 88-storey Jin Mao

Building, Shanghai, China

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 Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Tube System Framed-tube Systems

Dr. Fazlur Rahman Khan

- Father of tubular Structure

Courtesy: N. Subramanian
A framed tube consists of closely
spaced perimeter columns
interconnected by deep spandrels.

The whole building works as a huge

vertical cantilever tube to resist First frame tube building
- 43-storey DeWitt-Chestnut apartment building,
overturning moments.
Chicago, 1965
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 Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Tube System Braced tube System

(trussed tube system)

when diagonal bracings is added

to the face of the tube structure,
the resulting system called
braced-tube system,
or trussed-tube system.

Courtesy: N. Subramanian

First Braced tube building, 1985

50 storey, 780 Third Avenue Building,
New York
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 Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Tube System Braced tube System

(trussed tube system)

when diagonal bracings is added

to the face of the tube structure,
the resulting system called
braced-tube system,
or trussed-tube system.

Courtesy: N. Subramanian

First Braced tube building, 1985

50 storey, 780 Third Avenue Building,
New York
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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Tube System Tube in Tube, and

Bundled Tube systems

Tube in Tube system

When a tube is built within a
tube

Bundled Tube system

A cluster of tubes
Tube in Tube Bundled Tube
interconnected
with common interior panels 50-story, 218 m tall One Shell 57-storey, 205 m tall
to generate a perforated Plaza (OSP), Houston, Texas One Magnificent
(1971) Mile building, (1983)
multicell tube

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Mixed system

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Mixed system

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Mixed system

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Frame System

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings
Frame: Coplanar system of beam (or slab) and column elements
dominated by flexural deformation

Planar (2D) Space (3D)

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings
Basic Behavior of frames

Gravity Load
Lateral Loading
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 Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings
Collapse Mechanism

Storey Sway Mechanism

This is possible when the bending

Building Sway Mechanism moment capacity of Columns is higher
than that of Beams.
The ideal situation is when damage
occurs at the ends of the beams and This is known as strong column – weak
that too distributed throughout the beam philosophy.
building height. 44
 Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

strong column – weak beam design

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Advantages of Frame System

• Optimum use of floor space, i.e. optimal for office buildings,

retail, parking structures where open space is required.
• Relatively simple and experienced construction process
• Generally economical for low-to mid-rise construction (less than
about 20 stories)

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings
Frame Disadvantages

• Generally, frames are flexible structures and lateral deflections

generally control the design process for buildings with greater
than about 4 stories. Note that concrete frames are about 8
times stiffer than steel frames of the same strength.
• Span lengths are limited when using normal reinforced concrete
(generally less than about 40 ft, but up to about 50 ft). Span
lengths can be increased by using pre-stressed concrete.

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Beam-column frame:

Elevation

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

Diaphragm (shear) element: Carries lateral loading to the lateral load resisting system

Lateral load
frame, type.
Plate element

Deformed shape -
Lateral load distributes
to frames proportional
to tributary area

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Structural Systems for lateral load resistance
in buildings

For relatively square plans, diaphragms are generally considered rigid

Space frame
with square plan

Deformed shape has constant

lateral displacement - No
diaphragm flexibility, ie. lateral
load distributes to frame
proportional to frame stiffness

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Shear Wall System

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Reinforced concrete wall (Shear Wall)
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Important points to be considered while locating shear walls

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Very good earthquake performance, if properly designed.
In past earthquakes
Large number of RC frame buildings damaged or collapsed.
Shear wall buildings performed very well.

Easy to construct
Straight forward reinforcement detailing
Easily implemented at site
Effective in
Reducing the cost construction
Minimizing earthquake damage to
Structural elements.
Non-structural elements like glass windows, building contents etc.
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PLACEMENT OF SHEAR WALLS

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PLACEMENT OF SHEAR WALLS

Located symmetrically to reduce ill effects of twist

Symmetry can be along one or both the directions

Can be located at exterior or interior

More effective when located along exterior perimeter of building

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Reinforced concrete shear wall (Murthy C.V.R. ,2005)
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CODES FOR DESIGN OF SHEAR WALLS

• American Concrete Institute method (ACI 318)

• Indian Standard (IS 456: 2000)

• IS 13920:1993 - Indian Standard Ductile Detailing of RC members

Code recommends a ductile design for adequate strength and ductility

to resist severe earthquakes.

