UTILITIES

ELECTRICITY

TRAINING COURSE
Course EXP-PR-UT010-EN
Revision 0.1
 Exploration & Production
Utilities
Electricity

UTILITIES
ELECTRICITY

CONTENTS

1 OBJECTIVES ..............................................................................................................5
2 THE ORIGIN OF ELECTRICITY .................................................................................7
2.1 ANECDOTE...........................................................................................................7
2.1.1 What are magnets used for? ..........................................................................8
2.1.2 Which scientists have helped us to understand magnets? .............................8
2.2 MAGNETISM AND ELECTRIC CURRENT ...........................................................9
2.2.1 Magnetic field .................................................................................................9
2.2.2 The magnet ..................................................................................................10
2.2.3 Electromagnetism: electromagnetic force.....................................................14
2.3 ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATION ........................................................16
2.3.1 Induced voltage ............................................................................................16
2.3.2 AC generator principle..................................................................................17
2.3.3 The "bicycle" dynamo ...................................................................................19
2.3.4 Three-phase AC generator...........................................................................20
2.4 DIRECT CURRENT GENERATION ....................................................................21
2.4.1 DC generator principle .................................................................................21
2.4.2 Different types of DC machines....................................................................24
2.5 EXERCISES ........................................................................................................26
3 ELECTRICAL THEORY, SYMBOLS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS .............................30
3.1 SYMBOLS AND UNITS.......................................................................................30
3.1.1 Basic SI units................................................................................................30
3.1.2 Derived SI units ............................................................................................31
3.1.3 Prefixes ........................................................................................................32
3.1.4 Rules for writing units ...................................................................................33
3.1.5 Non SI technical units...................................................................................33
3.1.6 Anglo-Saxon units ........................................................................................34
3.2 BASIC VALUES IN ELECTRICITY DIRECT CURRENT .....................................36
3.2.1 Electric current .............................................................................................36
3.2.2 Voltage and potential difference ...................................................................37
3.2.3 Ohm's law and resistance (in Direct Current) ...............................................38
3.2.4 Resistivity .....................................................................................................40
3.2.5 Resistors ......................................................................................................42
3.2.6 Joule effect (Paragraphe applicable in AC and DC) .....................................43
3.2.7 Electric power...............................................................................................43
3.2.8 Applying Ohm's and Joule's laws .................................................................44
3.2.9 Electrical energy...........................................................................................45
3.2.10 Efficiency (in active power) .......................................................................46
3.3 ADDITIONAL VALUES IN ELECTRICITY ...........................................................48
3.3.1 Inductance: the inductor (also called induction coil) .....................................48
3.3.2 Capacitor ......................................................................................................51
3.3.3 R, L, C summary ..........................................................................................56

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3.3.4 Impedance....................................................................................................58
3.3.5 Calculating the impedance ...........................................................................61
3.4 ALTERNATING CURRENT VALUES AND MEASUREMENTS ..........................66
3.4.1 Reminder of direct current and alternating current measurements...............66
3.4.2 Alternating current power measurements.....................................................67
3.4.3 Alternating current formulas and power units: ..............................................69
3.4.4 Summary of the formulas and exercises ......................................................71
3.5 ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS......................................73
3.5.1 Electrical diagrams and circuit diagrams ......................................................78
3.6 EXERCISES ........................................................................................................85
4 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS, ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION ............................86
4.1 ELECTRICAL GENERATION..............................................................................87
4.1.1 Alternating current generators, the alternator ...............................................87
4.1.2 Direct current generators, rotating machines................................................89
4.1.3 Direct current generators, batteries ..............................................................89
4.2 HV AND LV LINKS ..............................................................................................90
4.2.1 High Voltage (HV) ........................................................................................90
4.2.2 Low Voltage (LV) links..................................................................................93
4.3 HV / LV CABLES - ACCESSORIES ....................................................................98
4.3.1 Cable trays (and cable supports)..................................................................98
4.3.2 Trenches ....................................................................................................100
4.3.3 Connecting HV cables ................................................................................103
4.3.4 Connecting LV cables ................................................................................104
4.4 HV CABINET – HIGH VOLTAGE ......................................................................107
4.5 LV CABINET – LOW VOLTAGE........................................................................108
4.6 USERS ..............................................................................................................109
4.7 EXERCISES ......................................................................................................111
4.7.1 Basic values in electricity............................................................................111
4.7.2 DC voltage supplies ...................................................................................114
4.7.3 Single phase AC voltage supplies ..............................................................115
4.7.4 Three-phase AC voltage supplies ..............................................................116
5 PRECAUTIONS AGAINST THE ELECTRICAL HAZARDS.....................................120
5.1 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ..................................................................................120
5.1.1 Physiological effects of electricity ...............................................................120
5.1.2 Voltage classifications ................................................................................122
5.1.3 Electrical risks for persons and equipment .................................................123
5.2 EARTHING ........................................................................................................125
5.3 Earth faults ........................................................................................................125
5.3.1 Neutral point arrangements ........................................................................127
5.3.2 Earth system ..............................................................................................130
5.3.3 Earth electrodes .........................................................................................132
5.3.4 Earth loops .................................................................................................133
5.4 PROTECTION OF PERSONS AND EQUIPMENT............................................135
5.4.1 Personal protection ....................................................................................135
5.4.2 Mechanical protection ‘IP’...........................................................................138
5.4.3 Electrical work ............................................................................................139
5.4.4 Cathodic protection ....................................................................................140
5.5 EXERCISES ......................................................................................................141

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6 HIGH VOLTAGE CABINETS...................................................................................144

6.1 HV substation ....................................................................................................144
6.2 HV CUBICLES...................................................................................................149
6.3 PROTECTION GEAR IN THE HV CIRCUITS ...................................................152
6.4 SAFETY IN THE HV SUBSTATION ..................................................................159
7 LOW VOLTAGE CABINETS ...................................................................................162
7.1 MAIN DISTRIBUTION (MCC)............................................................................162
7.1.1 Composition of LV cabinets........................................................................163
7.1.2 Equipment in the LV cabinets.....................................................................164
7.2 LV DISTRIBUTION CIRCUIT PROTECTIONS..................................................168
7.2.1 Fuses .........................................................................................................169
7.2.2 Circuit breakers ..........................................................................................174
7.2.3 Thermal/magnetic relay ..............................................................................183
7.2.4 PERSONNEL PROTECTION AT THE LV SWITCHBOARD/NETWORK...184
7.2.5 Permanent insulation monitor: PIM ............................................................184
7.2.6 Differential protection .................................................................................187
7.3 DISTRIBUTION CIRCUITS ...............................................................................193
7.3.1 Normal / Emergency...................................................................................194
7.3.2 Emergency / Essential................................................................................195
7.3.3 Permanently backed up circuits..................................................................196
7.4 EXERCISES ......................................................................................................197
8 ELECTRICAL SAFETY ...........................................................................................199
8.1.1 Colour code ................................................................................................200
8.1.2 Plug-in code ...............................................................................................201
8.1.3 Current range for each voltage range.........................................................204
8.1.4 Power socket protection .............................................................................205
8.1.5 Plugging in / unplugging current sockets....................................................207
8.2 PORTABLE / TEMPORARY ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS ...........................207
8.3 SAFETY AT HOME ...........................................................................................210
8.3.1 Reminder – Protection of persons: .............................................................211
8.3.2 Consumer unit (domestic distribution board) ..............................................213
8.3.3 Electrical installations in bathrooms ...........................................................214
8.3.4 Domestic power sockets:............................................................................217
8.3.5 Earth circuits...............................................................................................219
8.4 EXERCISES ......................................................................................................221
9 GLOSSARY.............................................................................................................223
10 FIGURES ................................................................................................................224
11 TABLES ..................................................................................................................231

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1 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this course is to allow a future operator to understand the basics of electricity
on industrial sites, particularly in the oil industry.

At the end of the course, in the electrical domain, the participant must be able to:

Explain origin of electricity, effectd and different properties of electrical energy

Name, interpret basic formulas and units expressed in electricity

Recognise used symbols and terms

Interpret, use any drawing, schematic of electrical disci^pline

Differenciate the different levelsof currents and voltages

Identify physically an electrical device or material making adequate correspondence

with its symbolic representation on drawing or schematic

Identify devices, panels in High Voltage range

Identify devices and panels of a Low Voltyage distribution

Recognise the differents electrical cables for electric distribution

Interpret Safety Regulation specific at electrical discipline

Know the electricalm safety material to use in case of emergency

Analyse, interpret a trip, a dysfunctionnement in an electrical distribution

Interpret all sequences of a locking off for electrical works.

Explain the origin of electricity

Give electricity's formulas and basic units

Recognise the terms and symbols used

Understand and analyse all electrical diagrams and drawings

Differentiate between the different voltage and current levels

Identify the equipment corresponding to a representation or a given identification

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Identify the cabinets and equipment in a high voltage substation

Identify the cabinets and equipment in a low voltage distribution substation

Recognise the different distribution cables

Interpret the safety rules relating to electricity

Know the electrical safety equipment to be used, according to the different cases

Analyse and interpret an electrical trip or malfunction

Interpreter an electrical lockout for work.

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2 THE ORIGIN OF ELECTRICITY

The electric genie is all around us. It is now impossible to envisage
our daily life without it?

Figure 1: The electric genie

The term "electric genie" implies a certain "magic" although most of

us do not believe in magic.

Here, we are in the technical domain and therefore electricity must

have a scientific origin.

It is all due to the magnet. Or at least, the magnetic energy, the

magnetic field created by a magnet

Without this “magnetic field”, there would be no electricity production

or electrical energy.

Figure 2: The magnet

In the "other direction", when we have electricity, we can generate the electromagnetic
energy which operates all our modern equipment, but to do this we require a magnetic
induction (a magnetic field) and, of course, a magnet.

2.1 ANECDOTE

How did it all begin?

There are a great many legends surrounding the discovery of the magnet. One of the best
known goes back some 4000 years. An old shepherd called Magnes was grazing his
sheep in a northern region of Greece called Magnesia and it is said that the hobnails in his
shoes and the metal tip of his shepherd's crook stuck to the large black rock on which he
was standing. This type of rock was later called magnetite, which is derived from the name
Magnesia or from Magnes.

Magnetism appears in the writings of Lucretius from the first century BC, and the magical
powers of magentite are described in the works of Pliny the Elder.

For many years after its discovery, magnetite was veiled in superstitions and it was
thought that it had magical powers, like the ability to cure the sick, to drive out evil spirits
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and even attract and dissolve iron ships! Unlike amber, magnetite does not have to be
rubbed to attract objects.

Magnetite thus took on a much more magical dimension. It was quickly found that
magnetite not only attracted iron objects but that an iron needle floating on water always
pointed in a North-South direction, thus creating a primitive compass.

2.1.1 What are magnets used for?

The discovery of magnets was very important since they are used to manufacture electric
motors and generators.

Without electricity there would be no telephones, no lighting, no electric heating,

computers or televisions

2.1.2 Which scientists have helped us to understand magnets?

William Gilbert was the first to observe that the Earth is a giant magnet and that magnets
can be produced by hammering wrought iron. He also discovered that this induced
magnetism is lost if the iron is heated.

In 1820, Hans Christian Øersted established for the first time (during a public presentation)
that there is a relationship between electricity and magnetism.

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2.2 MAGNETISM AND ELECTRIC CURRENT

What is a magnet?

Magnets can be produced by placing a magnetic material, like iron or steel, in a strong
magnetic field. Permanent magnets, temporary magnets and electromagnets can be
produced in this manner.

A magnet does not have a specific shape. It can be in one of the following shapes: bars,
prism, cylinder, horse shoe (the best known shape), knife, fork (Oh yes it is! Try testing
your kitchen utensils), etc., as long as the material can be magnetised and remain
magnetic.

2.2.1 Magnetic field

The magnetic field around a piece of magnetite or a straight magnet can be represented
by the lines of force shown in the right.

Figure 3: Lines of force of a magnetic

filed

Although it must
be remembered
that these lines are no more real than the lines of latitude and
longitude found on a map or globe.

Figure 4: Lines of latitude and longitude

The lines of a magnetic field are three-dimensional all around a magnetic bar.

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2.2.2 The magnet

The magnet attracts everything made of ferrous

metal by concentrating this attraction at its ends.

By analogy with the Earth, which is a "large

magnet", the ends of a magnet are called "poles".

Figure 5: Poles of a magnet

2.2.2.1 Specific feature of the poles:

When the opposite poles of a magnet

are brought together, the magnetic field
lines merge with each other and the
magnets are attracted to each other

Figure 6: Attraction of two magnets

When the same poles of a magnet are

brought together, the magnetic field
lines move away from each other and
the magnets repel each other

Figure 7: Repelled magnets

2.2.2.2 Application to the compass

How does a compass work?

The northern and southern ends of the Earth are called the North Pole and the South Pole.
Since the Earth has a core made of iron and nickel it behaves like a magnet. The Earth's
magnetic poles are located near the geographical poles.

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The needle (pointer) of a compass is also a magnet and has a north pole and a south pole.
The pole of the needle indicated by an "N" is attracted to the North and it always indicates
the Earth's magnetic North,
just as the other end of the
needle (indicated by an "S")
is attracted by the South and
always points to the Earth's
magnetic South Pole.
N W
SW NW
Figure 8: The compass
S N

SE NE The Earth itself acts like a

E magnet, with its two poles
S N
and its vast magnetic field.
The magnetic force is
greater at some points on the Earth's surface than at others.

In addition, the magnetic force varies as the Moon orbits around the Earth. The position of
the magnetic poles also varies slightly from year to year. The magnetic north pole and the
geographical North Pole do not coincide.

2.2.2.3 The permanent magnet

Some types of alloys like alnico (an alloy of

aluminium, nickel, iron and cobalt) are excellent
permanent magnets.

Figure 9: The permanent magnet

The ferrites (materials resembling ceramics

made of iron oxide with nickel and cobalt) also
make excellent permanent magnets.

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2.2.2.4 The temporary magnet

Soft iron and some iron alloys like Permalloy (a mixture of iron and nickel) can be
magnetised very easily, even in a weak magnetic field.

However, as soon as the field is removed, the magnetism disappears. These materials are
excellent temporary magnets and are particularly used in the manufacture of telephones
and electric motors.

2.1.5 Electromagnetism: induction

2.2.2.5 The Oersted experiment

Compass needle

Figure 10: The Oersted experiment

In 1819 the Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current
passing through a straight conductor produced a magnetic field, in the ambient air,
capable of deviating the needle (pointer) of a compass. This magnetic field is not material;
it is rather this current's zone of influence over other currents and magnets.

The higher the current and the nearer the line of force to the conductor, the stronger the
magnetic field. Magnetic induction could now be defined with the unit (the "Tesla") and
formulas …..(for the electrician), and this is the next paragraph:

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2.2.2.6 Magnetic induction

Figure 11: The corkscrew rule

The "corkscrew rule" gives the direction of the magnetic induction ‘B’. It is perpendicular to
the conductor.

If this induction is produced for a straight conductor, what happens for a spiral conductor
and for a series of turns (i.e. a coil or a solenoid):

S N

(a) (b)
Figure 12: Induction for a "spiral" inductor

The induction is higher in (a) but more higher in (b) and even higher if the number of turns
is increased.

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2.2.2.7 The electromagnet

Soft iron core
Electromagnets are produced by placing a
metal core (normally an iron alloy) inside
a wire coil carrying an electric current.
When the electricity flows through the coil S
a magnetic field is produced the power of
which depends on the electric current and
on the number of wire turns, and the
polarity depends on the direction of the N
flow.

Figure 13: The electromagnet

When a current is applied, the core

behaves like a magnet but the magnetic
properties disappear when the current is switched off.

A coil around a ferromagnetic bar behaves like a magnet

when a current is flowing through it. This is the principle
of the electromagnets which operate electrovalves
(solenoids) and relays.

The moving ferromagnetic core moves according to the

direction of the current and according to the principle
shown in the figure.

Figure 14: Ferromagnetic core

2.2.3 Electromagnetism: electromagnetic force

And what happens if we combine 2 magnets, or 2 electromagnetic coils or one magnet +

one coil?

A conductor through which an electric current is flowing, placed in a magnetic field, is

subjected to a force. This force is perpendicular to the direction of the current and that of
the magnetic field.

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Figure 15: Electromagnetic force and right hand rule

Where ‘I’ is the direction of the electric current, ‘B’ the direction of the magnetic field (the
induction) and ‘F’ the direction of the force (the pressure or the movement).

When a current flows through a conductor which is in a region of space where magnetic
field is present it is subjected to an electromagnetic force which is perpendicular both to
the conductor and to the field.

This force is sometimes called the Laplace force, even though this interaction of two
currents in the magnetic field was described by the French scientist André Marie Ampère
in 1820.

The operation of all the following equipment is based on this very important
phenomenon: motors, loudspeakers, a large number of measurement instruments,
contactors, etc.

The action of two magnetic or electromagnetic fields creates a force which generates a
movement, and now that we have associated a force (a movement) with a magnetic
field…, we will move on to the next chapter.

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2.3 ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATION

2.3.1 Induced voltage

If an electric circuit is subjected to a variable magnetic flux, a voltage is induced in this

circuit. This is called an induced voltage.

The magnetic flux Φ (Weber (Wb)) expresses the quantity of magnetic induction
intercepted by the electric circuit.

Figure 16: Induced voltage

An induced voltage ui(t) can be modelled by an ideal voltage source. If we complete the
circuit, for example by a resistance R, a current i(t) starts to flow.

The result of this is that the induced voltage can be produced by varying the magnetic
induction, the surface area of the electric circuit, the angle formed between them, or any
combination of these actions.

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2.3.2 AC generator principle

N I S

Figure 17: Simple AC generator

If a plane coil is rotated in a magnetic field, an induced voltage appears across its
terminals. We thus vary the angle α between the plane of the coil and thus the magnetic
induction.

The faster the rotation, the less time it

takes cos α to change from 1 to -1 and vice
versa. The amplitude of the induced
voltage thus created is proportional to the
magnetic induction and to the coil rotation
speed.

Figure 18: AC generator

This is the alternator principle, and to understand the sinusoidal shape, see the following
diagrams.

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M
N I S N S
M

M' M'
i= i=0

(a) (b)

M M

N I S N S

M' M'
i= i=0

(c (d
Figure 19: AC current production

The coil moves (rotates) in an anticlockwise direction ,90 deg between each figure from “a’
to ‘d’.

From (a) to (b) i.e. a rotation of 90°

From (b) to (c) a rotation of 90°

From (c) to (d) a rotation of 90°

From (d) to (a) a rotation of 90°

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2.3.3 The "bicycle" dynamo

The "bicycle" dynamo is a sinusoidal alternating current generator, with a magnet

(permanent) creating an 'emf' in a "peripheral" coil.

In principle, the term "dynamo" must be applied to a direct current generator; therefore this
term should not be used for the alternator equipping a bicycle. But since this name is
commonly used for the generators on our bicycles, we will simply call it a "bicycle
dynamo". The voltage produced is designated either by the letter ‘e’ or ‘U’, ‘V’, ‘v’ , ‘u’, ‘E’,
etc.

The following figure shows 2 coils (in series) but the system could operate with one coil
only.

Axe Sin α V

V N
α Cos α

V = e = emf = U

Figure 20: The bicycle dynamo

Figure 21: Sine wave

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When the magnet is rotated, the value ‘U’ at instant ‘t’ exactly represents the value of the
sine of the magnet's position angle (α). For a complete rotation of 360 degrees, a wave is
formed, this is one "alternation".

U (at instant ‘t’) = U sine α

2.3.4 Three-phase AC generator

Three-phase generator (or motor) principle:

Instead of a single "peripheral" coil, let us place 3 coils

at 120°, and thus the stator's 3 electromagnets produce
3 sine waves (or 3 alternations), when the "central"
magnet starts to rotate.

Figure 22: Three-phase alternating current generation

principle

In the diagram, the induced emf will be at its

U maximum in the top coil and at its minimum
and opposite in the other two coils.
Z

Y N
Figure 23: Three-phase generator
construction principle
O

W
S V

Figure 24: A stator coil

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2.4 DIRECT CURRENT GENERATION

A direct current generator and a direct current motor are exactly the same
machines, there is no difference between them. The generator produces direct
current if a rotational drive is applied, and the same machine supplied with direct
current becomes a motor.

Direct current machines were the first to be used with the arrival of the age of electricity.
Although the alternating current machine was technically simpler and cheaper to produce it
was not immediately used due to its lower flexibility and lower efficiency (when first
produced). It was not until the technical progress made in the second half of the
20th century that alternating current machines (almost) totally replaced direct current
machines.

2.4.1 DC generator principle

Let us take the same plane coil as for the

AC generator, rotating in a magnetic field but,
where for the 'AC' generator there are 2 rings on
which the brushes (graphite) of the fixed part
(stator) 'collect' the current. In the case of the DC
generator there is one ring which is split into
2 copper collector blades (on the rotor).

Figure 25: DC generator principle

The commutation function is essential.

Each side of a plane coil which rotates
about its axis passes in front of a north
pole, then in front of a south pole, and so
on.
N S
Figure 26: Simple DC generator

Therefore the magnetic induction

intercepted by the plane coil regularly
changes direction according to the angular
position of the rotor.

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To prevent the torque produced by the

+e
electromagnetic force from being reversed at
the same rate, the current in the plane coil
must be regularly reversed. This is performed
TIME
by the collector.

Figure 27: Emf produced by a DC generator

-e
The torque produced by the current flowing
through a plane coil would be approximately
sinusoidal if the collector were not present. It
becomes a rectified sine wave due to the
collector.

Figure 28: Rectified sine wave

However, these pulses are a problem. In

addition, DC machines have several (coil)
turns, each linked to a pair of blades on the
collector. The figure on the left shows the
effect of smoothing the torque by using 2 coil
turns instead of 1 on the rotor and therefore
4 blades instead of 2 on the collector.

Figure 29: Effect of smoothing the torque

In this setup with the stator's

magnetic field created by an
electromagnet, the rotor has 6 turns
+
(or 6 windings). +
+
Therefore the smoothing of the
+
current and voltage generated is
6 times greater with the same +
number of pairs of collector blades +
(split-ring commutator) as there are
turns.

Figure 30: Rotor with 6 windings

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Figure 31: Composition of a DC machine

To improve the smoothing of the electromagnetic couple, direct current machines are
produced with a large number of coil turns and blades.

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2.4.2 Different types of DC machines

2.4.2.1 Permanent magnet machine

This is the type shown in paragraph 2.4.1 above.

We find DC generators with permament magnets as three-phase alternator exciters.

2.4.2.2 Other machines

There are three types which correspond to the wiring configuration between the rotor and
stator:

Shunt Machines

Series Machines

Compound Machines

The main advantage of the DC machine is the flexibility according to the speed.

A DC generator can provide the same voltage over a wide speed range; we just have to
modulate the current in the stator's "inductors".

A DC motor has a very wide speed range by varying the current either in the rotor or in the
inductors (or the armature) or in both.

Shunt Machines

The stator and the rotor are wired in parallel.

The shunt motor produces a constant torque whatever its speed.

"Shunt" machine

"Series" machine

"Compound" machine

Figure 32: Shunt machine

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N S
S

Figure 33: Shunt wiring of a DC machine

• Series machine:

The stator and the rotor are wired in series.

The series motor produces a high torque,

particularly at low speed.

Figure 34: Series machine

Armature

N S

Field windings

Figure 35: Series wiring of a DC machine

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• Compound Machine

These are a combination of Shunt and Series, the

inductors are partly wired in series and partly in
parallel with the armature.

This motor is the most commonly used of the three

types since it combines the advantages of the two
systems. It is used to drive a generator's oil and
cooling system pumps.

Figure 36: Compound machine

2.5 EXERCISES

1. A magnet can rotate on a pivot point. What happens to this magnet when we
approach a second magnet, the down one in the direction of the arrow?

N
S

‰ It rotates in a clockwise direction

‰ It rotates in the other direction

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2. A magnet can rotate on a pivot point. What happens to this magnet when we
approach a second magnet, the down in the direction of the arrow?

S
S

‰ It rotates in a clockwise direction

‰ It rotates in the other direction

3. What type of material are the tacks shown in the following figure made of?

Tacks

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4. What type of electrical equipment does the figure

on the right remind you of?

5. A coil can rotate in a permanent magnetic field.

If a D.C.current varying in intensity flows through this coil, what device can this
drawing be assimilated to?

‰ Electric motor
N

‰ Solenoid

‰ Voltmeter N S
‰ Transformer S
‰ Relay

6. The graph opposite shows the voltage of the 3 coils (installed at 120 deg.) at instant
’t’. If u1 = 1 Volt at this instant ‘t’, what is the value u2 and u3 at the same instant ‘t’.
Use the following graph for the 3 alternations produced u = f (t)

Sin α
u1
1 Volt

u2 u3
1 Volt

U2 = …………..

U3 = …………..

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7. If one alternation on the this

graph represents a 50Hz
voltage, what is the value (in
time) of the alternation ‘T’?

T = ……………

8 For the bicycle dynamo, a complete rotation in 1 second produces an induced

voltage at a frequency of 1 hertz.

8.1 How many revolutions per second are necessary to obtain 50 Hz?

8.2 The speed of rotary machines is expressed in RPM (Revolutions Per Minute), at
what speed must the machine rotate in rpm to obtain 50 Hz?

8.3 At what speed must the machine rotate in rpm to obtain 60 Hz?

8.4 The central rotating magnet is called:

‰ Stator

‰ Rotor

8.5 The coils which pick up the induced energy (at the periphery) are in the:

‰ Stator

‰ Rotor

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3 ELECTRICAL THEORY, SYMBOLS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

3.1 SYMBOLS AND UNITS

Source: Bernard Schneider and Alain Beuret, 2003 to 2006

3.1.1 Basic SI units

A quantitative analysis of the formulas obtained by physicists or engineers supposes that a

coherent system of units is used.

The international system of units called the SI system is universally adopted in the field of
electricity. It is based on seven basic units and two additional geometrical units which are
shown in the following table.

Values SI units Remark

Name Symbol Name Symbol

l, d
Length x , y, metre m
etc.
Mass m kilogramme kg not to be confused with weight

Time t second s

I
Electric current ampere A
i

Thermodynamic temperature T kelvin K

Amount of substance n mole mol

Luminous intensity Iv candela cd

Plane angular measurement

α, β, γ, radian rad 2π (rad) = 1 complete revolution
etc.
Solid angular measurement Ω steradian sr

Table 1: Basic units

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3.1.2 Derived SI units

All the other units are derived from these basic units, on the basis of natural laws and
geometric relationships. A list of the main derived principles and units used in electricity is
given in the following table.

Relationships between
Values Derived SI units
units

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Force F Newton N 1 N = 1 kg m/s² = 1 W s/m

M
Torque (moment of a force) newton-metre Nm
T
E
Energy, work done joule J 1 J = 1 Nm = 1 W s
W

Power (active power) P watt W 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 V A

volt-ampere
Reactive power Q var 1 var = 1 V A
reactif

Apparent power S voltampère VA

Pressure P pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N/m²

Electric charge Q coulomb C 1C=1As

U
Voltage, potential difference volt V 1 V = 1 W/A = 1 J/C
u

Electric resistance R ohm Ω 1 Ω = 1 V/A

Electric capacitance C farad F 1 F = 1 C/V = 1 A s/A

Inductance L henry H 1 H = 1 Wb/A = 1 V s/A

Frequency ƒ hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1 s-1

Pulsation ω radian/seconde rad s-1 ω = 2π f

Magnetic flux Φ weber Wb 1 Wb = 1 V s

Magnetic flux density B tesla T 1 T = 1 Wb / m²

Magnetic field H ampere/metre A/m

Electric field E volt/metre V/m

Table 2: Derived SI units

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3.1.3 Prefixes

The main stroke of inspiration in the metric system proposed during the French revolution
was to attach prefixes to the units, corresponding to multiples and submultiples of the unit
in base 10.
Thus, a distance is expressed in kilometres, the short form of which is "km". This prefix
corresponds to a multiplication by 1000 and we say, as example that this distance is 37.2
km. Similarly, for a pencil lead with a diameter of 0.002 m or 2 · 10-3 m, we use a
submultiple of the metre, i.e. the millimetre, the short form of which is "mm",
corresponding to a submultiple of 1000, and thus this diameter is equal to 2 mm.

This method is systematically used for all the SI units and for much greater ratios. To form
the nouns and the symbols of the decimal multiples and submultiples of the SI units, we
use the prefixes given in the following table.

Factor Prefix Example

Name Symbol

1012 tera T 1 TJ = 1012 J

109 giga G 1 GHz = 109 Hz

106 mega M 1 MW = 106W

103 kilo k 1kΩ = 103 Ω

102 hecto h 1 hm = 100 m

10-1 deci d 1 dl = 0.1 l

10-2 centi c 1 cm = 0.01 m

10-3 milli m 1 mA = 10-3 A

10-6 micro µ 1 µH = 10-6 H

10-9 nano n 1 ns = 10-9 s

10-12 pico p 1 pF = 10-12 F

Table 3: Prefixes

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3.1.4 Rules for writing units

The use of units in technical texts is governed by very strict spelling rules defined by the
ISO (International Organization for Standardization), particularly concerning the use of
upper and lower case letters, punctuation and plural forms:

The symbols do not necessarily use the normal English abbreviations. We thus
write: "A distance d equals 12 m".

When its name is written out in full, the unit is invariable (does not take a plural
form). We thus write: "This motor has a power of 850 watt", thus without the plural
"s".

However, in less technical texts the rules of grammar apply: "This boat is 12 meters long",
with the plural "s".

3.1.5 Non SI technical units

Some units prior to the SI system are still used because people are in the habit of using
them and because the SI unit is sometimes less practical.

Values Unit Relationship between units

Name Symbol

Ångström Å 1 Å = 0.1 nm = 0.1 10-9 m

Distance 1 nautical mile = 1852 m. Not to mix with “land”

Nautical mile
mile which is 1609.3m

Light year a.l. 1 light year = 9.46 1015 m

Volume litre lt 1 lt = 1 dm3 = 0.001 m3

Degree ° 1 revolution = 360° = 6.28 rad

Angle Minute ‘ 1’ = 60’’

Second ‘’ 60’’ = 1’

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Minute min 1 min = 60 s

Time
Hour h 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s

Day d 1 d = 24 h

Kilometre per hour Km/h 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h

Speed
1 knot = 1 nautical mile / h = 1.852 km/h
Knot
= 0.5144 m/s
rpm
Revolution per 1 s-1 = 1 rev/s = 60 rpm
Angular speed rpm
minute 3000 rpm * π / 30 ≈ 314 rad/s
rpm

Mass Tonne t 1 t = 1000 kg

1 kp = 9.81 N
Force Kilopond kp
It is the weight of a mass of 1 kg on Earth
1 cal = 4.1868 J
Calorie cal The quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water by 1 °C
Energy Kilocalorie Cal 1 Cal = 1 kCal = 1000 cal

Kilowatthour kWh 1 kWh = 3.6 106 J

Power Horsepower Hp 1 Hp = 746 W

Bar bar 1 bar = 100,000 Pa = 1 hPa

Pressure Kilo per square cm kp/cm² 1 kg/cm² = 9.81 N/cm² = 98,000 Pa ≈ 1 hPa

Atmosphere atm 1 atm = 1.03 kp/cm² = 1.01325 hPa ≈ 1 hPa

Temperature difference: 1 °C = 1 °K
Temperature Degrees Celsius °C
Reference: 0 °C = 273.16 °K

Table 4: Non SI technical units

3.1.6 Anglo-Saxon units

There is a great unwillingness to use the SI system even in Anglo-Saxon scientific circles,
which still use British units, or even specifically American units.

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They differ by the fact that the units of length, mass, and a large number of other units are
based on multiples of 12, 16 and many others.

For example, 1 mile = 1760 yards; 1 yard = 3 feet; 1 foot = 12 inches.

Since the engineering profession is often much internationalised we must at least know the
units in the following table:

Values Unit name Relationships between units

In French In English Symbol

mil mil 1 mil = 0.001’’ = 25.4 µm

‘’
Pouce Inch 1’’ = 25.4 mm
in
Length ‘
Pied Foot 1’ = 12’’ = 30.48 cm
ft

Mille (statute) mile 1 mile = 5280’ = 1609.3 m

Mille marin (nautical) mile 1 mile = 1852 m

Gallon impérial Imperial gallon UK gal 1 UK gal = 4.546 dm3

Volume
Gallon US US gallon US gal 1 US gal = 3.79 dm3

Once Ounce oz 1 oz = 28.35 g

Mass Livre Pound lb 1 lb = 16 oz = 0.4536 kg

Ton ton 1 ton = 2240 lb = 1061.1 kg

Pound / square lb/in²

Pressure Livre / pouce² 1 lb/in² = 70.3 g/cm² = 6.8948 kPa
inch psi
British thermal
Energy BTU 1 BTU = 252 kJ
unit

Livre-pouce Pound-inch lb-in 1 lb-in = 0.113 Nm

Torque (*)
Livre-pied Pound-foot lb-ft 1 lb-ft = 1.35582 Nm

Power Cheval Horsepower hp 1 hp = 42.41 BTU/min = 745.7 W

1 °F = 5/9 °C ≅ 0.56 °C
Degré
Temperature Fahrenheit °F 0 … 100 °C corresponds to 32 …
Fahrenheit
212°F

(*): When converting torque we must take into account the Earth's acceleration g = 9.8065 m/s², since the
pound is a unit of mass and not of force. Therefore 1 lb-ft = 0.13831 kgp.m.
And in the SI system: 1 Cheval Vapeur (CV) = 735 W (or 736 W) and 1 Horsepower (HP) = 746 W

Table 5: Anglo-Saxon units

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3.2 BASIC VALUES IN ELECTRICITY DIRECT CURRENT

Source: Bernard Schneider and Alain Beuret, 2003 to 2006 (partial)

P = U I cosφ 25 MW 350 mV 60 MVA

420 µV 16 mA
250 KWH Régler le déphasage
Q = U I sinφ
?? 450 A Cos φ 0.91 ??
35 KVAR
The aim is not to turn an operator into an electrician, but an operator whose job it is to take
energy consumption readings on his site must understand "a minimum amount" about
'active' and 'reactive' powers, and their relationship with current, voltage, cos φ, etc.

You must at least understand the terms and formulas (although you do not necessarily
have to master them) to be able to discuss them with other persons and more simply to
understand the readings you may have to take.

You are familiar with the general units. The main units you will encounter in the electrical
field are the following:

3.2.1 Electric current

Definition: The current i is the measurement of the flow of a series of free electrons in a
conductor, resulting from a difference in charges.

The unit of current measurement is the ampere [A] which is normally shortened to Amp. A
current of 1 Amp corresponds to a charge of 1 coulomb flowing through the observed
section of conductor every second.

∆Q(t ) C 
i (t ) =
∆t  s  = [ A]
 

Writing convention:

When the current value varies over time, the lower case letter " i " is normally used.

When a current is constant, the upper case letter " I " is normally used.

This convention is also used for other physical values.

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Sign conventions:

A positive current is that which is set up

between the positive terminal and the negative
terminal of a generator when a conductor is
connected to it. It must be noted that this
conventionally accepted current direction, which
was chosen arbitrarily before the electronic
theory of electric current was established, is the
opposite direction to the actual flow of electrons
in the external circuit but in the same direction
of the ions inside the electrolyte.

Figure 37: Conventional current direction and

electron flow direction

3.2.2 Voltage and potential difference

Definition: We say that there is a voltage u across the two terminals of a piece of
equipment when there is respectively a lack (positive terminal) and an excess (negative
terminal) of free electrons at these terminals.
The voltage is also called the potential difference, or electromotive force (emf).

The unit of voltage measurement is the volt [V].

Analogy between a hydroelectric installation and an electric circuit:

The voltage can be compared to the pressure

which appears at the bottom of a hydroelectric
dam's penstock, just before the turbine. This
pressure exists even if the inlet valve is
closed.

Figure 38: Analogy between a hydroelectric

installation and an electric circuit

Similarly, an electric voltage can appear even if no current is flowing.

Thus, as shown in the above figure, the hydraulic pressure difference between points ‘A’
and ‘B’ of the installation can be compared to the difference in electric voltage between the
+ and – terminals of the electric source.

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The following table summarises this analogy, and also shows a thermal analogy:

Electricity Hydroelectric Thermal conduction

Potential Altitude Temperature

Voltage (potential
Altitude difference Temperature difference
difference)
Amount of water
Available electric charge Thermal energy
in the lake

Current Water flow rate Thermal flow

Resistance Pressure drop Thermal resistance

Table 6: Analogy between electricity and a hydroelectric installation

Sign convention: The representation of the

voltage direction across the terminals of a
generator is defined as going from the
positive pole to the negative pole. This is
shown by an arrow in the same direction as
the voltage.

This convention, which is that of the IEC

(International Electrotechnic Commission), is
used throughout the world (or almost).

This must be specified since, in books

published in France, the arrow is shown in the
opposite direction and in French-speaking
Canada, some books use a double arrow.
Figure 39: Voltage direction

Conclusion, everyone agrees on the current direction, but when it comes to indicating the
voltage, the French use a system different from that of everyone else’s…

3.2.3 Ohm's law and resistance (in Direct Current)

Ohm's law: The ratio of the electric voltage, applied between the ends of a given
conductor, to the current which flows through it is a constant number.

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In 1827, the German Georg Simon Ohm published his discovery: By increasing the
voltage, the current increases in the same proportions. He proposed the following
definition:

Definition: The resistance R of a conductor is the constant ratio between the voltage
applied to this conductor and the current which flows through it.

In honour of its ‘discoverer', the unit of measurement of resistance is the ohm [Ώ]. If a
voltage of 1 volt is applied to a conductor with resistance of 1 ohm, a current of 1 amp will
flow through this conductor.

u (t ) V 
R=
i (t )  A  = [Ω]
 

U = R . I Where R is the resistance in [Ώ], u(t) the voltage in [V] and i(t) the current in [A]

A resistor is shown graphically in the figure on the left.

However, it is also shown as the figure on the right
which is more specifically a symbol for impedance

Resistors in series:

R1 R2 R3 Rn

Rt

Figure 40: Resistors in series

The value of the total resistance is the sum of the values of each resistance in ohms

Rt = R + R2 + R3 + ……….Rn

Resistors in parallel:

The value of the equivalent resistor is equal to:

1 1 1 1 1
R1 R2 R3 Rn Rt + + + ..... + =
R1 R 2 R3 Rn Rt

Figure 41: Resistors in parallel

Remark: the term “resistance” applies more specifically to DC. In AC, we use the term
“impedance”, to see later in this course

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3.2.4 Resistivity

Electric conductors resist the flow of electric current to a greater or lesser extent according
to the value of their resistivities.

Definition: The resistivity ρ is the proportionality factor which appears between the
dimensions of a conductor (cylinder, prism, wire, etc.) and its resistance.

The resistance of this conductor is established using the formula:

R=ρ∗
1
[Ω] = Ωm ∗ m
A  m² 

Where R is the resistance of the conductor in [Ω], l its length in [m] and A its cross-
sectional area in [m²].

Resistivity is expressed in ohms per metre.

Resistivity is a property which varies with the temperature of the material, and this
variation is generally nonlinear.

However, for the metals used in the industrial temperature range, a linear approximation is
almost always sufficient.

We will disregard the temperature corrections here (with the coefficient), it is (almost)
never used in our basic applications.

Materials which have interesting properties for electricity distribution:

Copper (apart from silver which is much more expensive) is the material which has
the lowest resistivity. This is why it is used in almost all electric appliances and for
transporting electricity.

Aluminium has a higher resistivity. However, it is around three times lighter than
copper. Therefore it is often used instead of copper.

Constantan, an alloy of copper and nickel, has a higher resistance but a

temperature coefficient of almost zero. This is why it is used for strain gauges,
among other things.

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The following table gives the resistivity and the temperature coefficient of certain materials
at ambient temperature.

Resistivity ρ Temperature coefficient

Materials Symbol
at 20 °C [Ωm] at 20 °C [K-1] or [°C-1]

Copper Cu 17.5 10-9 4 10-3

Aluminium Al 28 10-9 4 10-3

Constantan CuNi 500 10-9 0.02 10-3

Silver Ag 16 10-9 4 10-3

Platinum Pt 98 10-9 4 10-3

Gold Au 23 10-9 4 10-3

Iron Fe ~100 10-9 6 10-3

Carbon (graphite) C 60,000 10-9 ~-0.3 10-3

Pure water H2O 250 103

Glass 1012 … 1018

Nylon 50 109

PVC 100 1012

Table 7: Resistivity and temperature coefficient of certain materials

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3.2.5 Resistors

Resistance is an electrical value which can be measured. Resistors are electrical

components whose main feature is that they have a determined resistance. (Paragraphe
applicable in AC and DC)

In French, the term "résistance" is used to mean both resistance and resistor. So, to avoid
any confusion, the French talk about the ohmic value of a "résistance", which is clearer
than saying the "résistance" of a "résistance". This confusion also exists in German (der
Widerstand, and respectively der Widerstandswert), but not in English (this resistor has
a resistance equal to 100).

These components are manufactured from various

materials: constantan, platinum, carbon, etc. When
we want to produce heating elements, we generally
use constantan wire, wound around a cylinder or
ceramic support (insulator). In electronics, we also
use very small resistors made of wound metallic
wire, or carbon resistors.

Figure 42: Various electric components

Since most of these resistors are small, electronics

engineers have established a colour code for determining the resistor's value in ohms by
reading different coloured bands.

1st 2nd Tole

Colour Multiplier
figure figure rance
Grey 10%
Gold 5%
Black 0 0 100
Brown 1 1 101 1%
Red 2 2 102 2%
Orange 3 3 103
Yellow 4 4 104
Green 5 5 105
Blue 6 6 106
Purple 7 7 107
Grey 8 8
White 9 9

Table 8: Resistor colour code

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3.2.6 Joule effect (Paragraphe applicable in AC and DC)

Definition: Ohmic loss is the thermal energy produced in a conductor when an electric
current flows through it.

Joule's law:
The electric power transformed into heat by a current flowing through a resistor is
proportional to the square of this current, and the value of this resistor.

P(t ) = R × I (t )² [Ω ⋅ A²] = [W ] P = R× I²

Where P(t) is the power in [W], R the resistance in [Ω] and i(t) the electric current in [A]

3.2.7 Electric power

If we replace R by the ratio of the voltage and of the current in the above formula (Ohm's
law, in 3.2.3.), we obtain an equation allowing us to directly calculate the power from the
electric voltage and from the current:

P(t ) = u (t ) × i (t ) [V ] × [A] = [W ] P =U × I

Where P(t) is the power in [W], u(t) the voltage in [V] and i(t) the current in [A]

This equation can be generalised to any

electric circuit linking two terminals A and B
(following diagram).

Figure 43: Electric circuit

Kirchhoff's law relating to nodes states that the

whole of the current which enters the circuit at
terminal A exits at terminal B, and vice versa.
If this current and the voltage between points
A and B are known, we can calculate the
electric power supplied to this circuit.

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Sign convention:

The power crossing an electric circuit seen from

its two terminals ‘+’ and ‘-‘ is positive if the
voltage between ‘+’ and ‘-‘ is positive and if the
current entering the circuit from terminal ‘+’ is
also positive.

Defined in this manner, this power is consumed

by the circuit: It "enters" the considered device.

Figure 44: Sign convention

3.2.8 Applying Ohm's and Joule's laws

Let us consider the case where the circuit between points A and B is a single resistor with
value R. Let uR(t) be the voltage across its terminals, iR(t) the current which passes
through it, and PR(t) the electric power which this resistor receives (and which it dissipates
in the form of heat).
These are the 4 physical values which characterise the operation of a "resistance"
component. Ohm's law (formula given in 3.2.3.) and Joule's law (formula given in 3.2.6.)
show that these values are linked.

Table 9: Direct current instant value and single-phase alternating current relations P, U, I,
R (resistance circuit)

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As in mathematics, if we fix any 2 values among these four unknowns, the other 2
automatically follow on from them. Ohm's and Joule's laws are perfectly reversible and
combinable.

For all the possible combinations of fixed values, the above table shows how to calculate
the two others.

3.2.9 Electrical energy

Power is the quantity of work done per second, and in electricity: the electrical energy is
proportional to the average power used and to the considered time:

The SI unit of electrical energy is the joule, which corresponds to the power of 1 W
consumed in 1s. However, another unit is commonly used in the energy production,
distribution and consumption environments: the kilowatt-hour [kWh]. Hence:

Definition: A kilowatthour [kWh] is the amount of electrical energy consumed in 1 hour

by a device with a constant power of 1 kW.

It follows from this definition that: 1 kWh = 1,000 W · 3,600 s = 3,600,000 J = 3.6 MJ

Remark: the symbol used is kWh; it can be accepted writing such as kW.h or kW.H. The
spelling is kilowatthour in one work. Never use kW/h or kW/H and in writing kilowatt/hour
which are wrong

Note: In an electric circuit, it is important to differentiate:

The power of a device, which is the electrical power consumed or supplied by this
device. Such a device converts electrical energy into another form, or vice versa.
Thus, a motor which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy will be
characterised by its power. For devices like motors and batteries, the power
consumption can be positive or negative.

The ohmic losses, which correspond to the electrical power converted into heat
during the transmission of electricity or during the conversion process. These losses
always correspond to a positive power. Once transformed into heat, they can often
not be recovered and are lost. The same is true, for example, for the losses due to
friction in a mechanical system in movement.

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3.2.10 Efficiency (in active power)

The efficiency of a device is a very

important characteristic.

For a motor, the efficiency will be the

ratio of the power available on the
shaft and of the electrical power
which is supplied to it.

Figure 45: Efficiency of a device

A poor efficiency produces negative effects, like for example:

an increase in ambient temperature, which is detrimental to the operation of

electrical devices and mechanical components;

motor overheating; this heat transmitted to the moving parts will cause expansion
which will modify the precision of a machine tool or will affect a chemical process;

additional cost of the energy consumed.

Example:

The electric motor of a garden appliance has a power rating of 1,000 W. It has a 60%
efficiency. It is supplied at 230 V by a line 100 m long.

Calculate the powers in play. (Supposing that the above direct current formulas can be
applied.)