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Thickness 150 – 400 mm

Minimum reinforcement 0.25% of gross area in each direction

Diameter shall not exceed 1/10 thickness of section

Reinforcement provided in two curtains when:

Factored shear stress exceeds 0.25 f ck or

Wall thickness exceeds 200 mm

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Load Bearing Wall System

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Masonry Buildings

Brittle masonry
• Masonry is brittle and strength is very severe under cyclic loads.
Large mass of masonry structures
• Heavy weight attracts large amounts of seismic forces
Seismic forces larger than design values
• Seismic forces can be significantly higher than given by seismic
coefficients of various design codes.
Large variability in masonry properties
• Variability in strength depends heavily on the quality of
construction.
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 Masonry Buildings
AAC Aerated Autoclave concrete

In-Plane Shear Strength Deficiencies

Stone Masonry Clay Brick Masonry

In-plane failures due to shear overstress & flexure instabilities

• Shear failure are brittle and catastrophic than flexure failures.
• Solid walls are generally strong enough to resist earthquake loads.
• Openings for doors and windows significantly reduce in-plane resistance.
• Many shear failure of R/R masonry is due to loss of integrity.

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 Masonry Buildings
Out-of-plane Wall Weaknesses

Gable & Cross Walls Separation of Wythes

Out-of-plane failures due to inadequate wall-diaphragm anchorage & dynamic

instability of slender walls
• Dynamic instability of long unsupported walls such as gable end walls.
• Separation of wythes in R/R masonry due to lack of through stones.
• Most common cause of observed damage especially in R/R stone masonry.
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Masonry Buildings

Roof Failures

Collapse of wall supporting roof structure Partial collapse of truss

Causes of roof failures

• Loss of support for roof trusses and joists
• Collapse of roof truss due to failure of joints and/or truss members
• Flat RC slabs are relatively rigid and have sufficient strength and stiffness.
No failure of such diaphragms.
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Masonry Buildings

Lack of Structural Integrity

Lack of proper connections capable of withstanding compression

and tension forces between various building components

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Masonry Buildings

Failure Mechanisms of Masonry Walls

Rocking Failure Shear sliding Failure Diagonal shear cracking

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 Masonry Buildings

Failure Mechanisms of Masonry Walls

Possible Shear Failure Modes

• Failure through masonry Units :

In case of Strong Mortar and Weak Units

• Sliding along bed joints :

In case of Low vertical compressive stress

• Stair-steeping through bed and head joints :

In case of Weak Mortar and Strong Units
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 Masonry Buildings

UnReinforced Masonry structures constructed with earthquake resistant

features (design & detailing) have suffers little damage in earthquake.
Ductile behaviour of masonry can be achieved by combining masonry with
steel and using suitable detailing.
Cracking of masonry cannot be prevented and is not against the
philosophy of earthquake resistant design construction
Cracking causes softening of the system, thus increasing the period of the
structure. As a result, the structures moves out of phase with the
earthquake shaking reducing the amount of seismic energy input.
Additionally, Cracking adds damping to the system without serious risk to
the structure’s load carrying capacity
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 Masonry Buildings
Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry Buildings

Effect of openings (Windows door)

• Reduce lateral strength of URM walls and

Therefore,
• Openings should be small & centrally
located.
• Total length of opening in the façade should
be less than half for one-storey and one-third
for two- storey dwellings.

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Masonry Buildings
Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry Buildings

A case of Dhulikhel

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Masonry Buildings
Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry Buildings
Connections between wythes
• Proper masonry bonds to ensure
connection between wythes
• Bond stones for stone masonry
Connecting perpendicular walls
• Toothed joints in corners
• T’s alternatively in lifts of about
0.45 m

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 Masonry Buildings
Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry Buildings

Connecting peripheral walls for structural

robustness and integrity
• Plinth band
• Lintel band
• Roof band
• Gable band

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 Masonry Buildings
Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry Buildings

• Light and strong roof is desirable.

• Secure tiles/slates or use GI sheets
• Good Jointing in trusses
• Concrete floors in 1:2:4 concrete
with reinforcement in both
directions and bend up near
supports

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Masonry Buildings
Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry Buildings

Energy Dissipation techniques by slight movement

Pasargadae, Tomb of Cyrus Walls

A case of Persia
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 Masonry Buildings
Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry Buildings
Energy Dissipation techniques by slight movement

Foundations

A case of Persia
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Masonry Buildings
Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry Buildings
A case of Nepal

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Masonry Buildings
Concepts for Earthquake Resistant Masonry Buildings
A case of Nepal

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