Figure 46: Example of an electrical device

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This motor has a current rating of: I = P / U = 1000 W / 230 V = 4.35 A

It behaves like a resistance: Rmotor = U / I = 230 V / 4.35 A = 52.9 Ώ

Supposing that the cable has two copper wires with cross-sectional area of 1.5 mm2 (one
for the current supply, the other for the current return), it has a resistance of:

Rcable = ρ . L / S = 17.5 . 10-9 Ώm . 2 . 100m / 1.5 . 10-6 m² = 2.3 Ώ

The cable + motor system behaves like a resistance:

Rtotal = Rcable + Rmotor = 52.9 + 2.3 = 55.2 Ώ

The current flowing through the system is then (Ohm's law): I = 230 V / 55.2 Ώ = 4.16 A

We can thus calculate the following powers:

Power consumption of the motor: Pelec mot = Rmot . I² = 52.9 . (4.16)² = 917 W

Power absorbed by the cable (losses): Pcable = Rcable . I² = 2.3 . (4.16)² = 40 W

Total power consumption: Ptotal = 230 V . 4.16 A = 957 W

We find that we have: Ptotal = Pcable + Pmotor = 917 W + 40 W = 957 W

We must also take the motor's efficiency into account. For example, if this efficiency is
60%, we will only have the following mechanical power on the shaft:

Pmec = ήmot . P elec mot = 0.6 . 917 W = 550 W

Of the 957 W drawn from the mains electrical supply, we only obtain 550 W on the motor
shaft. The difference is due to the ohmic losses in the cable (40 W) and the various losses
in the motor (917 – 550 = 367 W).

Note: we have expressed the power in watt, consequently in ‘active power’. See further in
this course for more detail/specification about active power

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3.3 ADDITIONAL VALUES IN ELECTRICITY

The basic values P, U, I, R are unfortunately insufficient for us to be able to understand

and determine the power measurements, and more particularly in alternating current.

Before moving on to the ‘active’, ‘reactive’ and ‘apparent’ powers, to talk about the power
factor (cos φ), it is essential that we cover at least the two additional values, inductance
and capacitance

3.3.1 Inductance: the inductor (also called induction coil)

Definition: The inductance L is the proportionality factor which

links the variation in the current flowing through a coil, and the
induced voltage which these variations create across its
terminals. The unit of inductance is the Henry [H].

Figure 47: Inductance

The figure on the left shows the

symbol for an inductor according to the IEC (International
Electrotechnic Commission) standard. The symbol in
brackets on the right is also frequently used.

Figure 48: Symbol for an inductor

Inductors in series: is the same way as for the resistances, the values (in Henrys) are
added together

L = L& + L2 + L3 +……+ Ln

Figure 49: Inductors in series

Inductors in parallel

In a circuit, it may also be the case that several inductors are

placed in parallel. Therefore they all have the same voltage
u(t) at their terminals, the resulting equivalent value is as for
R:

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ........
L L1 L 2 L3 Ln

Figure 50: Inductors in parallel

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Ideal inductor in a switched circuit

At instant t 1 = 0 we modify the position of the switch,

which is equivalent to connecting the ideal inductor
directly to the ideal voltage source.
U > 0.

Figure 51: Ideal inductor in a switched circuit

Since there is no other component in series in this circuit, we immediately have UL (t) = U.
The current i (t) then increases linearly as in the following graph.

The current value i (t) is progressively established

across the terminals of the inductor under a voltage
UL
If, later, let us say at instant t2, we return the switch
to its initial position, the inductor (in a circuit closed
on itself) is again subjected to a voltage UL (t).

Figure 52: Graphic representation of the ideal

inductor

The current flowing through the inductor at this moment remains constant, equal to the
value it had just before t2

Conclusion, if the inductor produces current without being connected to a source, it is

because it has stored energy, this is the self-inductance effect. Beware of electric shocks!.
A cut-off current is produced at the switch (or circuit breaker) of an induction circuit: this is
the electric arc which can be seen on a simple household switch. The more the inductor is
“powerful”, the more the breaking current is important and the more there is “problem” for
the current breaking device due to the self-inductance effect

Real inductor R + L

The real coils inevitably have a small resistor in series, due to the fact that the resistivity of
the conductors they are made of is not zero.

To take these imperfections of the inductor into consideration, we model it by a resistor R

and an ideal inductor L, connected in series. We connect this assembly to an ideal voltage
source by a switch.

When the current is zero, just after switching,

the whole of the voltage from the source is
applied to the inductor, and the current i (t)
starts to increase.

Figure 53: Real inductor

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However, as the current increases, the voltage across the terminals of the resistors also
increases and the voltage available for the inductor decreases.

Figure 54: Graphic representation of the real inductor

At a certain moment, even if it takes a long time, the voltage UL (t) across the terminals of
the inductor will have decreased so much that it will almost be zero. Therefore, at this
moment, the current i (t) can only remain constant. The system will have reached a stable
state.

Technologies and applications of inductors

Real inductors (those found in motors and generators) are differentiated by their
characteristics:

The inductance value L and its tolerance margin are of course their basic
characteristics
The nominal current Inom determines the current which can be continuously
withstood, but also the current which
must not be exceeded in order to remain
within the domain of linearity (saturation
of the iron core)
The series resistor R is necessary to
determine if the current is self-limited, or
if an external resistance must be added,
according to the service voltage to be
used

Figure 55: Inductors used in electronics

The construction aspects are also
important (shape and dimensions,
behaviour in alternating current, "noise"
effects at high frequency, etc.).

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3.3.2 Capacitor

Definition(s): A capacitor or condenser is an electric

component constructed by juxtaposing two plates or two
conductive sheets, separated by an insulating material.

Figure 56: Capacitor

The capacitance C is the proportionality factor linking the

voltage applied to a capacitor and the electric charge which can
thus be stored by this capacitor.
The unit of capacitance is the Farad [F].

Note: The term" capacitor" is reserved for the electric component. The term
"capacitance" is reserved for its characteristic, expressed in [F].

The figure on the left shows the symbol for a capacitor according to the
IEC (International Electrotechnic Commission) standard.

Figure 57: Symbol for a capacitor

Although a capacitor cannot carry a DC current, we will see that short-term variable
currents can flow through it.

Capacitors in series:
The equivalent capacitance is as for R
and L in parallel.

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + .........
C C1 C 2 C 3 Cn

Figure 58: Capacitors in series

Capacitors in parallel:
These capacitors behave exactly like a single equivalent
capacitor, whose value is given by

C= C1 + C2 + C3 +……+ Cn

Figure 59: Capacitors in parallel

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Ideal capacitor in a switched arrangement:

At instant t 1 = 0 we modify the position of the switch, which is

equivalent to connecting the ideal capacitor directly to the ideal
current source I > 0.

Figure 60: Ideal capacitor in a switched arrangement

As there is no other component in series in this circuit, we immediately have IC (t) = I. The
voltage u (t) then increases linearly as shown in the following graph.

The value of the voltage u (t) is progressively

established at the capacitor's terminals under a
voltage UL.
If, later, let us say at instant t2, we return the switch to
its initial position, the capacitor (in a circuit closed on
itself) is again subjected to a current iC (t).

Figure 61: Graphic representation of an ideal

capacitor

Right from this moment the voltage at the capacitor's terminals remains constant, equal to
the value it had just before t2

Conclusion: like the inductor, the capacitor stores energy. This energy was stored in the
capacitor in the form of electrostatic energy. The capacitor has, in fact, stored electric
charges. This energy can also be restituted.
Take care to cables – mainly the High Voltages ones – which can store energy and
behave like a capacitor!

Circuit with R – C in parallel:

In electronic circuits we often find capacitors connected to resistors. Given the following
circuit with RC in parallel, we close the switch.

When the voltage is zero, just after switching, the whole of the current from the source
flows into the capacitor, and the voltage u (t) begins to increase. However, as the voltage
increases, the current flowing through the
resistor also increases, and the remaining
current available for the capacitor decreases.

Figure 62: Circuit with R-C in parallel

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Figure 63: Graphic representation of a circuit with R-C in parallel

At a certain moment, even if it takes a long time, the current iC (t) flowing through the
capacitor will have decreased so much that it is practically zero. Therefore, the voltage
u (t) can then only remain constant. The system will have reached a stable state.

Circuit with R – C in series:

Let us consider another circuit with a capacitor and a resistor in series, supplied by an
ideal voltage source.

At instant t1 = 0 we close the switch, this is

equivalent to connecting the capacitor and
the resistor to the ideal voltage source
U > 0.

Figure 64: Circuit with R-C in series

The capacitor opposes any sudden voltage variations, which means that the voltage uC (t)
across its terminals, just after switching, is zero. The whole of the voltage from the source
is thus applied to the resistor: uR (t) can suddenly change from 0 to U, since the resistor
does not oppose it, and the current i (t) also jumps from 0 to I1 = U / R

This positive current causes a gradual increase in the voltage uC (t) across the capacitor's
terminals, and therefore a decrease in the voltage uR (t) across the resistor's terminals.
Thus the current gradually decreases.

If we wait long enough, the voltage uC (t) across the capacitor's terminals will have
reached the source voltage U. The current will then be zero.

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Figure 65: Graphic representation of a circuit with R-C in series

Capacitor technology and applications:

Capacitors are differentiated by their characteristics:

• The capacitance value C and its tolerance margin are of course their basic
characteristics

• The nominal voltage Unom determines the voltage which can be continuously
supported, but also that which must not be exceeded to prevent burn out the
insulation and destroying it

• The leakage current determines the length of time a charged capacitor can hold its
charge

• The construction aspects are also important (shape and dimensions, behaviour in
alternating current, disturbance effects at high frequency, effect of temperature and
ageing, etc.).

Most capacitors are made by, for example, winding two metallic sheets separated by the
same number of insulating sheets. It is thus possible to obtain a large surface area A in a
small volume.

The different technologies basically differ by the chemical composition of the insulator.

Electrolytic capacitors

These capacitors are made by winding aluminium sheets and paper sheets impregnated
with an electrolyte. This technology produces condensers with very high capacities (1 to
100,000 μF) in a small volume, and which withstand voltages of up to 750 V.

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Due to the type of insulator, these capacitors are polarised. If the voltage is accidentally
reversed, the capacitor's properties are irreversibly deteriorated and the capacitor may
even be destroyed.

Figure 66: Electrolytic capacitors

Plastic film capacitors

These are very robust capacitors which withstand voltages of up to 1,000 V. They are not
sensitive to the voltage direction, and can withstand very high frequency AC voltages (→ 1
MHz). They are used for capacitances of
between 10 pF and 10 F, and have a
very high temperature stability.

Figure 67: Plastic film capacitors

Ceramic capacitors

This technology is used to produce very low cost capacitors.

They can withstand voltages of up to 500 V, some can even

reach 10,000 V. They are used for capacitances of between
1 pF and 100 nF, and their working frequency can reach
100 MHz for some qualities.

Figure 68: Ceramic capacitors

Their disadvantage is their size, which prevents capacitances similar to those of the
electrolytic capacitors being reached.

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Super capacitors

These super capacitors can reach capacitances of

up to 2,700 F (and not µF as for the electrolytic
capacitors).

Figure 69: Super capacitors

However, due to their very thin insulator, they can only withstand very low voltages (of a
few volts).

3.3.3 R, L, C summary

The presence of inductors and capacitors in an electric circuit is certain to produce

transient conditions when the voltage and current sources are not constant, or when the
circuit contains switching components such as switches.

However, when all the voltage and current sources are operating at their constant values,
and when the switching components which may be present are not activated, the design of
the circuit can be simplified by remembering that:

• When a constant current flows through an inductor the voltage across the terminals
of this inductor is zero; it can be replaced by a short circuit;

• When there is a constant voltage across the terminals of a capacitor and when the
current flowing through it is zero, it can be replaced by an open circuit.

Thus, for example, the following circuit diagram can be simplified as shown below.

Figure 70: Circuit diagram

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Figure 71: Simplified circuit diagram

To summarise, the following Table gives a systematic list of the relationships for resistors,
inductors and capacitors in continuous conditions and in transient conditions.

Table 10: Relationships for resistors, inductors and capacitors

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3.3.4 Impedance

U = R x I is the basic formula in electricity, in the same way as E = MC² for physics.

In fact we should say U = Z x I since (practically) all electrical users are a combination of
the three values R, L, and C.

The impedance ‘Z’ is expressed in Ohms and in an AC arrangement R, L, C and Z

are all expressed in Ohms (Ώ.).

The names change slightly when L becomes an ‘inductive reactance’, XL and C, a

capacitive reactance’’, XC (hence the term reactive energy seen in the next chapter). The
resistance remains the resistance ‘R’. But you will find ZR, ZL, ZC, which are used for
uniformity in certain diagrams.

Reminder of the behaviour of an alternating current:

On the sine wave curve (image of the current or of an AC voltage), the value of ‘i’ or of ‘u’
at instant ‘t’ is the sine value at the same instant ‘t’ for a point ‘P’ rotating on a circle. An
alternation is produced for one complete rotation (360°).

Figure 72: Behaviour of an alternating current

The anticlockwise direction is arbitrarily chosen for all rotations in electricity.

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Behaviour of an inductor in alternating current

If we take the image of the voltage and of the current across the terminals of an "ideal"
inductor (with an oscilloscope) we obtain this figure:

Figure 73: Behaviour of the inductor in alternating current

We note in the figure that the current is lagging (behind) the voltage. This is due to the
fact that the inductance opposes the current variations. This is when the voltage is at its
highest and when the current increases at its fastest, which is the case when it passes
through zero.

Behaviour of the capacitor in an alternating current

We note that the current which flows through an ideal capacitor is also sinusoidal when it
is connected to a sinusoidal voltage source at the same frequency, and is 90° out of
phase. Also, its amplitude is proportional to the frequency.

Figure 74: Behaviour of the capacitor in an alternating current

We note in the figure that the voltage is lagging (behind) the current. This is due to the
fact that the capacitor opposes the voltage variations. This is when the voltage is at its
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highest and when the voltage (which indicates the capacitor's charge state) increases the
fastest, which is the case when it passes through zero.

Combination of components in a load

The load of a circuit is (initially) either an ideal resistor, or an ideal inductor, or an ideal
capacitor. The following table summarises the results obtained. Note: in alternating
current,where the unit is the Ohm, the symbols are XL, XC (or ZL, XC).

To correct on table Inductor Capacitor

Table 11: Combination of components in a load

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3.3.5 Calculating the impedance

All the units are in Ohms, we could use the formulas from a much more advanced
electricity course with imaginary values, integrals, derivatives, exponentials, etc., we will
content ourselves with the diagrammatic representation using vectors. Only a single
mathematical theorem is necessary to calculate an impedance from R, XL and XC, it is:

Pythagoras's theorem (reminder):

And with "explicit" letters for the

future applications and examples

Figure 75: Pythagoras's theorem

Cos φ = R / Z Sin φ = X / Z Z² = R² + X² Z= R² + X ²

Circuit with a Resistor and Inductor in series

VT Calculate Z and VT when I = 10A, R = 5Ώ,

VR = 50V, XL = 10Ώ, VL = 100V
VR = I.R VL = I.XL
I
R XL
Figure 76: Circuit with a resistor and
I VR inductor in series
VL

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Z = ? XL = 1 0 Ώ V T= ? VL =
100V

R = 10 Ώ V R= 5 0 V

Method for calculating Z Method for calculating Vr

And what is the value of cos φ?

Circuit with a Resistor and Capacitor in series

VT Calculate Z and VT when I = 10A, R =

5Ώ, VR = 50V, Xc = 10Ώ, Vc = 100V
VR = I.R VC = I.XC
I
R
XC
I VR I Figure 77: Circuit with a resistor and
capacitor in series
VL

Method for calculating Z Method for calculating VT

Use the relationship Z² + R² + X² only.

And if you wonder about the vectors being either at the top (for ‘C’), or at the bottom (for
‘L’), it is not (too) serious if you make a mistake since, as far as the calculations are
concerned it amounts to the same thing.

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I.e.: since the direction of rotation is (always) anticlockwise, and since the voltage axis ‘U’
or ‘u’ or ‘v’ or ‘V’ or ‘E’ is always the horizontal axis, the ‘I’ axis:

• for ‘L’, has a 90° lag

• for ‘C’, has a 90° lead

Circuit with a Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor in series

VT Calculate Z and VT when I = 10A,

R = 5Ώ, VR = 50V, XL = 10Ώ,
VR = I.R VL = I.XL VC = I.XC VL = 100V, Xc = 5Ώ, Vc = 50V
I I
R XL
XC
I VR VL I
Figure 78: Circuit with a resistor,
I VL inductor and capacitor in series

Determining the impedance: still using the Determining the voltage across the
vector method terminals of the assembly

Method for calculating Z Method for calculating VT

Proceed as for the two previous examples:

R on the horizontal axis, the reactances on Idem for the voltage
the vertical axis in their direction of "action",
XL in an upward direction, XC in a VX = VL – VC = 50V and VT² = VR² + VX²
downward direction
VT =?
Resultant: X = XL – XC = 5Ώ and
Z² = R² + X² Z=?
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Note: and if VL = VC = 100V, these two voltages cancel each other out, there is only 50V
across the terminals of this series arrangement where Z = R = 5Ώ …?...
This is a resonant circuit which has an application in electronics

Circuit with Resistors in parallel

Calculate I, I1 and I2 when V = 120V, 50 HZ,

I = I1 + I2 R1 = 30Ώ, R2 = 20Ώ,

2 resistors, no phase shift

V R1 I1 R2 I2 I1 =?

I2 =?

I VR I VR I =?

And the equivalent resistor

R =?

Figure 79: Circuit with resistors in parallel

Circuit with a Resistor and Inductor in parallel

I= Calculate I, I1 and I2 when V=120V 50 HZ,

R=30 Ώ, XL= 20 Ώ,

Figure 80: Circuit with a resistor and inductor in

V R I1 XL I2 parallel

I1 =? I2 =? I =? ( ? )

I VR VL I1
V

IL
I2
I
And the equivalent impedance: Z =?

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Circuit with a Resistor and Capacitor in parallel

Calculate I, I1 and I2 when V = 120V

I= 50HZ, R = 30 Ώ, XC = 20 Ώ,

I1 Figure 81: Circuit with a resistor and

XC I2 capacitor in parallel
V R
I1 =? I2 =? I =? ( ? )
I
I V IC
I2
V

I1
Calculate the equivalent impedance: Z =?

Circuit with a Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor in parallel

I= Calculate I, IR, IL, IC, IX when

V = 120V 50HZ, R = 30 Ώ,
IR XL = 20 Ώ, XC = 30 Ώ
IL XC IC
V R XL Figure 82: Circuit with a
resistor, inductor and
capacitor in parallel

IR =?
IC IL =?
IC =?
IX = resultant IL, IC
IL IR V I =?

Equivalent impedance:
IX I
Z =?

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3.4 ALTERNATING CURRENT VALUES AND MEASUREMENTS

We have seen "simple" circuits with ideal inductors and capacitors. In real circuits there is
a little of everything, with a resultant Z and a phase shift angle commonly called ‘φ’ (power
factor).

3.4.1 Reminder of direct current and alternating current measurements

V With a direct current source, when the

100V supply voltage is 100V, the voltmeter
V indicates 100V – no problem -
= R
Figure 83: Direct current measurement
t

100V
45°
V
V
R 45°

Figure 84: Alternating current measurement

With an alternating current source, it is less obvious. What will the reading on the voltmeter
be?

We must initially know that a measuring instrument (conventional) only "takes" a half
alternation. Let a diode in series only allows "half" of this same alternation to flow.

Let us then suppose that the voltmeter needle "oscillates" between the maximum value
and zero 50 times a second (50 HZ).

What will the needle do? Stabilise itself in the middle, i.e. with an angle of 45° and indicate
2
the "sine" value of sine 45° i.e. = 0 ,707
2
The needle positioned itself in the "effective" position, it is the effective value: Veff in
French (but called the root-mean-squared value in English (RMS)).

Thus, in the above example, since the signal has a peak-to-peak value of 200 Volts, the
voltmeter indicates 100 x 0.707 = 70.7 Volts.

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A voltmeter measures 230V at a domestic power outlet (mains voltage), what is the peak-
to-peak voltage of the alternation?

= 230 x 1.414 x 2

When we see the value found it becomes more obvious perhaps why we don't stick our
fingers in the socket...

This applies for all values measured in alternating current, V, I, P, etc.

3.4.2 Alternating current power measurements

Power in a resistive circuit only:

Basic formula: P = U x I
U can also be called ‘V’ o ‘E’, and ‘I’
remains ‘i’ in all cases.

With a pure resistance, the power

absorbed (or diffused) is the product of
E x I. In the negative part of the
alternation, we must apply the basic
mathematical principle, minus multiplied
by minus equals plus.

The power curve is the algebraic

product at each instant ‘t’ of ‘E’ and ‘I’.

Figure 85: Power in a resistive circuit

The power consumed by the pure

resistance is an active power.

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Power in an inductive circuit only

The product of ‘E’ multiplied by

‘I’ gives a zero active power,
the power consumed by a pure
inductor is a reactive
(inductive) power.

Figure 86: Power in an

inductive circuit

Power in a capacitive circuit only

For a capacitive circuit only, consider the reverse shift for ‘E’ and ‘I’. You can even draw
the graphs P, U, I, as an exercise on graph paper. Like the inductor, a pure condenser
consumes no active power, it consumes a reactive (capacitive) power which opposes
the reactive capacitive power.

Power in an R + L circuit

This is the case of most electric

circuits (a motor for example), there
is a shift between ‘U’ and ‘I’.

Figure 87: Power in an R+L circuit

(1)

The current "follows" the voltage, the power

shown is the active power.

The active power "corresponds" to the power

dissipated in a resistor, it is thus on the horizontal
axis, it is the product:

P(a) = U x I x cos φ

Figure 88: Power in an R+L circuit (2)

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The reactive power "corresponds" to the power dissipated in a reactance (inductor or

capacitor), it is the product:

P(r) = Q = U x I x sin φ

Even if this is not yet clear, you must agree that in alternating current one alternation
represents one revolution (of a generator) and that the current "follows" the voltage.

Question: if a motor is supplied at 50HZ, the current "follows" the voltage with a "shift
angle" of 45°.

What is the time (in milliseconds) between ‘U’ and ‘I’?

What is the value of cos φ? (Power factor)

What is the value of sin φ?

If you have understood the link between the rotation of a magnet, producing a current with
a sinusoidal shape, and if you have admitted the fact that the current and the voltage are
2 different alternations (following each other) with a shift angle corresponding to the power
factor (cos φ), well done!, the following paragraph is just a formality…
For those of you who do not yet understand this, remember that the aim here is not to turn
you into qualified electricians, so show this written course to an electrician and get him to
explain the basic principles again to you. He may be surprised to find that this course
contains a "simplified" explanation of the basics he has forgotten… (This has already been
found to be the case on Total sites)

3.4.3 Alternating current formulas and power units:

Figure 89: Powers and Pythagoras's triangle

As with R, L and C we again find the right-angled rectangle with the Pythagoras's
theorems

P, active power is the power consumed by a resistor R

Q, reactive power is the power consumed by a reactance (L + C)
S, apparent power is the power consumed by the impedance Z
Cos φ = P / S

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S: Apparent Power
A
It is the product P = U x I of the (effective) values measured
by a voltmeter and an ammeter. R V
Figure 90: Apparent power

The unit is the VOLT-AMPERE: S (VA) = U (V) x I (A)

P: Active power (also known as True Power)

It is the product of S x cos φ. There must therefore be a

A φ phymeter or a phasemeter in the measurement circuit.

R V Figure 91: Active power

The unit is the WATT: P (W) = U (V) x I (A) x cos φ

Q: Reactive Power A φ
It is the product of S x sin φ. There must therefore be a
phymeter or a phasemeter in the measurement circuit. R V

Figure 92: Reactive power

The unit is the VAR (Volt Ampere Reactif): Q (VAR) = U (V) x I (A) x sin φ

Units generally have the prefixes ‘k’ or ‘M’ for kVA, kW, kVAR, MW, etc.

Three-phase distribution:

Phase 1 V1
A
V U
φ I1
Phase 2
I3

Phase 3 V2
V3
I2
Figure 93: Three-phase distribution

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Balanced three-phase distribution:

Where I = I1 = I2 = I3 and ‘U’ the voltage between each of the three phases is identical.

P in Watts = U x I x √3 x cos φ (U: voltage between phases)

Q in VAR = U x I x √3 x sin φ (U: voltage between phases)

S in VA = U x I x √3 (U: voltage between phases)

In an unbalanced three-phase system: S = V1 I1 cos φ + V2 I2 cos φ + V3 I3 cos φ , are

the sum of the measurements for each phase, V is the voltage between phase and neutral.
And for the other ‘powers’:
Q = V1. I1 sin φ + V2. I2 sin φ + V3 .I3 sin φ
S = V1. I1 + V2. I2 + V3 .I3

Of course, a measurement instrument must be used which can measure the phase shift
between u and I.

For the total powers in kWh, in kVAh and in kVARh, it is the average power consumption
in one hour for each type of power.

In the oil industry, the barrel is the unit which generates revenue, and for the companies
supplying electrical energy, the kWh has the same signification. Think of your electricity
bill, for which you pay only the kWh as a domestic consumer, but did you know that three-
phase metering also uses the kVARh which is billed at the "high rate" if the consumption is
too high since it is an energy which serves no purpose for the user but creates losses in
transport lines for the generating Company. This reactive energy could be near zero or at
at a minimum level (reactive energy compensation)... Take another look at the R+L+C
circuit and ask your instructor if you would like any explanations.

3.4.4 Summary of the formulas and exercises

Direct current

U=RI R =? I =?

P=UI I =? U =?

P = R I² R =? I =?

R = U² / P P =? U =?

Alternating current

U=RI R =? I =?
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P = U I cos φ I =? U =?

P=UI 3 cos φ I =? U =?

P = R I² 3 cos φ I =? U =?

R = U² cos φ / P U =? P=

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3.5 ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

3.5.1. Symbols

Each electrical device or each element of an electrical device (coil, contactor pole, relays,
contact, etc.) has its own symbol which must respect the rules laid down by the
international standards.

This allows anyone reading a drawing or a circuit diagram anywhere in the world to
understand the functions of the different components and to understand the operating
principle of these same components.

The standards are controlled by two main organisations: the North American ISO. and in
Europe, the IEC (International Electrotechnic Commission).

We will now look at the main symbols before moving on the electrical drawings and circuit
diagrams.

Certain manufacturers, and certain countries have more or less established "derived"
symbols, but the logic of representing them is still easy to understand if you come across
"unknown" signs without and explanatory key.

Codes and symbols of the main components

The following table is an extract from IEC publication 750 "Identification marking of
electrotechnical equipment".

Other symbols are standardised. See the IEC publication if, by chance, you are interested
in circuit diagrams.

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3.5.1 Electrical diagrams and circuit diagrams

Electrical diagrams and circuit diagrams are used to define and understand an electrical
installation's construction and operating principles.

There are different types diagrams, those you will encounter are:

3.5.1.1 One-line diagram

An operator must be able to understand this diagram from the moment he "claims" he
knows his installation.

The one-line diagram shows the components or main component assemblies in the circuit.
It shows the circuit's main connections grouped together. It is the equivalent of an
assembly drawing in engineering (or the instrument technician's P&ID).

Even if, for example 5 wires (3 Phases + Neutral + Earth) are required to supply a motor,
this power supply is represented by one line only on the diagram.

The example shows a one-line distribution diagram (CPU - Total Indonesia) showing the
general power distribution for the whole installation, HV distribution (High Voltage
> 1,000V) and LV (Low Voltage 50V< LV < 1,000V)

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Figure 94: Example of a one-line diagram (1)

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One-line diagram at another distribution point: Low Voltage distribution from the
switchboard supplied by the EDG (Emergency Diesel Generator).

Figure 95: Example of a one-line diagram (2)

The users (motors, lighting, etc.) are generally named on the one-line diagram.

3.5.1.2 Schematic diagrams

The schematic diagram allows the reader to:

• Differentiate the Power circuit from the Control circuit.

• Follow and separate each step in the succession of "sequential" events in the
operation of the electrical system.

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The following example allows us to specify the:

• Power circuit: the motor is supplied with three-phase + Earth (called “ground” in
some English-speaking countries), protected by a thermal circuit breaker and
operated by a contactor

• Control circuit: it consists of a "Run" button, a "Stop" button and a limit switch
(function to be found in the description). The contactor is triggered by the circuit
breaker's auxiliary contact (overcurrent)

Figure 96: Example of a schematic diagram (1)

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Representation convention:

The relays and contactor coils are considered to be "de-energised", the contacts are thus
represented in "rest position".
Each sequence (control diagram) must be drawn from left to right and from top to bottom.
If, for any reason whatsoever, this order is not respected, it must be specified at least with
an arrow on the diagram.
Each step must be in sequential order (or in the order of the events).
If several sequences must be represented (example of a travelling crane: lift + translation 1
+ translation 2), it is better to represent this in several different diagrams.
All the contacts and elements in series must be drawn (as far as possible) on the same
line as the coil, the relay, etc. which is controlled.
All the contacts and elements in parallel must be drawn (as far as possible) at the same
level to indicate the parallel function.
All the elements such as the contactor coil, relays, warning lamp, indicator lamp, etc.
which are the components receiving voltage must be drawn on the same horizontal line
between the two control voltage source bars.
The contacts operated by the same relay or contactor must not be aligned since they are
part of the same physical assembly. Each contact (or contacts) must be in line with the coil
and the lamp which it controls.

Figure 97: Example of a schematic diagram (2)

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Power diagram: main circuit breaker, start (closing) by contactor, overcurrent protection by
thermal relay (O/C for overcurrent).

Control diagram: 2 "start/run" control panels and indicators showing the status of the
2 control panels.

Question: What is relay ‘R’ used for?

3.5.1.3 Wiring and connection diagrams

They allow the electrician to connect and wire up the different components in an electrical
installation.

It is much less practical and used far less than the first two diagrams mentioned above,
however it is the only diagram available for some small installations, for example, in the
HVAC unit control cubicle (manufacturered in the USA or in countries under US influence
and using US standards).

Figure 98: Example of a wiring and connection diagram

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Example of a wiring and connection diagram: it is exactly the same "installation" as the
schematic diagram above. Note the difference in "legibility".

3.5.1.4 Other diagrams

The following items are not covered in this course but you may encounter them:

• The diagrams specific to the PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers) with the
ladder diagram,

• The ‘graphcet’ symbols used to describe sequences even in the operating manuals,
the block diagram and the logic diagram.

The block diagram is also used for the Fire & Gas and ESD drawings

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3.6 EXERCISES

8. Calculate the resistance R for the following assembly:

R1 R2 R3 Where R1 = R2 = R3 = 10 Ώ
and R4 = 20 Ώ R5 = 30 Ώ
R4 R5
R

Questions / Exercises:

R = ………………………………………………………………………………

9. Give (link) the units for the corresponding symbols, meanings and names

Units: ‰I ‰R ‰U ‰P

Symbols: ‰Ώ ‰A ‰W ‰V

Meanings: ‰ Power ‰ Voltage ‰ Resistance ‰ Current

Names: ‰ Volt ‰ Watt ‰ Ampere ‰ Ohm

10. Give the correct formula (link between and symbol and formuma):

‰ P =? ‰ I =? ‰ U =? ‰ R =?

‰U/R ‰ P/R ‰ P / I² ‰ U² / R ‰P/I ‰ρ.L/S

(S for cross-sectional area in m²)

11. For a balanced three-phase installation, the wattmeter indicates 800 kW, the
phimeter: 0.8. What is the reactive power of the installation?

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4 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS, ELECTRICITY

DISTRIBUTION
This chapter defines the main elements of a distribution system without going into detail,
and particularly since some ‘components’ are covered in separate courses (like the
generators, pumps and transformers)

Figure 99: Simplified one-line diagram

• This one-line diagram (simplified) contains the main elements of an installation, with
in order:

• Generation system: turbogenerator / gas (-engined) generator / diesel generator

• High and low voltage cables

• High voltage distribution cubicles

• Transformers (step-down / step-up)

• Low voltage distribution cabinets (MCC)

• Users: motors (HV or LV), lighting cabinets, HVAC, UPS, etc.

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4.1 ELECTRICAL GENERATION

This can be: an external source, a self-contained electricity plant, turbogenerators,

generators with gas/diesel engines, generator sets, wind turbines, solar panels, etc. but
not forgetting direct current generation with the battery sets and rectified current supplies
(UPS).

On-site, you will mainly encounter turbogenerators or generators driven by gas or diesel
engines. A specific course has been
prepared on this subject in the present
syllabus.

Whatever the size of the generator, it is

always represented in the same manner
in the diagrams.

Figure 100: Electricity generation

However, for the alternator, the number of wires is not systematically represented (three-
phase, single-phase).

4.1.1 Alternating current generators, the alternator

The three-phase generator is the

"indispensable" source on site.

The one-line diagram representation

can be as shown opposite by
specifying the power and the voltage,
e.g. 600kVA, 3x400V, windings in star
(or Y) configuration.

The power diagram specifies 3

distributed phases, neutral not
distributed with a voltage of 400V
between the phases.

"Three-pole" protection by circuit

breaker at the LV switchboard.

Figure 101: One-line representation of the alternator's power diagram

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This is the same representation

but for a 10MVA three-phase
generator with 3x5.5kV and
neutral earthed through an
impedance

The voltage between phases is

5.5 kV.

The protection (and/or the

disconnect components) is of
course in the HV switchboard.

Figure 102: One-line diagram

representating a three-phase
generator power diagram

The generator operates at a

low voltage of 3x400V but
with distributed neutral.

The protection (or the

disconnect components) at
the LV switchboard must be
on the 4 poles of a circuit
breaker.

In this distribution with 400V

between phases, what is the
voltage between phase and
neutral?

Figure 103: Distribution with 400 V between phases

Three-phase distribution, voltage between phases and between phase and neutral:
V=1
U/2 =
0.866
30°
U
U/2 =
0.866

Figure 104: Vector representation of a three-phase distribution system

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It depends on the relationships in a right-angled triangle and on the vector diagram above.
"Imagine" the 3 phases in star (or Y) configuration, ‘V’ is the voltage across the terminals
of a winding and ‘U’ is the voltage between phases. Form 2 right-angled triangles on one
of the 3 segments.

U/2 = V x sine 30° = V x 3 /2 and U = 2 U/2 = 2 V x 3 /2 = V x 3 =U

Thus when U = 400 V between phases, between phase and neutral V = 230 V
(rounded).
For U = 380V, V= 220V

400 V 10 MVA
∆
G 3x400V+N
400 V

400 V For the delta configuration, there is no distributed

neutral and there are just the voltages between
phases.

If you would like a more detailed explanation on the star / delta connections, ask the
instructor and/or see the course on motors and alternators.

4.1.2 Direct current generators, rotating machines

See paragraph 2.3.

Direct current generators are very rare on a production site. However, direct current
motors (machines strictly identical to the generators) are associated with the
turbogenerators' auxiliaries, for example.

4.1.3 Direct current generators, batteries

See the specific "batteries" course.

You will systematically find battery packs with inverters supplying alternating current from
batteries and also associated with the rectifier cubicles to supply the instrumentation
circuits, fire safety circuits, electrical safety circuits, etc.

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4.2 HV AND LV LINKS

4.2.1 High Voltage (HV)

For electrical distribution, HV starts at 1,000 Volts, MV (Medium Voltage) no longer

exists.

The HV link is thus the cable connecting all electrical elements which have an operating
voltage greater than 1,000 Volts. (HV generator / HV cubicles – HV cubicles / HV motor –
HV cubicles / transformer – etc.

Why do we need HV links?

Cables are used to transfer energy, i.e. electrical power and using the formula P= U.I, we
can see that for the same power, if ‘U’ is increased, we can reduce ‘I’, and this is the
desired aim.

A cable, an electric wire (made of copper, aluminium, etc.) has a determined cross-
sectional area which automatically limits (due to its sectional area) the current it can carry.
A cross-sectional area corresponds to a maximum number of amps whereas the voltage is
limited by the insulation (the insulating material) of the conductor wire. The amperage is
also limited by the cable length and the material (Cu, Al, etc.)

Therefore a distant subdistribution will be equipped with a step-up transformer, and a step-
down transformer to transmit the power at high voltage, thus limiting the line losses due to
the transmission cable, and allowing the voltage to be adjusted to the transformer(s).

Figure 105: HV links

On site, the HV distributions / links are limited to the interconnections between HV

generators, to the HV/LV transformer supplies and to the HV high power motor supplies
(>1 MW).

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High voltage cables

High voltage cables are manufactured to the standards established by the IEC, and more
specifically the IEC 502 standard which specifies the manufacture, dimensioning (of the
insulations) and the tests to be carried out for the HV cables with operating voltage (U) of 3
to 30 kV (higher voltages are rarely present on the Total sites).

The cables are manufactured with a copper screen on each conductor wire. The operating
voltage is limited to 10 kV for PVC insulations and to 30 KV for the other insulations
(Polyethylene/ethylene-propylene rubber/cross-linked polyethylene).

Operating voltage

You would not use a 5.5kV cable for a 20kV application; it is not the same cable. However,
there is nothing to stop you using a 20 kV cable for a 5.5 kV distribution system, you will
just have to explain yourself to the Purchasing Department since the 20 kV cable is
(obviously) more expensive in the same ampere rating range.

The operating voltage of an HV cable consists of 3 parameters, Uo, U and Um expressed

in kilovolts and represented in the cable description (and marked on the cable) in the form
Uo/U(Um). It corresponds to the insulation thickness, the test conditions (insulation
breakdown) and the operating voltage itself.

Uo is the network voltage for which the cable will be used, between a conductor and earth,
or between a conductor and a metallic screen forming an integral part of this cable.

U is the network voltage between conductors.

Um is the maximum voltage to which the cable can be subjected, corresponding to the
maximum service voltage.

The standards specify the HV cable voltages according to the following "ranges":

Uo/U/(Um) = 1.8/3(3.6) kV

3.6/6(7.2) kV

6/10(12) kV

8.7/15 (17.5) kV

12/20(24) kV

18/30(36) kV

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Figure 106: Example of an HV cable

Note: The operating voltages must be specified "when ordering".

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4.2.2 Low Voltage (LV) links

Installation of LV cables : here is some advice if you have to supervise the installation of
cables and it also applies for all types of low voltage cables. We have seen installations
being constructed by irresponsible people who allow work to be done "just any old how".

• When drawing (pulling) the cable, the use of angle sheaves, unwinders, supports,
etc. is mandatory

• The force exerted to draw the cable must not exceed the tension recommended by
the manufacturer to avoid distorting the cable.

• Do not exceed the recommended bend radius, a "broken" cable (with a sharp
angle) is an irremediably damaged cable.

• Do not allow the cable to run over sharp edges or abrasive surfaces.

• The ends of the cable must be covered with insulation. If the end of a cable is in
water it will "absorb" this water by capillary action; water and humidity are generally
incompatible with current and electric voltage. (On "some" worksites, whole drums
of cable could not be used due to the cable's poor insulation …).

Transmission bars

Bars are sometimes used instead of cables for the secondary links between the
transformer and the LV distribution switchboard, particularly for high currents over short
distances. These are copper bars with a metal sheath (with insulators) or directly with an
insulating sheath.

In the "conventional" industries, this bar system is also used for distribution in the
workshop.

Construction of LV cables:

Figure 107: LV cables

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Both the power cable (1 to 5 conductors with cross-sectional area of 2.5 to 600 mm²) and
the control cable (from 2 to 37 conductors with cross-sectional area of 1 to 6 mm²) have a
conductive core (made of Cu for control cables and Cu or Al for power cables) sheathed in
one or more insulation layers.

The core is either rigid (up to 10 mm²), or multiwire / stranded (several conductors twisted
together), or flexible (large number of small conductors)

Power cables:

Colour codes for the conductor insulation and for a cable supplying a power user.

However these colours are not internationally respected, with the exception of:

• Green-yellow is for the

earth conductor and only
for this purpose

• Light blue is for the neutral

conductor (in many
countries)

• Other colours may also be

encountered for the phase.

Figure 108: Power cable colours

Also important: if a single

conductor is connected to a
device, it can only be a green-
yellow cable, i.e. an earth. (Not
to be confused with one or more
single-pole cables in parallel
forming one or more supply
phases).

If for any reason the green-yellow

colour of the insulation (for the
earth) and light blue insulation (for the neutral) are not present or used in the supply cable,
a permanent marking of green-yellow color sheath (or light blue) must be applied at both
ends of the cable when the concerned conductor is connected.

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LV operating voltage (identification of the insulation)

The operating voltage of low voltage cables is limited by the ‘U’ (operating voltage)
and ‘Um’ (test voltage) values which are systematically indicated on all the cables,
stamped or printed at regular intervals on the outer insulation.

The standards are:

• 300 / 300V corresponding to cables with reference 03

• 300 / 500V corresponding to cables with reference 05 (U 500V)

• 450 / 750V corresponding to cables with reference 07 (H 07 RN-F)

• 0.6 / 1 kV corresponding to cables with reference 1

A cable's operating voltage (U) must be at least equal to the network voltage.

E.g.: a cable indicating

300/500V cannot be used
for a 380/220V distribution,
since ‘U’ maximum of the
network is 300V.

In practice, 0.6 / 1 kV cables

are used for 3x380V (or
3x400V) distribution for rigid
core or multiwire cables. 450
/ 750 V cables generally have
a flexible core.

Figure 109: Example of an LV

cable

Note: the last insulating layer is specially for the oil industry and the ‘XLPE’ insulation is an
insulation which gives off a minimum of toxic gas when it burns.
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Choosing a power cable:

The main criteria are:

• The current to be carried

• The network voltage

• The cable route (trench, cable tray, etc.) to determine the type of insulation
required.

The power cable cross-sectional area calculations are not covered in this course; leave
this job to an electrician… However, you could remind him that the voltage drops (due to
the resistance / resistivity of the cable) in each cable link must not be too high. These
maximum voltage drop limits are:

• 3% for lighting circuits

• 5% for motor power supplies

• 10% when including the starting current peaks.

You must also know how to describe the cable dimensions:

• When we talk about a 3 x 25 cable we mean a cable with 3 conductors each of

25mm²
• A 5 x 50 cable is a cable with 5 conductors each of 50 mm²
When we talk about a 3 G 25 cable, it is a cable with 3 conductors each of 25mm²
but one of the 3 is a green-yellow sheathed earth conductor
A 5 G 50 cable is a cable with 5 conductors each of 50 mm² but one of the 5 is an
earth conductor in a green-yellow sheath.

Control cables (multiconductor cables)

Figure 110: "Rigid core" control cable

Figure 111: Multiwire core control cable (semi-

rigid)

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Figure 112: Flexible core control cable

Figure 113: "Armoured" control cable for

trenches

Control cables are

multiconductor cables with a
minimum of 6 conductors.

Up to 5 conductors, it is a
power cable but there is
nothing to prevent you from
using a 3 G 1.5 cable to
supply a limit switch.

Note that a green-yellow

earth conductor is always
present. The required
number of conductors (up to
37) includes this earth
conductor and is indicated
by the letter G.

When we talk about a 24 G

2.5 cable, we mean a cable
with 23 conductors each of
2.5mm² for the control
connections + 1 earth
conductor.

Figure 114: Control cables

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4.3 HV / LV CABLES - ACCESSORIES

4.3.1 Cable trays (and cable supports)

They must initially be differentiated, each voltage level has its dedicated cable tray, each
electrical discipline (and related disciplines) has its specific cable tray or its specific portion
of a cable tray. Each use or discipline has "its own specific cables" and for technical
reasons (interferences, safety,…) there must be independent cable trays for each type of
cable.

The different cable trays on a site are for:

• High voltage

• LV power circuits

• LV control circuits

• Control instrumentation

• Low current instrumentation (thermocouples, etc.)

• Distribution bus instrumentation

• Telephone

• IT systems

• Earthing cables (depending on the case)

• Etc.

All these cables and circuits are routed and cross each other according predetermined
rules. So when you are on site, please don't ask to route your computer's power supply
cable or control room television cable along a lightning conductor downline (for example)…
just because it's more practical. (This type of incident has already happened…, and if you
do not understand why, ask your instructor).

You may also be surprised: "Why does the compressor stop when we start up the transfer
pump?". If the vibration sensor cables or the thermocouples cables pass close to the
pump's 6 kV cable, it is not surprising. (Other phenomena may very well not indicate the
element causing the fault in the case of very short transient inductions).

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Cable trays are made of different materials

(galvanised steel, stainless steel, glass fibre,
PVC, etc.), and constructed differently (wire,
ladders, perforated, etc.) and even come in
wide range of colours, etc. The channels,
conduits and tubes (steel or PVC) are similar
to cable trays since they support / carry wires
or cables.

The cable tray covers also provide

mechanical protection and mainly protect the
cables from ultraviolet rays which would
eventually deteriorate the outer insulation
sheath.

Figure 115: Cable trays

The following rules must be remembered for cable trays

Figure 116: Distances between horizontally installed cable ways

Whether they are installed vertically or horizontally, the

different types of cable trays must be installed respecting a
minimum installation distance between them. The distance
of 200 mm is generally the most currently used, but be
careful, it could be another distance, see the relevant
specification.

Cable trays are mechanically joined together by fish plates

but also "electrically" with an earth conductor and
connected to the general earth. PVC and glass fibre cable
ways are also interconnected in this manner (static
electricity!).

Figure 117: Distances between vertically installed cable

ways
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Installation in trefoil or aligned configuration

This concerns power cables. A cable carrying three-phase current is manufactured with
twisted conductors to cancel out (or rather minimise) the electromagnetic induction
produced by each phase (imagine the 3 vectors at 120°, the vectoral component is zero).

Figure 118: Installation in trefoil or aligned

configuration

Three-phase cables (or three-phase + N) can be installed either in line or in trefoil

configuration but when, for high powers, several single-pole cables form a phase, the
trefoil technique must be used, the 3 conductors in this trefoil represent the 3 phases.

The cables must not just be "flung" into the cable trays, but aligned and secured. This is
not only for aesthetic reasons but also for maintenance (adding / removing a cable) and to
reduce the induction phenomena.

And if you find that cables are overheating, or even a hot cable way, this is not necessarily
because of a current overload, it may simply be due to the fact that the cables are
incorrectly laid on the cable tray…

4.3.2 Trenches

Laying cables in trenches is similar to laying cables in cable trays, the distances between
the different voltages must be respected, the burial depths must also be respected. See
Total specifications to confirm the dimensions.

Main specifications:

• Dimensions: bottom of trench a minimum of 800 mm from the surface, other

dimensions depend on the case

• Cable in parallel with a ‘pipe': a minimum of 200 mm away

• Cable crossover: 200 mm minimum at the crossover point

• Road crossings: cables in PVC conduit of 150 mm minimum itself in a steel conduit
or embedded in concrete

• Entry into building: with concrete inspection covers

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Installation constraints:

• The bottom of the trench must be filled with sand (100 mm), the cables must lie on
a bed of sand.

• 100 mm of sand above the cables

• Mechanical protection, generally by concrete slab, tiles, etc.

• 100 mm of backfill

• Warning netting, the colour represents the ‘discipline’ (red for electricity)

• Backfill

• 200 mm minimum of original soil

Different installation scenarios:

Figure 119: Trench with one layer of cables

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Figure 120: Trench with two layers of cables

Figure 121: Trench with two layers of cables (HV and LV)

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4.3.3 Connecting HV cables

You will not connect them yourself, this is a specific

technique requiring specific training and which is best
left up to those who know how to do it and who is
qualified to do it. Remember that an HV cable end, or
a HV cable joint or splice is not simple operation like
stripping a cable and connecting it to another cable.
Special tools and equipment are required and this in
the different high voltage ranges.

Figure 122: HV cables

Joints or splices: each cable dimension

and voltage will have its specific connection
kit with specific reference.

Figure 123: Cable joint or splice

Cable ends (single pole)

Figure 124: Interior end (in HV cubicle)

Figure 125: Exterior end (transformer)

Figure 126: Three-pole cable terminal for interior

connection 6/10 (12) kV in HV cubicle

Figure 127: Exterior single pole end (polluted area) 26 / 45

(52) kV

All the single pole or three-pole HV cable terminals have an earth bonding
strap for connection to the earth system.

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4.3.4 Connecting LV cables

The aim here is not the connection technology in the cubicles, the junction boxes or the
cable markings but simply to talk about the accessories like cable glands, cable grommets
and wall crossings. You will encounter these on the sites, particularly on oil industry sites.
An incorrectly connected cable or an incorrectly fitted or unsuitable cable gland can easily
result in a serious incident in an explosive area. So if you detect a problem, inform your
supervisor.

Cable glands:

Figure 128: Different types of cable glands

Whatever the electrical device or instrument to be connected, the cable enters the "box"
through a cable gland which is designed to:

• provide the sealing (against water and dust),

• mechanically secure the cable,

• provide the earth continuity for cables with metallic screens

• provide the "EX" interface between cable and "box" in high risk areas

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The materials used are PVC, brass and steel (stainless steel or other steel)

• The type of cable gland to be used depends on the cable diameter

• The type of cable gland to be used is automatically defined by the application

(interior, exterior, reinforced sealing, high risk area, etc.).

Examples:

Industrial type for all applications.

The model shown opposite is

for a PVC-sheathed or
elastomer-sheathed cable

Figure 129: Industrial cable

glands (1)

Figure 130: Industrial cable glands (2)

"Ex" cable glands for classified areas

Figure 131: "Ex" cable glands for Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries

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Figure 132: "Ex" cable glands

There are different standards according to the country, the common point is that each
cable gland installed in a high risk area must have the "Ex" mark stamped on the exterior
(visible)

Official "Ex" mark indicating that the equipment can be installed in a

high risk area; and the "CE" mark for the European Community.

"Ex" cable glands must be earthed.

Non "Ex" cable glands must not be installed in high risk areas.

Specific requirements for North America:

In the USA, cable glands are rarely used in industrial installations.

The electric wires are distributed / protected under conduits or steel tubes which are
connected to the electrical devices through a flame arrestor. This type of installation can
be seen on US assemblies like the "Solar" and "GE" turbines and other turbines.
The flame arrestor must provide the flameproof or explosion proof continuity therefore it
must be filled with flameproof sealing compound after the cables have been installed.
This sealing compound hardens forming a seal once applied. If a cable has to be changed
/ added, this is not easy to do but we must not forget to refit this flame arrestor (a new one
if necessary) and not forget to fill it with flameproof sealing compound.

Sealing compound and locking screw

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4.4 HV CABINET – HIGH VOLTAGE

The HV cubicles (switchgear)

The internal details are given in the HV chapter.

On the site, since the HV voltages encountered are from 5.5
to 20 kV, the cubicles are adapted to this voltage. Even if a
5.5 kV cubicle is physically in the same type of cabinet (this
may be the case) its internal equipment will be different to
that for the 20 kV.
Each cubicle has its own specific function: generator
protection - transformer protection - motor protection/starting
- metering – up-to-busbar feeder cell – substation supply -
etc.

Figure 133: HV cubicles

Figure 134: HV Cubicles(1)

Figure 135: HV Cubicles (2)

Figure 136: "Simplified" distribution substations

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4.5 LV CABINET – LOW VOLTAGE

The main LV distribution cabinet is directly

connected downstream of the stepdown
transformer. The internal details are given in
the LV chapter

Figure 137: LV cabinet

Distribution cabinet called MCC for "Motor Control

Center".

It is a modular assembly containing the protection for

the incoming line from the transformer and the
drawers or plug-in modules. Each plug-in module
includes the protection, the control, the contactors
and the relays for each destination with power supply
and control cables.

Figure 138: MCC distribution cabinet

The subdistribution cabinets with protections and lighting, HVAC,

heating assembly, etc.

Figure 139: Subdistribution cabinets

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4.6 USERS

Everything which is downstream of an HV or LV cabinet, supplied from this cabinet with

mandatory protection (fuse, circuit breaker) for the supply cable(s) and possibly the
actuation / control components (relay, contactor).

The main users are covered in a separate course: transformers, motors; we will not go into
detail here but we will simply list the final components (end users) in a one-line diagram.

Electric motors:

The "conventional" motors on the site. The

motor on the left has a power of 50MV and is
supplied with HV (6 and/or 11 kV), you will see
HV motors but which are less powerful, but you
will see the induction motor (above) in all the
power ranges up to 1MW

Figure 140: 50 MV electric motor

Figure 141: Induction motor

Other types of motors: linear, piezoelectric, stepper, etc.

Direct rotary (torque) linear stepper

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Transformers:

Figure 142: HV/LV (or LV/HV) power transformer

The one you will encounter on site is on the right, the oil-immersed transformer. The
HV/LV transformer with open-air windings is little used in our industry, it is generally used
in a cubicle with pulsed air to evacuate the heat given off.

LV/LV power transformers: for lighting distribution, circuit isolation

HV/HV power transformers: for energy transmission over distances

Lighting cabinets:
See the distribution principles in the next chapter.

HVAC cabinets:
Heating or air conditioning, covering the protection gear specific to these circuits.

… Modules (skids), UPS, etc.

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4.7 EXERCISES

Before going any further, here are some exercises on everything you have covered up
until now, and even some on topics to be covered later.

4.7.1 Basic values in electricity

12. What is the resistance of a water heater which absorbs an electric current of 4.5 A
when a voltage of 230 V is applied to it?

13. An electric bulb has a power consumption of 0.17 A at 230 V. What is it resistance?

14. Calculate the current flowing through the heating element of an electric hob with a
resistance de 150 Ω, supplied with a voltage of 400 V.

15. A soldering iron with resistance 3.5 Ω is supplied at 24 V. How much current will it
draw from the source?

16. We wish to make a current of 4 A flow through a 7 Ω heating element. What voltage
must be applied to it?

17. Calculate the voltage drop in an 8 mΩ conductor when a 15 A current is flowing

through it.

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18. In an average lightning flash, a current of 20 kA flows at a potential of 200 MV.

Calculate the value of the resistance to the current flow.

19. Do metals which are good conductors have a high or a low resistivity?

20. From the resistivities indicated in the course table, in your opinion what are the two
materials generally used to carry electrical energy?

21. What is the resistance of a 1 km long copper wire with a cross-sectional area of
1 mm²?

22. Evaluate the power consumption of a motor which draws 15 A at 24 V (in D.C.).

23. A 3 A current flows between two points in an electrical installation and dissipates a
power of 18 W. What is the voltage between these two points?

24. Evaluate the power consumption of a 60 W 230 V electric bulb.

25. What is the resistance of a 60 W 230 V electric bulb?

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26. What are the current and power values of a 60 W 230 V electric bulb if its
resistance is reduced by half?

27. What is the efficiency of a 60 W 230 V electric bulb, given that the useful light
energy is 10 W?

28. A household lighting system has nine 60 W lamps. What is the power consumption
(in kWh) of these lamps in 4 hours.

29. If electricity costs 5 Euros cents per kilowatt-hour, and supposing that nine 60 W
lamps burn every night for a year, how much will this lighting cost?

30. If electricity costs 5 Euros cents per kilowatt-hour, and supposing that nine 60 W
lamps burn every night for a year, what would be the gain if these lamps are
replaced by low power lamps which provide the same light but have a power
consumption of only 15 W?

31. A toaster connected to 230 V consumes 3 A. How much power and how much
energy (in kWh) does it consume to make toast in 5 minutes?

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4.7.2 DC voltage supplies

We have not yet covered batteries but the following questions are based on logic and use
U=R.I. & P=U.I.

32. The open circuit voltage across the terminals of a battery is 1.5 V. It is 1.2 V when a
6 Ω resistance is connected to its terminals. What is the battery's internal
resistance?

33. We wish to supply a bulb with a 300 mA current for one week. The bulb has a
resistance of 20 Ω. How many 1.5 V batteries with a capacity of 30 Ah are required
and how must they be connected?

34. A battery is considered to be flat when its voltage drops below 1.0 V. The same
battery can provide a current of 19.5 A for 8 hours or 940 A for 5 seconds.
Calculate and compare the capacity in [Ah] in these two cases, explain the
difference.

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4.7.3 Single phase AC voltage supplies

35. What is the effective (rms) value of a sinusoidal current with peak value of 12 A?

36. A plane coil rotates at 3,600 rpm in a constant magnetic field. What is the frequency
of the voltage produced?

37. What is the period of an AC voltage with frequency of 16 2/3 Hz? (time for one
alternation)

38. A sinusoidal AC voltage has an effective (rms) value of 100 V and a frequency of
50 Hz. What is its instantaneous value 10 ms after the start of the period? How
much time will the instantaneous voltage take to reach the inverse value?

39. A device supplied from the 230 V / 50Hz AC mains supply consumes 0.6 A, with a
30° phase shift. Calculate its active power, its effective (rms) power and its reactive
power. Draw a vector diagram of this.

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40. The manufacturer's plate of a motor with a 1.5 kW power output gives the following
information
• Nominal (rated) voltage: 230 V / 50 Hz
• Efficiency: 72%
• Cosφ: 88%
Calculate its active power drawn from the network, and the ‘called’ current when it is
loaded at its nominal (rated) power.

4.7.4 Three-phase AC voltage supplies

The following questions use logical reasoning, draw the diagrams.

41. Let us consider the European three-phase system (Usingle = 230 Vrms for U between
phase and neutral). Calculate the exact value of the line-to-line voltage (between
phases) Uline-to-line, then calculate the peak value of these 2 voltages.

42. Calculate the current absorbed by a 10 kW 400 V~ three-phase heater? The heater
consists of 3 identical heating elements connected in star configuration and it has a
power factor of 1. What would happen if we connected these 3 heating elements in
delta configuration?

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43. An oven is heated by three 100 Ώ heating elements. What are the total powers
which can be obtained by different connection configurations on a three-phase
network in Europe?
List all the possible power supply combinations for the heating elements in three-
phase + between phase and neutral (or between 2 phases). Clue: There are 8
possible combinations.

44. With a copper electric wire with a cross-sectional area of 2.5 mm², we can allow a
maximum of 16 A to flow. What is the max. power consumption which a 400 V
three-phase device can reach without exceeding the authorised current?

45. Three 60 W lamps are each connected between the phase and the neutral of a
standard European three-phase power supply. What are the currents flowing in
each of the phases and in the neutral?

46. By error, an installer connected the L2 phase of a three-phase supply to the earth
instead of to the neutral. What is the max. voltage which would be seen on each of
the other two phases relative to earth?

47. A 25 W lamp is connected between the L1 phase and the neutral of a standard
European three-phase power supply. Another 100 W lamp is connected between

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the L2 phase and neutral . What voltages are present across the terminals of each
lamp if the connection with the neutral is accidentally interrupted?
What are the foreseeable consequences?

48. We connect a 40 W lamp between the L1 phase and the neutral of a three-phase
supply, a 60 W lamp between the L2 phase and neutral, and a 100 W lamp
between the L3 phase and neutral. What is the value of the current in the 3 phase
lines and what is the current in the neutral line?

A 15 kW (nominal power output) three-phase motor drives a hydraulic pump. It has an

efficiency of 83% and its cosφ is 0.85. It is supplied with 400 V three-phase.

49. What are the active and reactive power consumptions at nominal load?

50. What are the phase current values?

51. This pump often only operates at 20% of its nominal power. If the reactive power
remains practically unchanged and if only the active power is reduced according to
the load, what is the value of cosφ and what is the current in this load configuration.

52. What do you think of this type of application? What would you try to improve, and
how?

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5 PRECAUTIONS AGAINST THE ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

In any electrical system, everyone thinks that electrical hazards are life-threatening. This is
true, of course. A current passing through the human body kills above a certain value, but
it must be remembered that a current (unwanted) flowing through an installation's metal
frame ground can destroy this installation.

Corrosion and rust are due to electrolysis, but it is not only the paint which protects against
this rust, it is the serious measures taken in the electrical field which provide efficient
protection against this type of corrosion.

Let us first look at the dangers, the "problems" and then the solutions.

5.1 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

5.1.1 Physiological effects of electricity

Electric shock designates the injuries inflicted on the human body when an electric
current passes through it.
The severity of these injuries depends on the current and on the time during which the
organism is subjected to the current. These injuries are mainly cardiovascular (cardiac
arrest, heart attack), respiratory (suffocation), muscular (burns, necrosis), skin-related or
neurological.

Electrocution is death by electric shock.

• From 1 to 10 mA, the current causes only contractions which are not dangerous;

• From 10 to 25 mA, the current can only be dangerous

when applied for several minutes;

• From 25 to 75 mA, the current can cause cardiac

arrest; it is fatal after 30 seconds;

• The most serious heart attacks arise for currents over

75 mA, even for a short duration of less than 1
second.

Figure 143: Electrical hazards

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Figure 144: Graph of electrical hazards

In the above diagram, zones 1 and 2 are without danger, zones 3 and 4 are fatal.

Safe allowable voltages:

The diagram indicates that a current of 10 mA is safe, and considering the resistance of
the human body under different conditions, we apply the formula U=R.I.

• In a dry area, the minimum resistance is 5,000 Ώ

5,000 x 0.01 = 50 V CA

• In a wet area, the minimum resistance is 2,500 Ώ

2,500 x 0.01 = 25V CA

• For immersion, the minimum resistance is 1,250 Ώ

1,250 x 0.01 = 12V CA

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5.1.2 Voltage classifications

Voltage classifications: 3 levels

• VLV: Very Low Voltage in DC: up to 120V

• LV: Low Voltage in DC: BTA (Low Voltage range A) from 120 to 750V and
BTB (Low Voltage range B) from 750 to 1,500V

• HV: High Voltage in DC: HTA (High voltage range A) up to 75 KV and HTB
(High Voltage range B) above.

(HTA, HTB, BTA and BTB are abbreviations commonly used on France. "HT" represents
"High Voltage", "BT" represents "Low Voltage" and "A" and "B" are ranges).

VLV: Very Low Voltage in AC:

From 0 to 50V in alternating current (AC) and 0 to 120V in direct current (DC)
Value decided according to the safety voltage shown above. Safety portable tools must
have a maximum operating voltage of 50V AC

LV: Low Voltage in AC:

Subdivided into 2 categories:

• LVA from 50 to 500V

• LVB from 500 to 1,000V

LVA is the category commonly used: 220/230V and 380/400V

HV: High Voltage in AC:

Subdivided into 2 categories:

• HVA from 1 kV to 50 kV

• HVB above 50 kV

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5.1.3 Electrical risks for persons and equipment

The electrocution or electric shock hazard may come from anywhere.

Figure 145: Some examples of electrical hazards

Do not forget the consequences of a short circuit: burns, electric arc (for the eyes), smoke
hazards, effect of induction on a nonconnected cable, etc.

Other risks:

Figure 146: Spark hazards associated with gas and fumes

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This figure shows several hazards:

The capacitive charge of a truck, a helicopter
and even of a ship.
The capacitive charge of a pipeline.
Possibility of corrosion
This capacitance can cause a spark.

Only precaution: earthing (see following

paragraph).

Figure 147: Electrical hazards

And when you have to replace a valve on a pipeline, ensure that the bonding is continuous
by placing an earth cable between the 2 sections (connected before removing the valve !).
Accidents have already happened due to this precaution not being respected.

The cathodic protection must also be provided with the earth equipotential bonding. (See
specific course on Cathodic Protection).

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5.2 EARTHING

A person working in the electrical domain considers the earth conductor to be the most
important "wire" in the electrical distribution system. Also, most electric circuit protection
systems cannot operate without an earth circuit.

5.3 Earth faults

Equipment not earthed

A motor winding is defective and in

contact with the metal frame
ground, the person touching this
motor is at a voltage of 220V, and
by applying U = R.I. we obtain

Figure 148: Equipment not earthed

IF = UF / RH = 220 / 2500 = 88 mA
(red zone in 0.1 sec!)
IF for fault current
RH, resistance of the human body
REARTH negligible

(The same) Equipment earthed

Let us add RN the resistance of the neutral and RM the resistance of the earth line.

The current is distributed

between IG and IH

The equivalent resistance

RH/RM is 1/R = 1/RH+1/RM
Where R = 5 Ω (approx.)

The fault current IF =

U/RM+RN = 220/5+5 = 22 Amps

The ground is at the potential UF

UF = RMxIF = 5 x 22 = 110 Volts

Figure 149: Equipment not

earthed

The current distribution gives: IG = 110 / 5 = 22 Amp. and IF = 110 / 2,500 = 44 mA

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44mA is still a dangerous current. We can already see that with a smaller ground
resistance we reduce the "touch potential", hence the importance of having good earth
connections and an earth system with as low a resistance as possible.

Neutral not earthed (or not distributed in star or delta)

Let us consider an impedance

corresponding to the insulation, taken
at 4,000 ohms for example
U: system voltage,
RM: resistance of the earths= 1 Ω
ZF: system impedance

IF = U / RM + ZF = 220 / 4000+1
= 220 / 4000 = 55 mA
Fault voltage: UF = RM x IF = 1 x
0.055 = 0.55 Vols
(Apparently) not dangerous.

Figure 150: Neutral not earthed

Neutral earthed through an impedance

Normal method used in industry with Z

of 1,000 ohms as average value.
RM and RN are low values.

IF = U / RM+RN+Z = 220/1,002 =
220 mA

Fault voltage:
UF = RM x IF = 1 x 0.22 = 0,22V thus
no danger for persons

Figure 151: Neutral connected to earth

through an impedance

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5.3.1 Neutral point arrangements

You are not required to master this principle like an electrician, but you must be familiar
with the different terms and understand the different applications.

The neutral point arrangements are applied to the LV distribution networks.

The LV windings of energy sources like generators and transformers (almost always) have
a Y (star) configuration and therefore have a neutral point.

For HV, there is also a neutral / earth protection system, but which is different, and it can
be seen in the HV chapter.

Neutral point arrangement principle:

Since the metal parts of an installation are interconnected and connected to a general
earth system, any fault current passes through this earth circuit to return to the source
which generated it via the neutral conductor.

The different neutral point arrangements:

The neutral point arrangement is defined by 3 letters.

1st letter: condition for connecting the neutral to the earth.

T: neutral connected directly to the earth.
I: for Isolated (not connected, "floating") or for Impedance (connected to the earth
through an impedance.

2nd letter: concerns the metal parts of the installation.

T: the metal parts are interconnected to a system independent of that of the earth of the
neutral.
N: the metal parts of the installation are interconnected and connected to the earth of the
neutral.

3rd letter: indicates the relationship between the earth of the metal frame grounds and the
earth of the neutral.
S: for Separated, the earth systems of the metal frame grounds and earth of the neutral
are two different systems but connected together at generation level.
C: for Common, a single system distributes both the earth of the metal frame grounds and
the neutral conductor at the same time on a single conductor.

There are 5 combinations of these letters: TT, TN-C, TN-S, TN-C-S, IT

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TT arrangement

It is the principle used for (French) domestic

distribution for example.

It is supplied by the EDF network (French

Electricity Board) and cannot be connected to the
EDF neutral which is itself connected to earth (1st
letter T).

On the user side, it is mandatory that all the metal

frame grounds must be connected to another
"earth", the PE (Protective Earth) system (2nd
letter T).

Figure 152: Neutral TT

The distribution circuit protection and cut-off devices which use earth fault detection must
be used in this configuration (LV chapter).

IT arrangement

Neutral Isolated or earthed through an Impedance and independently earthed.

Used for indiustrial distribution

and therefore on the sites.

Only a network surveillance

system is mandatory by a device
such as a permanent insulation
monitor, in a IT system with
Neutral connected to Earth
through an Impedance

Figure 153: Neutral IT

The fault protection on the outgoing lines is not mandatory but recommended.

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TN arrangement: Neutral to earth, distribution earths connected to the Neutral,

C=common.

TN-C PEN network

Throughout the system, the neutral

conductor and protection function
is provided by a single conductor.

Advantage:

• Saves copper, easy to pull

for laying (only 4
conductors), reduces costs.

Figure 154: Neutral TN-C

Disadvantage:

• Danger that the grounds of the users connected to the neutral might be energised if
the PEN conductor ruptures

• Used for conductor cross-sectional areas greater than 10 mm². For conductors less
than or equal to 10 mm² the TN-S arrangement is used.

TN-S

Separation of the N and PE

conductors throughout the
system.

Figure 155: Neutral TN-C

Advantages:

• Simple use of the fault current protection coupling.

• Simplified isolation measure (no N-PE links, which prevent accidents due to
omitting to re-establish the links after interventions).

• No limit to the cross-sectional area of the conductors.

Disadvantage:

• 5 wire distribution, therefore cables more expensive.

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TN-C-S

Combination of the 2 in the same

distribution arrangement.

Figure 156: Neutral TN-C-S

The TN-C (Common earth and Neutral)

configuration can be used if the cross-
sectional area of the copper conductors is greater than 10 mm2.

The TN-S configuration is mandatory for cross-sectional areas less than or equal to
10 mm².

Point common to the 5 methods: the earth conductor (PE) must remain permanently
connected and never be integrated in disconnection components (disconnection switch,
circuit breaker, etc.).

For the TN-C configuration with common neutral (PEN), the neutral must never be isolated
since it is also the earth.

5.3.2 Earth system

Electrical earth distribution diagram

It is a kind of one-line diagram showing the following items on the site layout diagram:

• All the earth loop cable paths, both buried and overhead

• The connections with the electrical equipment

• The connections with the "process" metal frame grounds (tanks, skid, etc.)

• The connections with the "structure" metal frame grounds

• The connections with the earth wells

• The bars / earth bars

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• The interconnections with the other earth systems (instrumentation, IT, lightning
protection, etc.).

Other connection diagrams

In addition to the general diagram, a schematic detailed diagrams booklet is produced for
each project, showing the specific features of the connections such as: branch on main
loop – connection on tanks with number of connections and equipment to be used –
connections to bars – etc.

See the Total general specification in this domain.

An example of a sketch or diagram detailing a type of connection on a structure is shown

below.

Figure 157: Examples of connections on the structure

Note: the earth loop connections (copper cable on copper cable) are generally made using
the thermowelding principle; the "Cadwel" system (or aluminothermic welding). This
system also used for the copper cable connections on the metal structure, to prevent
galvanic corrosion.

In the example diagram above the copper cable / steel structure connection uses an
"interface", i.e. a bimetal washer (Cu+Steel) to prevent natural corrosion from developing
when two different metals are in contact.

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Aluminothermic welding principle

The principle is to use the reduction of copper oxide by aluminium. This causes an
exothermic reaction and forms a bath of melted copper. This melted copper bath then
flows onto the conductors.

Figure 158: Examples of good weld joints

In the examples of good weld joints, we can see that the conductor and the weld metal
form a block of uniform material.

5.3.3 Earth electrodes

For onshore installations (obviously)

The earth systems are completed with inspection chambers and

earth rods.

Figure 159: Earth well

The number of earth rods and their lengths (or depth in the ground) are calculated at the
time of the project to have an earth system with as low a resistance as possible.

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The ground resistivity (for the current return via the soil) is also taken into account for this
calculation.

Why do we need inspection chambers?

On industrial sites the integrity of the earth system is checked at least once a year by an
approved independent organisation.

During his visit, the inspector must disconnect each earth rod and measure the "earth
resistance" specific to each rod.

On site, please leave these earth inspection covers free and accessible, it could be
you who will sign the next inspection report and have to take measures for the "retest" to
complete the parts left blank in the report.

5.3.4 Earth loops

These are all the earth systems of an installation

or a site.

Figure 160: Earth bar (collector)

All the ground cables are connected to the earth bars (earth collector) distributed around
the unit and in the electrical room(s). A "global" measurement of an installation's earth loop
resistances must be as follows:

• Onshore:

< 10 ohms (less than 10 Ώ) in nonhazardous areas; in practice we try to

obtain a value less than 2 ohms)

< 1 ohm (less than 1 Ώ) in hazardous areas (0, 1 and 2 – hazardous areas)

• Offshore:

< 0.5 ohm (less than 0.5 Ώ) at any point in the installation's earth circuit.

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"Electrical" ground and "mechanical" ground

Figure 161: "Electrical" ground and "mechanical" ground

There is no specific names to differentiate the earths. The terms "electrical" and
"mechanical" have been invented here for easier understanding. However, on an industrial
site, it is essential that you know that:

An electrical device (motor, lamp, heating, etc.) is connected to earth at least twice: to
the "mechanical" ground (equipment grounds, on-site loop), and to the "electrical" ground
by its power cable which must incorporate a "PE" conductor, the green-yellow wire.

A metal frame even without electrical equipment (tank, separator, skid, etc.) is connected
to the "mechanical" ground at least once. There may be several "mechanical"
connections, this depends on the electrical ground itself (on the volume of metal). The
regulations / standards must be consulted to know these details.

The "electrical" grounds and "mechanical" grounds are connected to a main earth bar.

And (more advice…), on "your site", when you see "mechanical" grounds which are not
connected or even incorrectly connected, even though they do not concern you, you
should know that you are actively contributing to the equipment's corrosion and that you
may be partly responsible for a future accident due to an electrical fault if you do nothing.

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5.4 PROTECTION OF PERSONS AND EQUIPMENT

5.4.1 Personal protection

It is the traditional site kit for an operator: helmet, gloves, safety shoes, goggles, coverall,
hearing protection, etc. An operator must not intervene on an electrical installation but he
can give advice, and should even correct any lack of safety measures by the electrician.

Electrician's personal protection, specific features:

Coverall: long sleeves (to prevent burns due to arcing), made of cotton (fireproof) with no
metal zip (plastic zip or buttons).
Helmet, goggles: made of nonconducting material.

Suitable personal tools:

Insulating mat for working in the LV electrical cabinet.

Insulated personal hand tools in good condition.

Figure 162: Personal tooling

Metal tools must not be used for interventions in the energised LV cabinets (saw, tape
measure, etc.).

Portable electric tools:

Classified in categories from 0 to 3 (from 0 to III) which are the insulation classes.

• Category 0

Tool or metallic device connected to the

domestic mains supply (220 or 110V),
without being earthed. In case of a fault, the
220V is directly "touched".

Prohibited both on the worksite and for

household electrical appliances *

Figure 163: Category 0 device

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There are household electrical appliances in this category on the market (from
Asia, via Internet or other, etc.). Important: if an accident happens the insurances
"will not work", and even less so on a worksite or production site...

• Category I

Metallic-framed equipment connected to the electrical network (220V) with an

earth conductor in the power cable.

Authorised for fixed equipment, not

authorised for portable equipment.

Figure 164: Category I equipment

At home, the television, fridge and heating system must be connected with an
earth wire included in the power cable.

• Category II

Portable tool or semi-fixed (household)

equipment supplied by the electrical
network (220V) with a frame made of
insulating material, the manufacturer
guarantees that there is no possibility of
"touch contact" if there is an internal
defect.

Figure 165: Category II equipment

Authorised on site in dry (and safe) areas only and with the power supply
protected by a differential system *

The power socket circuits (also in the home) to which the portable equipment is
connected must have a disconnection system in case of a residual fault current,
i.e. a protection by 30mA differential detection acting on a switch or a circuit
breaker (see LV chapter).

Category II equipment is "double insulated" equipment marked with a "double

square" (international marking).

* The regulations do not require earthing via the power supply cable for this type
of portable equipment. However, it is strongly recommended that this electric drill
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(shown in the example) should be connected to a power socket with ground

conductor and protected by a differential device. This same electric drill's chuck
and armature shaft are metallic, you will touch these metallic parts when you
handle it (without disconnecting it) and any internal deterioration may mean that
the rotating part and the 220V parts come into contact.

• Category III:

Tool or equipment supplied with a

safety voltage less than < 50 V AC
in dry areas and < 25 V AC in damp
areas.

The commonly used tools use a

maximum of 24V supplied by an
individual 24V source on site.*

Figure 166: Category III equipment

Important, mandatory on site: if the 24V AC is not distributed via a 24V power
socket circuit, a safety transformer must be used for a portable electric tool, and
only one tool must be connected to it.

E.g.: (1 electric drill=1 transformer + 1 grinder=1 transformer + 1 portable

inspection lamp=1 transformer).

Of course, the lower voltages are even safer: 6V for an electric train set, 6V for a
portable tool on a battery power pack, etc.

Electrical authorisations:

On a site you must have a specific personal authorisation by taking a "C18510" (reference
of the standard) training course. Without this authorisation you are quite simply not
authorised to enter an electrical room.

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5.4.2 Mechanical protection ‘IP’

All electrical equipment and instruments have a level of resistance to the entry of water
and dust which is more or less high according to its ‘IP’ index established when it was
manufactured, this index is marked on the identification plate.

Figure 167: Light fitting Ex and IP67

For example, this light fitting is not only ‘Ex’ meaning that it can be installed in an area at
risk, but also IP67 i.e. according to the manufacturer: ‘6’ for totally dustproof and ‘7’ for
immersionproof.

In addition (not mandatory) an index of resistance to shocks of 10 Joules.

The IP protection index characterises the product sealing level. The first figure
corresponds to the protection level against solid bodies and the second figure for
protection against liquids.

Protection index Solid body Liquid body

IP 6 5

Table 12: Protection index IP65

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Index For the first figure For the second figure

0 No protection No protection

Protection against solid bodies Protection against drops of water falling

1
greater than 50mm vertically
Protection against solid bodies Protection against water falling with an
2
greater than 12mm inclination of 15° max.
Protection against solid bodies
3 Protection against rain water
greater than 2.5mm
Protection against solid bodies
4 Protection against water spray
greater than 1mm

5 Dust protection Protection against water jets

6 Total dust protection Protection against waves

7 Protection against the effects of immersion

Protection against the effects of prolonged

8
immersion

Table 13: Protection indices

5.4.3 Electrical work

As an operator, and even though you are not in charge of a site, you have to approve and
take decisions concerning electrical work for which it would be better to know the following:

Electrical work:

• No live electrical work is authorised in LV and HV.

Live working is only authorised for VLV with insulated tools (a key across the +
and – terminals of a battery can cause a great deal of damage).

Live working may be authorised but a special procedure must be established and
with the use of totally insulated special tools and for BTA only for our on-site
applications.

• All LV and HV work requires the installation concerned to be completely isolated

and all the necessary precautions taken to ensure that no voltage is present and
that the system cannot be accidentally re-energised: outgoing line locked out with
interlocking, padlocking.

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• For live LV working, only the following interventions are authorised and at BTA.

The interventions consist of:

• Checking the voltage with a device adapted for troubleshooting an
installation
• Test operations
• Placing danger area signs around the equipment and ensuring that the
equipment is made safe for the interventions
• The equipment must be isolated when the result of the troubleshooting
requires a piece of equipment to be replaced or wiring to be modified.

• For HV, no live working is authorised.

Electrical permits:

The electrical permit is an additional permit to the main Permit to work and cannot be
issued alone. The procedures for issuing these permits must be consulted on each site.

The electrical permit is not reserved for electrician's work but for all work requiring
equipment to be de-energised. This is to be able to work in total safety, e.g. without the
danger of a pump inadvertently starting, or a strip light unexpectedly lighting.

The electrical permit mainly consists of an electrical equipment isolation (or lock-out)
sequence with signatures and operations carried out by the authorised personnel. The
electrical permit also includes the lock-out removal sequences.

The duty operator signs the electrical permit at both the start and end of the work.

5.4.4 Cathodic protection

There is a specific course on this subject in the operator course.

Corrosion is produced by an electric current (based on the battery principle) with an anode
and cathode, we create a back current to counteract the effects of this natural current in
the metal frame grounds.

Two methods:

• sacrificial anodes: the set of anodes attached to the structure are destroyed.

• Current injection: a DC source injects a back current to counteract the natural

phenomenon.

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5.5 EXERCISES

53. An earth rod is connected

‰ To the earth inspection cover

‰ To the earth loop of the grounds

‰ To a phase

54. The colour of the earth conductor in an electrical power cable is

‰ Red

‰ Black

‰ Green-yellow

‰ Any colour

55. The neutral conductor is present for a power supply source (transformer or
generator) when the connection is in the following configuration:

‰ Delta

‰ Star

‰ Star / Delta

56. The safety supply voltage (alternating current) in damp areas is:

‰ 48V

‰ 60V

‰ 24V

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57. The portable inspection lamp which I use to inspect the inside of a water tank in a
nonhazardous area can be powered:

‰ By 220V from a nearby socket

‰ By 48V from a nearby socket

‰ By 24V in parallel with the electric drill and the grinder which I must use

‰ By 24V on the secondary of a safety transformer (only connection)

58. My computer's power supply unit has a class I insulation, no earth wire is required
with a 220V supply

‰ True

‰ False

59. My computer's power supply unit has a class II insulation, no earth wire is required
with a 220V supply

‰ True

‰ False

60. If we have a three-phase power supply with neutral and 380V between phases,
what is the voltage between phase and neutral?

‰ 380V

‰ 220V

‰ 0V

61. If we have a three-phase power supply with neutral and 380V between phases,
what is the voltage between phase and earth?

‰ 380V

‰ 220V

‰ 0V

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62. For a TT arrangement, what is the voltage between neutral and earth:

‰ 380V

‰ 220V

‰ 127V

‰ 0V (approx.)

63. A gas reheater is supplied by a 4G70 mm² cable, what does the letter G mean?
I must add an earth cable to connect it to the site's grounds

‰ True

‰ False

64. An electrician has to replace the cable in an LV cabinet, he can do it with the
system energised since he is a specialist

‰ True

‰ False

65. An electrician has to carry out troubleshooting in an LV cabinet, he can do it with

the system energised, since he is a specialist

‰ True

‰ False

66. An electrician who is an HV specialist has to replace a 6kV fuse in an HV cubicle,

he can carry out the operation with the system energised (live working):

‰ True

‰ False

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6 HIGH VOLTAGE CABINETS

The photos and the diagrams are taken from an ABB brand catalogue.
ABB equipment is commonly installed on Total sites.

6.1 HV substation

It is an assembly of modular
cubicles which are added
according to the
requirements.
The HV substation is in the
electrical room dedicated to
this purpose, this room often
also has an LV part

Figure 168: HV substation (1)

Access to an HV substation is reserved for authorised personnel who have taken a

specific C18510 course and who have received a personal individual certificate authorising
entry into the substation.
A site manager and even a "surface technician", who
do not hold authorisations (hablitation), must not enter
a substation (even LV) without this authorisation.

Figure 169: HV substation (2)

The aim is to have all

the personnel
informed of the
dangers of electricity
so that they do not
carry out irresponsible
actions endangering their own lives and those of others;
e.g. the cleaner sluicing down the nearby floor area with
water or a "tourist" going too close to energised parts.

Figure 170: HV substation (3)

An (habibilited) operator has access to the front and rear

cells of the substation for the operations he is authorised to carry out and to take readings
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on the measurement instruments on the front of the cubicles. These measurements are
mainly taken on an indicating meter specific to each cubicle which includes the protection
systems and the electrical values (in this case REF452 for ABB equipment).

Figure 171: One-line diagram of a UniGear switchboard

The one-line diagram of a UniGear switchboard with REF542 architecture which is more
appropriate for the the automatic and manual switching (ATS) in addition to the protection systems
and switchboard measurements.

HV loops (underground)

Figure 172: HV loops

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On site (onshore and offshore) an HV distribution system can include several substations
supplied in a closed loop (all the switches are closed) or in an open loop (one of the
switches is open).

For example, in the above diagram, if we wish to work in substation "A" cubicles, we will
not only open switches SA1 and SA2, but also SP2 and SB1. Substation "B" remains
supplied via SP1 and SB2.

Loop and HV cubicle interlocking

In the above example, substation "A" must be isolated but the switch opening and
closing operations in the 3 substations (P + A + B) are carried
out according to a very strict procedure with a sequence of
operations for opening (and/or closing) the different HV
switches/disconnection switches/circuit breaker including
interlocking by keys and/or padlocks and grounding the HV
cables to "discharge" them (capacitance effect) when they are no
longer energised.

Figure 173: Loop interlocking

The safety interlocks are classified into two categories: those which come as standard [1-
2-3] and those available on request [4-5], see following table. The first are required by the
regulations and are thus necessary to guarantee that the correct operating sequences are
used; the others can be supplied on request.

Figure 174: Safety interlocking equipment (standard equipment)

Figure 175: Safety interlocking equipment (on option)

The presence of these interlocking devices must be mentioned in the installation's

operating and maintenance procedures. Their presence guarantees the highest level of
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reliability, even if there is an accidental error and allow an "error free" interlocking system
to be obtained which is guaranteed by the manufacturer.

Keys

The use of key interlocking devices is particularly important for the operating logics
between the units in a same switchboard, or even other medium, low and high voltage
switchboards. The logics are achieved using distributors or by linking together the rings of
the keys.

Figure 176: Key interlocking systems

The switchgear drawer [6] can be locked in withdrawn position and the interlocking key
can be withdrawn from its housing only when the drawer is in this condition.

The earthing switch closing [7] and opening [8] operations can be interlocked using keys;
these can be withdrawn from their housings only when the switch is in the opposite
position to the interlocking to be performed. These interlocking systems may also be
applied to the earthing switch of the busbar applications.

The switchgear [9] plug-in/draw-out operations and earthing switch [10] opening and
closing operations can be interlocked using key locks which prevent the control levers from
being operated. Key interlocking can also be applied to the earthing switch of the busbar
applications. The keys can always be removed from their housings.

Padlocks

Figure 177: Padlocking

The doors of the switchgear [11] and line [12] compartments can be padlocked in closed
position. Padlocks can be applied to the two types of closure provided, with knurled screws
and central handle.

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The switchgear [13] plug-in/draw-out operations and the earthing switch [14]
opening/closing operations can be locked out by putting padlocks on the operating lever
control slots. Padlocks can also be used for the earthing switch of the busbar applications.

The metallic separation shutters [15] can be locked using two independent padlocks in
both open and closed positions.

Interlocking magnets

Figure 178: Interlocking magnets

The cubicles can contain additional internal components which require no manual action.

As an operator, check that all the procedures and the interlocking logics exist on your
"site". Never sign an HV permit to work if it is not accompanied by the relevant procedure.
There is no excuse for not using it. With HV, errors can be fatal. That is why this
paragraph contains several pages which do not directly concern you but which will help
you to check that the electrician's work sequence is correct.

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6.2 HV CUBICLES

HV cubicles modules (source: ABB but representation identical for all manufacturers).

For the project, the cubicles are assembled according to the requirements, with electrical
continuity bonds between the terminals and three-phase busbars, added above or behind
the cubicles.

One-line diagram of the typical units

IF type BT type R type RM type

M type IFD type IFDM type DF type

Figure 179: One-line diagrams of the typical units

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IF - Incoming/Outgoing line with disconnection switch, circuit breaker, fuse, earth, CT and PT.
BT - Measurement tie-in with switch, circuit breaker, earthing, CT
R - Riser with connection junction with PT
RM - Riser with measurements: PT and its fused switch protection
M - Measurements with earthing, PT and its fused switch protection
IFD - Direct Incoming/Outgoing Feeder with measurements with earthing, PT and CT
IFDM - Direct Incoming/Outgoing Feeder with measurements with earthing, CT, PT + protection
DF - Switch-disconnector unit with switch, fuse, earthing, CT

One-line diagram of the busbar applications

Current Voltage
Transformers Transformers Duct entry Earth switch
CT PT

Figure 180: One-line diagrams of the busbar applications

PT: potential transformer for voltage transformer

Graphic symbols

Switch- Switch Socket and

Circuit breaker Contactor Isolating bar
disconnector Isolating bar plug

Voltage Current
Fuse Earth Cable entry Busbar entry
transformers transformers

Figure 181: Graphic symbols

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Differentiation: same difference for the names in HV and in LV.

• Disconnector or Isolator: without breaking capacity, for isolation only, off-load

opening

• Switch: on-load disconnection of the current for which it has been manufactured

• Circuit breaker: switch equipped with a self-contained automatic breaking system

(mechanical and/or electrical) in case of overcurrent

• Contactor: on-load disconnection, controlled by an electromagnetic system (coil)

itself controlled by an auxiliary circuit.

Component key (on above diagrams)

• Standard components: black line

• Accessories: blue line

• Alternative solutions: red line

Earthing

It is systematically present on all cubicles connected to an incoming or outgoing cable.

Also present when an internal access is necessary for work (e.g. on PT).

In normal operation, the earthing switch is in open position, interlocked with the other
switchgear which is closed.

In closed position (in contact with the earth, the interlocking and the padlocks prevent the
switches, contactors and disconnection switches from closing.

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6.3 PROTECTION GEAR IN THE HV CIRCUITS

Main circuit tripping

The cubicles are equipped with power

disconnection components. Let us now take a
closer look at the circuit breakers, switches,
disconnectors, isolators and contactors.

Figure 182: Plug-in vacuum circuit breaker

The circuit
breaker has a
mechanical
control with
energy accumulation. The trip is free and it thus allows
independent opening and closing by the operator.

Figure 183: Plug-in SF6 gas circuit breaker

The control spring system is recharged manually or by

geared motor.

"SF6" gas is used for the circuit interruption since it is

easy to manufacture and the main reason is that it is a "damper" for the arc which appears
during a circuit interruption.

Figure 184: Vacuum (or SF6) contactor with fuses

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The DF units (ABB reference) are equipped with NAL type

switch-disconnectors.

The units are used to operate and protect lines and

transformers or in the electricity power stations for
transformers for auxiliary services.

Figure 185: Switch-disconnectors

Protection and measurement controls:

Only 2 measurements are performed: voltage and

current.

Current measurement per phase, for the neutral, current to earth, voltage measurement
between phases, between phases and neutral, potential with the earth, but only ‘U’ and ‘I’.
The various powers, power factor (cos φ), etc., are calculated from the voltage and current
values.

No measurement is performed (directly) in HV (?)

The voltage values are converted into low voltage (around 100V) using the PT (Potential
Transformer) and CT (Current Transformer).

In the HV cubicles, the high voltage parts (> 1000V) are never accessible when these
same cubicles are in service.

Only the voltages and current converted by the PT and CT are accessible for the
measurements and the troubleshooting in the HV cubicle's LV compartment.

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Current ring transformers:

Current transformers are isolated in resin and are used to supply the measurements and
protection systems.

These transformers can have a closed or opening core. They can be used both to
measure phase currents and for earth fault current detection. They meet the IEC 60044-1
standards.

Figure 186: Current ring transformer

Note: never leave the secondary winding of a CT open (primary in service), if it is not used,
the CT's secondary must be short circuited.

Voltage transformers

The voltage transformers are isolated in resin and are used to supply power for the
measurement and protection systems. They are
available as fixed assembly versions or on
removable draw-out drawers.
The meet the IEC 60044-2 standards. Their
dimensions are compliant with the DIN 42600
standard.

These transformers can have one or two poles,

with performances and precision classes adapted
to the functional requirements of the instruments
which are connected to them.

Figure 187: Block of 3 TPs in an ABB cubicle

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Protection units on each outgoing line, each type of protection has a code (see following
table), all these protection systems are grouped onto a relay with reference specific to the
manufacturer.

Examples a motor protection outgoing line:

Figure 188: Typical protection system for Figure 189: Typical protection system for
standard level motors high integrity motors

The TCs and TPs supply a relay which must be chosen from the adapted range:

Figure 190: A range of ABB relays

Merlin Gérin (another manufacturer present on Total

sites) provides the multifunction protections using
"Sepam" relays.

Figure 191: "SEPAM" relays

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Code In English - original

27 System undervoltage
27D Positive sequence undervoltage
27R Remanent undervoltage
32P Real over power
32Q/40 Reactive overpower (field loss)
37 Phase undercurrent
38/49T Temperature monitoring (Pt 100)
46 Negative sequence unbalance
47 Phase rotation direction check
48 Excessive starting time
49 Thermal overload
50 Instantaneous phase overcurrent
51 Time phase current
51LR Locked rotor
51N Time earth fault
51V Voltage restrained overcurrent
59 System overvoltage
59N Neutral voltage displacement
66 Starts per hour
67 Directional overcurrent
67N Directional earth fault
81 Over frequency
81 Under frequency
87B Busbars differential
87G Generator differential
87M Motor differential
87T Transformer differential

Figure 192: International code for HV / LV (1) protection numbers

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Code Control and monitoring

26 External thermal relay

30 Alarm
63 Buccholz detection of gas, pressure
68 Logic discrimination
69 Inhibit closing
86 Lockout relay
Trip circuit supervision, detection of
74
plugged connectors
79 Recloser

Figure 193: International code for HV / LV (2) protection numbers

This table for electricians can help you understand the meaning of these numbers on the
one-line diagram and on the HV cubicles. There are also abbreviations for these functions
and you can find these on-site in the documents concerned.

Homopolar protection:

This is a term very often used when talking about the "HV substation" but it is very often
incorrectly interpreted...

The homopolar protection is the protection of the HV busbars of a group of cubicles

against earth faults in the cubicles themselves.

If there is an earth fault, there must be a system to measure it, and if the fault is too great,
the system must trip.

An "artificial neutral" must be created which can be done using resistors (mainly used in
LV) but in this case a "homopolar transformer" is used with the neutral of its primary
windings connected to earth (through an impedance for current limiting). This transformer's
secondary winding is "loaded" to the minimum with a resistor.

A busbar fault current will return to the generator (or transformer) via the neutral and the
homopolar transformer windings, a CT detects this current, transmits it to a threshold relay
which in turn transmits an alarm and trips.

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Figure 194: Homopolar protection

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6.4 SAFETY IN THE HV SUBSTATION

"Catu" brand equipment is commonly used on Total’s sites.

Glove tester

Figure 195: Protective gloves

Important: the gloves must never be used for manipulations, or for approaching
energised HV parts, but only to operate (manoeuvre) safely!!

The gloves come in different voltage versions, choose the glove adapted to the service HV
voltage. The gloves have a limited lifetime (a few years). They are reserved for electrical
operations only.

Figure 196: Example of fully equipped HV or HV/BV substation

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Figure 197: "Catu" parts list and references

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An electrician working in a substation must have the following kit at the minimum. This kit
is permanently in an HV substation. It is normally wall-mounted.

Figure 198: Safety kit for transformer substations

To be completed with a voltage detector (pole + detector).

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7 LOW VOLTAGE CABINETS

Operating voltage used on the sites: 400/230V (or 380/220V).

Question: why is 400/230V indicated on the drawings and diagrams when the users are
380 and 220V?

‰ It is a new standard ‰ To compensate for line losses ‰ It's the same thing

We will now consider the LV cabinets distributing the power. The relay and control
cabinets are either associated with the instrumentation (with the PLCs), or integrated in
manufacturer's skids (e.g. compressor control sequences).

The control part of the power cabinets is represented by the startup commands for the
users (the motors), the trip commands (circuit breakers, relays), the alarm visual displays,
the commands from the instrumentation, from the relay cabinets and from the PLCs. The
control circuit voltages vary according to the applications (from 24V to 220V and even
380V).

7.1 MAIN DISTRIBUTION (MCC)

Question: you regularly encounter the English abbrevation ‘MCC’, what does it mean?

‰ Management Control Circuit ‰ Motor Control Center ‰ Machine Current Control

The main LV switchboard is the one

directly supplied by the main energy
source, either the LV generator(s) or
the HV/LV transformer(s).

Figure 199: Main LV switchboard

The main Low Voltage switchboard is

(almost always) an assembly of modular
cubicles as in the diagram of ABB
equipment shown here.

Figure 200: Main LV switchboard

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On the Total sites, Schneider (Merlin

Gérin), ABB, Alstom and Siemens
equipment is used in the installations.

Of course, equipment by other

manufacturers may be encountered

Figure 201: Installation with Siemens

equipment

7.1.1 Composition of LV
cabinets

The MCC name is justified in the

main function of the LV distribution
with the protection racking
modules (or drawers).

One outgoing line = one racking

module = one outgoing cable to
the receptor.

Each drawer includes the power

protection, the commands and
alarms (where applicable).

Figure 202: Protection racking

modules

For subdistribution, the cabinets are dimensioned according to the number of circuits and
to the powers considered.

Figure 203: Subdistribution

cabinets

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7.1.2 Equipment in the LV cabinets

Figure 204: Schematic example of a distribution assembly (Schneider catalogue)

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Let us consider the main components:

Main circuit breaker

The size and model depend on the maximum

current.

Figure 205: Main circuit breaker (1)

The circuit breaker

automatically trips
when there is an
overcurrent and
especially in the case
of a short circuit (downstream).

It is closed manually or automatically.

One power supply (transformer or generator) = one main circuit

breaker

Figure 206: Main circuit breaker (2)

Distribution busbars

Copper bars distributing the three-phases and neutral.

They are inaccessible, at the rear, on the side or above the
equipment in the distribution cubicles. They are supplied by
the main circuit breaker.

Figure 207: Distribution busbars (1)

They must not be confused

with the copper earth bar
which is accessible (and which
can be touched – no danger)

Figure 208: Distribution busbars (2)

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Busbar coupling

With several power

supplies, the LV
switchboard
configuration includes
several sets of busbars
(same number as the
power supplies) and the
tie-in busbar(s) between
these power supplies.

Figure 209: Busbar tie-in

In service, with
transformer power
supplies, the power
supplies are rarely
configured in parallel, the tie-in is open or one power supply is out of service (and tie-in
closed) if the load permits it.

Distribution racking modules: plug-in/draw-out (rack-in / rack-out) racking modules

This distribution principle is generalised on Total sites. It allows easy maintenance and fast
replacement.

Each drawer has a main disconnection switch (or circuit breaker) which must be opened
before the unit can be removed (mechanical interlocking) and vice versa, the switch
cannot be closed if the racking module is not correctly engaged.

A 3-position drawer

• Rack-out (pulled-out)

• Test (control circuit engaged)

• Rack-in/Pushed-in (in service)

Figure 210: Distribution racking modules

Protections:

See the following paragraph which gives details of the fuses, circuit breakers, switches,
etc.

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Outgoing (protection):

This includes everything which is not in the racking modules (mobile drawer) and is thus
fixed in the cabinet, connected to the distribution busbars and protecting / supplying /
controlling a user with circuit breaker / contactor / fuses / switch / etc.

Outgoing line connections:

They are the power and control connections downstream of the protections incorporated in
the distribution switchboard.

All the cable connections are made on the terminals or on terminal blocks designed for this
purpose. Direct connection to the protection or control device is only authorised for
subdistribution outgoing lines in domestic distribution.

Connection trunking:

The power and control cables which are connected

to the racking module or the device concerned are
routed through vertical cable trunking on the
outgoing line protection side (of racking module or
other protection).

Figure 211: Connection trunking (1)

Figure 212: Connection

trunking (2)

Earth connections:

The earth conductor is the most important

conductor. All distribution cabinets have earth
bars to which is connected the green-yellow
conductor found in each power or control
connection cable.

Figure 213: Earth connections (1)

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If it is not incorporated in the

power cable itself, the earth
conductor is (exceptionally)
separated from the phase
conductors but "attached" to
them.

Figure 214: Earth connections

(2)

7.2 LV DISTRIBUTION CIRCUIT PROTECTIONS

The different possibilities for protecting an electric circuit against overloads are:

• Fuses: Fixed or on the disconnection switch/isolator.

Figure 215: Fuse

• Circuit breaker: In this case with thermal and magnetic

trip units.

Figure 216: Circuit breaker

• Outgoing line from the motor: With fused disconnection isolator +

contactor + magnetothermic relay. The contactor trip is provided by an
electric link.

Figure 217: Outgoing line to motor

The overvoltage and undervoltage protections are general protections requiring a relay
(adapted) acting on the main circuit breaker.

The insulation fault protections are covered in the next chapter.

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Single-, two-, three- and four-phase outgoing lines:

Ph N Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph N

One Two Three Four

Figure 218: Single-, two-, three- and four-phase outgoing lines

Shown with fuses, note that in single-phase the neutral conductor is not protected. In four-
phase it can be protected with a three-phase+N unbalanced distribution.

Important, do not confuse single-phase and two-phase distribution (in two-phase, both
phases must be protected).

The neutral must not be disconnected in a TN-C arrangement.

The same single-, two-, three- and four-phase distribution principle is applied to the circuit
breakers which will have 2, 3 or 4 poles with neutral protected or not, and at the outgoing
line to the motor.

7.2.1 Fuses

Fuses are volontarily weak links vinserted in series in the electric circuit. They consist of a
conductor which has a certain resistance, and is rated to withstand the nominal current,
but also to blow when the current becomes excessive for a given length of time. In such a
case, it blows and interrupts the circuit.

Fuse specifications:

• Nominal current (current rating): e.g. Inom =10 Amps. This is the current the fuse
allows to pass without blowing.

• Fusing current

• Breaking capacity

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Fusing current:

Figure 219: Fusing time

It has a curve like that shown above, specific to each manufacturer. For a 10 Amp fuse, I
am certain it will blow after 2 hours with a current of 1.6 In i.e. with 16 Amps, but I am not
at all certain that it will blow after 2 hours with 1.3 In (i.e. 13 Amps). The manufacturers
offer a range of different fusing times for a same nominal current. In terms of current, we
talk about super rapid, fast-acting, normal and time-delay fuses.

The following table gives the fusing factors. Having studied this table, you will not be
surprised if you have a user protected by a fuse but which is overheating (the fuse didn't
even blow, and my equipment is ready for the scrap heap …).

Table 14: Fusing coefficients

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Breaking capacity:

This often ignored function is very important. When a short circuit appears, it is established
and is at its maximum in a time of the order of a few tens of microseconds and the current
will be that which the source (transformer, generator) can supply with a voltage of around
zero. The current reached is of the order of a few tens of kA and the fuse must be capable
of opening the circuit instead of melting and closing this same circuit.

Different types of fuses: the fuses the more used are cylindrical fuses and blade fuses

Figure 220: Different types of fuses

Cylindrical type:

Industrial and domestic use, series gG and aM

Figure 221: Cylindrical fuse

Figure 222: Example of a cylindrical fuse

Dimensions A B C D
8.5 x 31.5 mm 8.5 31.5 6.3 --
10 x 38 mm 10 38 10
Table 15: Cylindrical
14 x 51 mm 14.3 51 13 7.5
fuse dimensions
22 x 58 mm 22.2 58 16 7.5

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Blade type:

Industrial use

Type gG Type aM

Figure 223: Blade fuses

Difference between gG and aM:

The first (gG) have a faster fusing curve and are commonly used for lighting and heating
circuits.

aM fuses (aM means Accompagnement Moteur) can withstand an overcurrent for slightly
longer, such as a motor's starting current.

gG fuses normally have black markings, aM fuses have green markings.

Accessories for fuses:

Fuse holders: for cylindrical fuses

Figure 224: Fuse holders

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This is a neutral bar. Reminder: As mentioned above, no fuse for

the neutral.

Figure 225: Neutral bar

Idem for the blade fuses, the neutral is a bar.

Here are some other fuse holders (manually operated equipment).

“Télémécanique” “Socomec” “Télémécanique”

disconnect isolator fused switch fused switch

Figure 226: Manually operated fuse holders

Fuse blow:

The fuses can be equipped with strikers which operate a microswitch which itself acts on
the control circuit of a contactor or remote controlled circuit breaker to prevent the motors
operating on "two legs" which inevitably burn out after a few tens of minutes.

The fuse blow mechanical transmission system is fairly unreliable. This, associated with
the fact that a fuse can burn out at a value less than its rated current has led to this type of
protection being replaced by a circuit breaker for motor protection (with the circuit breaker,
a problem on only one phase immediately causes a trip).

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7.2.2 Circuit breakers

Important

On the left:
a switch

On the right:
A circuit breaker

Figure 227: Switch Figure 228: Circuit breaker

Switches:

The device shown is also a switch and as in the above example

for the Merlin Gérin NS160, a switch and, a circuit breaker can
be (basically) the same device with the same disconnection
components, the same accessories (trip accessories, alarm
accessories). The circuit breaker has an additional feature; it is
equipped with a self-contained current overload trip system

Figure 229: Switch

Figure 230: Interpact by Merlin Gérin Figure 231: ‘Changeover’ switch with
Interpacts

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Power switch applications:

MCC Protection
Main panel by circuit
breaker

Mandatory
emergency
power-off

Local panel

Switch

Figure 232: Protection by upstream circuit breaker and downstream switch

This configuration is rarely used on Total sites. However, it is sufficient and it meets the
standards and electrical safety requirements: an upstream circuit breaker and a
downstream switch.

Two strictly identical circuit breakers are used (on Total sites). One at the main
switchboard, the other at the secondary switchboard, i.e. the same protection in series.
This is unnecessary, a circuit breaker's first function is to protect the line (the cable).

Circuit breaker specifications:

A circuit breaker is an electromechanical device capable of establishing, withstanding

and interrupting a current in an electric circuit, even in the case of overloading and short
circuits.

A circuit breaker protects the installation against thermal overloads and against short
circuits. It must also be capable of interrupting the circuit whatever the current flowing
through it, up to its ultimate breaking capacity ICU which is a few tens of kiloamps.

The multipole version is capable of simultaneously making, monitoring and interrupting

(breaking) the three phases of a three-phase supply, even if the fault is only on one phase.

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It contains two types of trip

units:

A thermal trip unit,

which operates the device
after a certain time if there is
an overload.

A magnetic trip unit,

which trips immediately if
there is a short circuit.

Figure 233: Thermal trip unit

and magnetic trip unit

Thermal trip unit

The thermal trip unit acts like a fuse, it requires a

"warm-up" time to trip at its nominal (rated) current
(Inom), characteristic value.

The higher the current the faster it trips.

Figure 234: Logarithmic scale for the time and current

of a thermal trip unit;

Magnetic trip unit

A magnetic trip unit acts (almost)

instantaneously, it protects against starting
currents which are too high or which suddenly
become too high (rotor blocked) and, of
course, against short circuits.

The circuit breaker trips after a few tens of ms

due to mechanical inertia.

Figure 235: Graph of the time and current of a

magnetic trip unit

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Breaking capacity

It must be associated with the thermal and

magnetic functions. It is the device's
capacity to hold a very high current (the
kiloamps of a short circuit) for a few tens of
milliseconds, until the magnetic trip operates
after a delay due to the inertia.
Already mentioned with the fuses: a short
circuit current (Icc) is established in a few
tens of milliseconds.

Figure 236: Breaking capacity

And by associating these 3 functions, we obtain the tripping curve of a magnetothermic

circuit breaker:

‘1’: thermal - ‘2’: magnetic

Figure 237: Magnetothermic circuit breaker tripping curve

Take a look at the front of a circuit breaker, you will see this "mysterious sign" among the
technical specifications. It represents the tripping curve that you will not find on a switch.

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Circuit breaker technology: (modular)

A circuit breaker consists of several

components, as shown in the figure
opposite:

• Housing parts: shell (1) and

cover;

• The specific parts for current

breaking and arc extinction:
arc chute chamber (2), arc
chute plate (3), adjustment
screw (4), locking
subassembly (5);

• The trip units: thermal

subassembly (6), magnetic
subassembly (7).

Figure 238: Composition of a circuit

breaker

Choice and selection of a circuit

breaker:

A circuit breaker is characterised

(selection criteria) by:

• Nominal (rated) current, (basically), one says: a 20A circuit breaker

• Nominal (rated) voltage, service voltage in DC or AC of 24 to 690V

• Number of poles, from 2 to 4 poles

• Breaking capacity,

• Trip type: thermal (only) or magnetic (only) or both. The choice depends on the
load which must be known, e.g. a motor takes 3.5 In when starting, we take a
thermal circuit breaker corresponding to the full load current (multiplied by 1.1 or
1.15, or 1.2) and a magnetic trip of 4 to 5 times In.

We then only have to choose the circuit breaker in a manufacturer's catalogue, you have a
few hundred pages to consult (per type!), don't make a mistake!
There is the choice between the following types:

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• Modular, modular due to the

standardised 9mm pitch width
used by all manufacturers.
Protection: In up to
100/125A.

• Compact: up to 800A

• General protection: from

600 to 3,200A (Schneider)
and 6,000A (Siemens)

Figure 239: Modular circuit breaker,

compact circuit breaker and
main (heavy duty) circuit
breaker

And when making your choice you must also specify whether you require:

• An auxiliary contact: for the open / closed indication in the instrumentation /control
circuit

• A fault contact: trip signalling

• Mx trip coil for overcurrent trip

• Mn trip coil for undervoltage trip

• Differential system: see following paragraph

• Etc.

There is still another important parameter concerning the breaking capacity, it is the peak
value (making capacity) of the short circuit current to be interrupted.
The breaking capacity current is expressed in effective value (Ieff) and the peak current is
the maximum value which the current can reach on inductive load in instantaneous value
(up to 2.5 times the effective value of Idc).

It is not so easy to choose the "right circuit breaker", a number of electricians (basic,….)
make mistakes. Further information is given below for choosing a circuit breaker and to
avoid saying when you replace a circuit breaker at home: I don't understand, I used a 10A
circuit breaker, the circuit only takes 2A and it trips?

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Magnetic trip selection:

The choice of thermal protection (Ith) is relatively simple, it is the nominal current.

The magnetic protection (Im) of a circuit breaker is:

• Either fixed:’ x’ times the nominal current or a preset value.

• Or adjustable: does not exist for modular circuit breakers but does exist for
Compact and Masterpact circuit breakers

For modular circuit breakers: the Im trip is thus ‘x’ times Ith and in 4 categories:

• Category ‘A’: 2 to 3 times In

• Category ‘B’: 3 to 5 times In

• Category ‘C’: 5 to 10 times In

• Category ‘D’: 10 to 20 times

In

The In trip corresponding to Ith

given by the manufacturer contains
an approximation, the value Im is
therefore an approximation since it
is a product of In, this is why the Im
trip cannot be a fixed value.

This classification (the tripping

curve) of ‘A’ to ‘D’ is a new
international standard accepted by
(almost) all the manufacturers (ABB,
Siemens, General Electric, etc.).

Figure 240: Tripping curve

The French manufacturer

Schneider/Merlin-Gérin is taking a
lot of persuading to follow these
standards and you may still
encounter the classifications specific
to Merlin-Gérin (L, U, Z, D, etc.)
giving (almost) identical tripping
curves but only with different names.

The tripping curves for the Siemens

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brand modular devices are shown on ther graph. The thermal trip is shown in blue, the
other colours correspond to 4 versions of magnetic trips.

And for the selection, do not forget the breaking capacity. For Merlin-Gérin circuit
breakers, it is the letter added at the end of the reference (N, L, H, etc.). This letter
corresponds (according to the type) to, par example, 6kA, 10kA, 15kA, etc.
2A
If we again look at the example of the 10A circuit breaker tripping
for a 2A load, this is normal if it has an ‘A’ or ‘B’ curve, a type ‘C’
at least must be chosen if , in this case, the load is a strip light
with fluorescent tubes which have a peak of 10 times (minimum)
the current during starting.

Figure 241: Tripping curve of a 10A circuit breaker

With current for horizontal axis and time for the vertical axis
10A

Figure 242: Adjustable thermal and magnetic trip unit

The largest circuit breakers are (generally) equipped with adjustable thermal and magnetic
trip units.

This is the unit added to a switch, in this case for an NS250 (Merlin-Gérin) equipped with a
250A trip unit, the thermal value (Ith) is adjusted to 250 x 0.96 = 240A, the magnetic trip is
8 x Ith = 8 x 240 = 1920A.

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Selectivity:

As for the fuses, it is a combination of trips in "cascade".

CB1

CB4

Figure 243: Selectivity

The same device (main or compact) can be equipped with several magnetic trips (2 to 6
according to type and manufacturer), each Im current threshold has an adjustable time
delay before it trips.

The main circuit breaker

must at least be equipped
with several magnetic trip
thresholds with adjustable
time settings for the
different thresholds, this is
to ensure that they do not
trip before the secondary
circuit breakers.

Figure 244: Trip thresholds

And on your site, if the main circuit breaker has only one trip threshold (for cost saving
reasons...) do not be surprised if it is it which trips.. This type of device has a faster
response (10 milliseconds) than a compact circuit breaker (20 milliseconds), you will have
a general shutdown, but don't blame the electrician, it is not his fault… , someone should
give the authorisation for ordering a "suitable" trip unit.

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Contactor/circuit breaker or remote controlled circuit breaker:

This principle is used on many industrial sites to control and protect

low (and now medium) powered motors. They may be present now
or in the future on Total sites.

This device contains the circuit breaker's thermal protection and the
"on/off" capability with the contactor system, all contained in the
same device and is therefore more cost effective and just as reliable
as a "normal" circuit breaker used in association with a contactor.

Figure 245: Remote controlled circuit breaker

7.2.3 Thermal/magnetic relay

Also called a magnetothermic relay which you will find in

the MCC racking modules on all Total sites. It must be used
in association with a contactor (which trips the main power
current) and with a fused protection assuring the breaking
capacity.

It must not be used with a circuit breaker since it has the

same thermal and magnetic functions as a circuit breaker.

Figure 246: Magnetothermic relay

According to the "ratings" and dimensions, it is installed

directly under the contactor or wired in a cabinet, a racking
module, or on a mounting plate.

Figure 247: Thermal relay (1)

It can be thermal only (like the two shown here). An auxiliary

contact trips the contactor.

Figure 248: Thermal relay (2)

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7.2.4 PERSONNEL PROTECTION AT THE LV SWITCHBOARD/NETWORK

The different systems for protecting an electric circuit against electrical faults and
insulation faults are with the main protection systems (the permanent insulation monitors),
with the distribution, differential protection (residual current detection system).

7.2.5 Permanent insulation monitor: PIM

It monitors the LV distribution network from the energy source (generator or transformer).

One of the most commonly used in France and on the sites is Merlin Gérin's "Vigilohm"
which is available in various versions.

Other manufacturers offer equivalent equipment

under another name but the term "Vigilohm" is
firmly established with French electricians and
when you hear it you will know that they are
talking about the PIM (Permanent Insulation
Monitor).

Figure 249: Insulation monitor

The first PIMs generated a DC voltage (they still exist). However, low frequency AC is now
used with a generated "special" format.

The device is connected between the distribution and earth. The current generated is
superimposed on the network current and flows through the "insulations" to return to its
source. The PIM measures the return current and establishes the resistance (or insulation)
value for the network concerned. This is the indication (permanent) which you see on the
meter.

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Figure 250: PIM connection / operating principle in an IT arrangement

This operating principle worksalso in a TT

arrangement and even with a nondistributed
neutral (windings connected in delta
configuration), we just have to create an artificial
neutral.

In "normal" operation the PIM measures the

network's resistance with all the insulating
resistances in parallel and indicates a high
resistance (for a low (leakage) current).

A fault appears, blue circuit, in parallel (red

circuit), the PIM sends "its" current via a low
resistance, the PIM current increases, the
measured resistance decreases, and at the
preselected threshold, the PIM emits an alarm
and/or a trip signal.

Figure 251: PIM

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Merlin-Gérin Socomec
XM200 TR22 TR5 ALD590

Figure 252: Different types of PIMs

Locating the fault current:

On site, when the "Vigilohm" no

longer indicates Mega Ohms
but changes to kilo Ohms,
there is (serious) cause for
concern.

If it is a large network, a large

number of small fault currents
in parallel generate a large
"leakage", we must look for the
largest faults where the
insulation resistance is at its
lowest.

Figure 253: Troubleshooting

When there is an insulation fault the electrician often does not know where to start looking.
He has no excuse if the installation is equipped with
an XM200 (or equivalent) and if he has a detection kit.

He picks up his current probes, the meter, and off he

goes... The probes are not clamp-on ammeter probes,
this is not a differential system.

Figure 254: Different types of probes

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We can place a probe on one phase, on several phases, on the complete cable, without
any problems, the different probes are for the different wire and cable diameters.

And if the installation does not have a "Vigilohm" if it is another type of device, you just
have to create your own PIM using a portable generator, which you connect between one
phase and earth (the other device must obviously be disconnected), and you look for the
fault current.

The troubleshooting is thus very fast, no more hours or

even days wasted on searching. This troubleshooting
kit does not cost very much, why do without it!

Other manufacturers also offer troubleshooting kits, so

suggest that the electrician obtain one if he does not
already have one.

Figure 255: Troubleshooting kit

The monitoring and fault finding by PIM also works for a DC distribution system
(instrumentation) since this PIM generates an alternating current.

7.2.6 Differential protection

It is the system which measures a "residual" fault current and which, when this current
becomes "dangerous", indicates the fault or triggers a disconnection device.

Here is some theory to understand the principle.

Figure 256: Current measurement

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If we have a two-pole power supply with a load (Ph + N or 2 phases, these are identical)

On the left, I take a current measurement, the ammeter is deflected.

On the right, I place the probe on the 2 conductors, the current measured is zero since at
the same measurement instant ‘t’ the 2 currents cancel each other out, one in one
direction and the return in the other direction.

Figure 257: Measuring a fault current

With an earth fault, part of the current returns to the source via the grounds.

With a two-pole supply, the return current is less than the supplied current, but the
"detector" now measures the equivalent of the leakage fault, it measured the difference, it
is a differential detector, or a residual current detector. (RCD)

With three-phase, and when no fault is present, the components of the 3 currents are
equal to zero (try this using a clamp-on ammeter on a cable); as soon as a fault appears, it
is measured by the "differential detector".

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Construction of a differential detector:

Separate toroidal current torus connected to a relay (with threshold)

Figure 258: Closed Torus, openable torus and "Vigirex" relays connected to the torus
secondary

Cable passing through the toroidal current torus: “torus” and not “transformer”

The fault current returns to the source via earth and takes the path of least resistance, i.e.
the earth conductor in the power supply cable.

If we no longer pass the earth cable along the side of the transformer but
through it, the fault component also passes via this same transformer and
no current is detected since all the currents cancel each other out.
For the connection at the level of the racks in the ‘MCC’,
the construction makes provision for toroidal current
transformers in the cable trunk. The power cable must be
sufficiently bared beforehand to be able to pass the earth
conductor along the side (and connect it to the earth
busbar).

Figure 259: Cable passing through the toroidal current

transformer (1)

If you are on a site under construction, go and see the electrician making
the connections, you may have the "pleasure" of telling him that he is
making a mistake …

Figure 260: Cable passing through the toroidal current transformer (2)

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Differential toroidal current transformers associated with circuit

breakers or switches
Graphic representation for one pole: the circuit breaker + thermal trip
unit + magnetic trip unit + residual (differential) current trip unit.

Figure 261: Graphic representation for one pole

Differential circuit breaker

preassembled
Specifications:

2 poles: Phase and Neutral

Phase with magnetothermic protection
Thermic at 16 A Magn. at ?? (*)
Neutral not protected (normal)
Service voltage: 230V
Breaking capacity: 10 kA
Differential: 30 mA

Figure 262: Differential circuit breaker

(*) Merlin Gérin indicates the tripping curve by a sticker on the side of the circuit breaker.

'ABB' Differential Circuit breaker

3 poles, the power unit is for the thermal
+ = and magnetic protection, the add-on unit
is available with a 30 or 300mA
differential.

'ABB' Differential Switch

At least ‘ABB’ makes the switch a
+ = different colour… It is only the differential
unit which automatically trips the switch.

Figure 263: ABB differential circuit breaker and differential switch

Same as for Merlin-Gérin

equipment with 2, 3 or 4
poles.

Figure 264: Merlin-Gérin circuit breaker

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The differential units associated with the modular devices have fixed residual
current trip thresholds, 2 values (*):

• 30mA

• 300mA

Figure 265: Differential unit 4 poles (1)

+
Figure 266: Differential unit 2 poles(2)

* 10 and 500mA also for domestic applications.

The modular range extends up to 60 or 125A (depending on the manufacturers) for the
thermal protection.

The "compact" range is generally equipped with a differential trip

unit with separate toroidal current transformer.

Figure 267: Comrpact circuit breaker with separate toroidal

differential current detector

The Masterpact circuit breaker range is systematically equipped

with separate toroidal current transformers.

But the "differential unit" can be mounted on the circuit

breaker in the "compact" range.

Thermal (and) magnetic trip unit

Differential trip unit

The current and time settings for the residual current trip threshold are (generally)
adjustable on the separate relays or on the add-on units (current adjustable between 0.010
and 11 amps). Ask your instructor to explain it to you if you wish to know more about the
subject.

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Using circuit breakers + differential units (on Total sites)

Figure 268: Using circuit breakers + differential units

The outgoing lines from the MCC supplying a user have a 300mA differential protection
except for the power sockets (and special applications) which have a 30mA protection
whatever the size of the power socket.
For the lighting subdistribution, the lighting supply circuits have a 300 mA protection, the
power sockets have a 30mA protection.

For a power supply connected in cascade, the selectivity is important; the upstream
protection must have a higher threshold or a time-delay system. For example, the above
diagram is "Incorrect". For the lighting cabinet protection the MCC differential protection
will be 500 mA to 1A or 300mA with a delay of 0.5 to 1sec. You can rely on the project
team and the electrician for these "details"…

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7.3 DISTRIBUTION CIRCUITS

Let us take another look at the assembly diagram given earlier in this course.

Figure 269: Distribution circuits

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Subdistribution:

A power cable leaving a cabinet (main or secondary) must be protected against

overcurrents either by:

• fuses,

• circuit breaker (thermal and/or magnetic),

• relays (thermal and/or magnetic). Generally associated with fused protection.

The switches and contactors are used in addition to one of these three protections.

A power cable entering a subdistribution cabinet must be connected to an on-load

disconnection component (switch).

7.3.1 Normal / Emergency

Normal / Emergency

Figure 270: Normal / Emergency circuits

The emergency circuits (UPS, safety lighting, kitchen facilities, safety pumps, etc.) are
supplied from an Emergency cabinet specific to these outgoing lines which are judged to
be sufficiently important to be resupplied if the main power supply is lost.
The emergency circuits are LV circuits supplied by a diesel generator (in very rare cases
they are resupplied in HV with a step-up transformer).

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In normal operation, the emergency cabinet busbars are supplied by circuit breakers ‘SA’
and ‘SB’, circuit breaker 'G' is open. In emergency mode, the opposite is the case, G is
closed 'SA' and 'SB' are open.
These circuit breakers are equipped with a synchronisation system (in principle) to tie-in
the emergency generator with the normal network, either for the regular generator test
(with load) or to put the installation back into service.

7.3.2 Emergency / Essential

There has been an additional "concept" on site for some time, it is the differentiation
between the emergency and essential modes.
After a shutdown (complete with loss of main generators), and for return to service, there
may be power availability problems due to the diesel generator, therefore we must choose
what is essential for starting (UPS, turbine auxiliaries, etc.) and what is nonessential
(lighting, kitchen facilities, HVAC, etc.).

Figure 271: Emergency / Essential circuits

The "essential" function alone can be automatic or manual depending on the site
equipment. However, the return to normal conditions is manual.

And if you have a (big) power problem on the emergency generator, there must always be
a means of connecting a (standby) emergency diesel generator to the essential busbars.
This is very rare but it has already happened… a complete black out and impossible to
restart, since the EDG refuses to "cooperate".

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7.3.3 Permanently backed up circuits

These are the circuits supplied by:

• The UPS, generally at 220V

• The battery chargers and their battery packs

These distribution systems have their specific protection cabinets with the same type of
protection as the main cabinets.

The UPS's batteries, like the charger, are permanently supplied and "floating" on the
distribution system to maintain the supply without breaks.

Important: the batteries have a limited charge (10 min to 1 hour depending on the case),
restart at least the diesel generator as quickly as possible to resupply the chargers …
Downstream, the (PLCs) and certain telecommunications and instrumentation circuits
cause a great deal of problems when their power supply is cut (without warning…).

Figure 272: Permanently backed up circuits

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7.4 EXERCISES

67. If we have a three-phase motor of 55.42 kW cosφ= 0.8 supplied with 3x400V under
MCC whose busbars are specified as ICC= 30kA, determine the specifications of
the protections required, given that this motor has a starting current = 4 In.

Ith 25 40 60 80 100 125 160

Ith adjustable none none none none none 0.8 to 1 0.6 to 1
Im fixed 100A 100A 200A 300A 500A 500A 500A
Breaking 10kA 10kA 15kA 10kA 20kA 25kA 40kA
capacity
Differential 10 or 30 or 100 or 300 or 500 mA?

68. On the site a night job requires the installation of temporary lighting. Two 500W
floodlights are needed. There are no connection sockets in the vicinity. I am
conscientious and I decide to install a 2x10 Amp protection circuit breaker (the
power consumption of my lamps is only 5 Amps, it is sufficient) in the nearby power
cabinet by connecting it to the cabinet bus. When I switch on, I get a flash, the
circuit breaker melts and the whole plant trips… What happened?

Select the correct explanation below and comment on this event which is not so
insignificant or so unlikely to happen as you may think…

‰ The floodlight cable was short circuited

‰ The floodlight power cable (3G1.5) had too low a rating

‰ The 10 Amp trip current was too low

‰ The magnetic trip current was too low

‰ The circuit breaker's breaking capacity was too low

69. I have to do a job using a portable electric drill outdoors on an industrial site in a
damp area: the electric drill is class II, 220V

‰ No problem, I plug it in to the nearby 220V power socket with a 30 mA diff.

protection, using an extension if necessary

‰ I take it back to the workshop and ask for a suitable electric drill

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70. With the same electric drill as in previous exercise, I have to do a job in the control
room of an industrial site.

‰ No problem, I plug it in to the nearby 220V power socket with a 30 mA diff.

protection, using an extension if necessary

‰ I take it back to the workshop and ask for a suitable electric drill

71. I am outdoors, in a damp area on an industrial site and I have to do a job using an
electric drill + grinder + a portable inspection lamp (3 devices), what do I need?
Choose the correct answer

‰ Three 220V power sockets with 30mA diff protection + three 220V devices

‰ Three 24V devices + three 220/24V transformers + three 220V power

sockets with 30mA protection

‰ Three 24V devices + one 220/24V transformer + three 24V power sockets

And do not say "the electrician must know", the work is to be performed by a painter and
the operator (in charge) is responsible for the safety of this work. Follow the C18510
training again…

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8 ELECTRICAL SAFETY
The electrical and instrumentation equipment / devices installed in areas with explosive
atmospheres (Hazardous Areas) must be classified Ex (ATEX) and such certified for
installation in these areas. A device which is not specified Ex (ATEX) must never be
installed in an explosive area. See the specific course.

A single remark here: no live "Ex" equipment must be open in areas with explosive
atmospheres. The electrician must not replace the lamps with the voltage present, he must
not open a live electrical box or cabinet.

One single exception, circuits protected by intrinsic safety barriers, under low current (4-20
mA et 24V DC).

The equipment shown in paragraphs 8.1 and 8.2. is for installation in "safe" areas .

8.1. POWER SOCKETS ON SITE (industrial sockets)

Figure 273: Different types of power sockets

On Total sites, the power socket circuits going to the unit are very often out of service or
not connected, or not energised from the switchboard.
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On Total sites, it is very often "panic" when the cable plug of any movable machine has to
be connected to the available power sockets; it's "never" the right socket.

However, there is an international standard which has been applied by many countries
since the 80s. A German technician would have no problems in connecting his equipment
in Japan, a British technician feels at home in Italy and so on, or a Portuguese technician
on a worksite in France but in a "foreign" plant.

In France, we are “reaching” the same international standard but with an obvious inertia
and therefore the Total sites are not equipped like "the others" …
In fact, there is no longer any excuse for having to struggle when we want to plug into a
power socket. It would not cost very much to harmonise all the installations…

The standars for the connections are given below.

8.1.1 Colour code

The IEC 309-1 and 309-2 standards (among others) require that for all new installations,
all the power sockets have a colour corresponding to the voltage available at this same
socket. The colour is not a paint but impregnated in the material (metal, plastic, glass
fibre, nylon, rubber, etc.). The colour is not necessarily on the body of the socket but at
least on the part to be connected and on the cover.

This colour coding is as follows:

Colour Example Voltage range Current range

Yellow 110 V AC 16 to 63 Amp

Blue 220 / 230 V AC 16 to 63 Amp

Red 380 / 440 V AC 16 to 125 Amp

Black 500 / 660 V AC 16 / 32 Amp

Purple 24 V AC 16 / 32 Amp
40-50 V AC and 20-50 V
White 16 / 3 2 Amp
DC

Table 16: Power socket colour codes

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And with frequency specification

Frequency and voltage

Colour Example Current range
range
Red 60 Hz / 440 V 16 / 32 Amp

Green Little used 500 V / 100 to 500 Hz 16 / 32 Amp

Table 17: Frequency specification colour codes

A 220V socket is blue and only blue. I must not use a red power socket for 220V just
because it has a higher voltage rating.

One voltage = one colour

8.1.2 Plug-in code

As for the colour code, the IEC 309-1/2 standard has unified the positions and the
dimensions of the contact elements on the plug and socket.

There is no difference from one manufacturer to another, no errors are possible when
"mixing" components from different manufacturers.

If you find different configurations, it is (perhaps) because a manufacturer is trying to get

rid of his old stock…

Configuration Colour Voltage Frequency

PURPLE 24 V AC 50 / 60 HZ

40 to 50 V
WHITE 50 / 60 HZ
AC

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WHITE 42V DC

YELLOW 110 V 50 / 60 HZ

50 / 60 HZ
BLUE 220 / 230 V

440 V
RED 60 HZ

RED 380 / 410 V 50 / 60 HZ

50 / 60 HZ
BLACK 500 V

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100 to 300
GREEN 50 to 500 V
HZ

>300 to 500
GREEN >50 to 500 V
HZ

Table 18: Plug-in codes

Having these plug-in codes in a document will allow you to detect the makeshift
repairs which some people inevitably try to put together since they do not have the
suitable equipment… , and a makeshift repair on a plug/socket is very dangerous.

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8.1.3 Current range for each voltage range

IEC 309-11 / 2 standard, giving the number of poles and ratings in Amps available in each
voltage.

16A 2P +E
110 V 32A 2P + E
Yellow
63A 2P + E

2P + E
230V 16A / 32A /
3P + E
Blue 63A
3P + N +E
2P + E
400V 16A / 32A / 3P + E
Red 63A /125A
3P + N +E

500V
63A 3P + E
Black

24V 16A 2P
Purple 32A 2P / 3P
2P
42V
16A / 32A
White 3P

Special applications

440V 60HZ
16A / 32A 3P + E
Red

500V
100/300HZ 16A / 32A 3P + E
Green
500V
300/500HZ 16A / 32A 3P + E
Green

Table 19: Current range by voltage range

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8.1.4 Power socket protection

Whether they are industrial or domestic (at home), power sockets only come in 4 versions:
16, 32, 63 and 125 Amps (although domestic power sockets are limited to 10/16 and 32
Amps).

Thermal protection:
It is logic that 16 Amp power sockets are protected by 16 Amp fuses or 16 Amp circuit
breakers (2, 3 or 4 poles). Idem for 32, 63 and 125 Amps. But there is nothing stopping
you from protecting a 63 Amp power socket by a 32 Amp or 25 Amp or 50 Amp circuit
breaker. This may happen when you wish to protect a machine permanently connected to
a power socket.

Differential protection: Power socket = 30 mA

A power socket must always protect a piece of portable equipment, the regulations are
strict: 30 mA for residual fault current protection. Even a welding set connected to a 125
Amp 3+N+E socket must have a 30 Amp diff. protection.

Earth connection:
All the power sockets (without exception, even at home) must have an earth contact. This
earth contact is connected to the main earth system by the earth conductor (green-yellow)
incorporated in the power cable. And if the power socket housing is metallic a second
earth conductor must independently connect the metal frame grounds to the earth system.

Power supply cables (fixed or permanent power sockets):

No flexible cable, rigid or semi-rigid core cable.

Minimum cross-sectional area of

Socket currents
the power supply conductor mm²
16 2.5

32 6

63 16

125 25 or 35

Table 20: Minimum cross-sectional area of the power supply cables

These cross-sectional areas are minimum values; they can be greater for reasons of
voltage drop, long distance, but never less…

Also, at home, the conventional 10/16 Amp power socket must be supplied by 2.5 mm²
conductors, the 32A oven socket by 6 mm² conductors, the 20Amp socket by 4 mm²
conductors and the lighting circuits by 1.5 mm² conductors minimum.

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Wiring and number of power sockets per circuit:

There are no precise standards on this subject; it is practical experience which tends to
determine the number of power sockets to be used in a circuit:

• 16A 2P+E: 8 to 10 (at home als well)

• 16A 3P+E and 3P+N+E: 6

• 32A 2P+E, 3P+E and 3P+N+E: 4 to 6

• 63A 3P+E and 3P+N+E: 4

• 125A 3P+E and 3P+N+E: 2

But for the protection / distribution, the layout is governed by logic, 16A for the 16A current
sockets, etc., single-phase, two-phase, three-phase or four-phase.

The common aspect is the 30 mA differential protection.

P N P P P P P P N

30 30 30 To earth
mA mA mA network

earth bar

Figure 274: Wiring and number of sockets per circuit

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8.1.5 Plugging in / unplugging current sockets

Yet another international regulation which is not (really) applied on "our" sites.

All power sockets on site must have a disconnection system

with mechanical locking allowing the plug to be plugged in and
unplugged with the switch in "power off’" position.

Figure 275: Power socket with

disconnection system (1)

And this system is much simpler than

some French operating principles where
the plug has to be turned…

Figure 276: Power socket with disconnection system (2)

8.2 PORTABLE / TEMPORARY ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS

A "standard" power socket as

shown in the above
paragraph with a "standard"
plug. It requires a flexible
cable with the appropriate
cross-sectional area (x mm²)
for the current carried.

Extensions: always with "standard" equipment.

+ +

+ +

Sockets + plugs + flexible cable, the whole assembly adapted to the current = a
"dependable" extension.
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+ +

And don't think that this "configuration" is impossible…(some people could try to make it
working.

Power socket
subdistribution:

It is highly likely that your site is

not equipped with
"standardised" protection units.
The site's power sockets are
protected in the MCCs/cabinets
in the control room. However,
this type of protection may exist
in workshops, laboratories,
classrooms, etc.

What you must not do or see in temporary connections on site:

And what you should do:

Check that the portable electric tools are in good condition and operate correctly.
Use the appropriate portable electric tools.
Never carry out makeshift repairs, ask the specialist.
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Destroy or discard cables in poor condition.

Use flexible connection cables meeting the insulation standard: H 07-RNF.
Protect temporary cables, do not allow them to drag along the ground.
Use "standard" plugs and sockets.

Extension cables: use 3G1.5 mm² flexible cable at the minimum, with 300V isolation
min (for 220V).

In some countries/locations, you may find "prefabricated extensions" with cable

with isolation < 220V and with conductor cross-sectional areas < 1mm², which can
easily start fires (this has already happened!). Do no accept this type of equipment!

And once again:

A power socket must have an earth pin and be protected by a 30 mA differential
device (residual current), even at home.

Electrical accidents are mostly caused by incorrect temporary connections or

connections where there is a fault on the socket itself.

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8.3 SAFETY AT HOME

There are two main things to remember:

• Earthing: earth conductors must be used "everywhere" in the home.

• Differential protection: 30 mA on the distribution power sockets, 300mA for lighting.

Two significant experiences:

When electricity arrived in the villages, the minimum equipment in the houses was a just a
few lamps protected by the standard electricity board thermal-only circuit breaker. People
were often heard to say: "so-and-so electrocuted himself and died". Later, when earth
and differentials were installed (forced by regulations) this comment has practically
disappeared from the conversations…

Recently, on a foreign site, a few months after teaching a course to electricians on the
same subject as here (the benefits of the differential and of the earth in the home), an
electrician came up to me with a grave look on his face:

"My wife just telephoned me..." - Silence

She said in a panic: "There is no electricity in the house."

I replied: "The circuit breaker must have tripped, it's nothing."

Wife: "Ah, yes, and the baby also stuck his fingers in a power socket."

At that moment, it was I who began to panic…

She went on: "and he's crying."

I breathed a sigh of relief… "The 30 mA differential protection had functioned, he's crying,
its OK, the light is nothing compared to a baby's life..."

And the electrician said: "If I hadn't had this course, I wouldn't have installed the earth
system and the differential protection at home, and..."

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8.3.1 Reminder – Protection of persons:

Let us take another look at the graph seen earlier, on the effect of electric current passing
through a human body.

Figure 277: Effect of current passing through a human body

And the domestic power supply.

Figure 278: Domestic power supply

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The power sockets and everything which is connected to them (depending on to the
condition of the portable equipment) may have insulation faults and bad contacts. As soon
as a person comes in contact with a voltage, a current is set up with the earth.

A switch or a circuit breaker takes a maximum of 50 ms to open after receiving the trip
order, that is why the value of 30mA was chosen on curve ‘2’ above to allow a safety
margin before entering zone ‘3’.

For fixed equipment, which we are not supposed to "touch", a 300 mA protection and a 40
to 50 ms trip time allow us to stay in zone ‘3’.

Note: EDF proposes 500mA differential devices as a single main protection (upstream of
the fuses) since the first versions of the consumer unit protections. We can see from the
curve that 500mA is really too limited, an additional 300 mA and 30 mA are needed.

Figure 279: EDF (or other) connection and protection systems

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8.3.2 Consumer unit (domestic distribution board)

Figure 280: Consumer unit

The above diagram shows the minimum protections i.e. 30 mA for power sockets and
300mA for "the rest" for the general protection of these 2 main circuits. The subdistribution
is by fuses (only on the phase) but the fuse (still used) can be replaced by a 2 pole (P+N)
circuit breaker with 1 protected pole (magnetothermic trip unit). The current protection
rating is identical for the fuses / circuit breakers (however: 16A on conventional 2P+E
power sockets).

The cross-sectional area of the conductors must also be respected: 1.5 mm² up to
10Amps (for lighting), 2.5 mm² up to 16A (power socket circuits), 4 mm² up to 20A, 6 mm²
up to 32A.

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You can install a differential protection on each outgoing line. In this configuration it is the
circuit breaker concerned which trips (instead of the whole house).

And don't forget the earth "wire".

Figure 281: Consumer distribution panels: the size depends on the size of the installation

8.3.3 Electrical installations in bathrooms

Bathrooms and showers are high risk areas for the human body which has a low
resistance when wet.

Specific standards have been established: IEC 364-7-701, 479, 669-1

There are 3 aspects to the precautions to be taken:

• Zone classifications (classification into "approach" zones) 0, 1 and 2 in which the

installation of electrical equipment or fittings is prohibited or limited.

• Interconnection with a ground cable connected to earth for all the metal frame
grounds.

• The restrictions in the following table must be strictly respected.

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Zone classifications:

Figure 282: Zones 0, 1 and 2 near a bath

Figure 283: Zone 0, 1 and 2 near a shower

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Figure 284: Zones 0, 1, 2 and 3 near a shower without a shower tray

(1) With the shower head fixed to a flexible pipe, the central axis which is vertical for the
starting point for the definition of the zones passes through the end of the hose / shower
head assembly.

Zone (volume) definitions:

• Volume 0: inside of the bath or shower

• Volume 1: above volume 0 (vertical plane)

• Volume 2: outside of volumes 0 and 1 (horizontal plane) with a radius of 0.60m

• Volume 3: outside of volume 2 (horizontal plane) with a radius of 2.40m max.

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Requirements for electrical installations:

Volumes 0 1 2 3

Ducts / conduits / cables X (b) II (a) II (a) II

Separation
Equipment (switch,
X X (b) X (b) (a) VLSV (d)
power socket, etc.)
Diff. 30 mA
Separation
II + RCD 30
Electrical appliance X 'b) X (b) (c) VLSV (d)
(b) (c) (e)
Diff. 30 mA (c)

Table 21: Requirements for electrical installations

X: prohibited
II: accepted in class II
Diff. 30 mA, associated with a switch or a circuit breaker
(a) Only to supply an appliance in the volume concerned
(b) Except if the appliance is 12VAC or 30VDC
(c) Electric heating accepted (under certain safety conditions)
(d) VLSV: Very Low Safety Voltage in the 50VAC range
(e) Razor socket accepted but powered by individual low power transformer

The insurance will not pay out if the distances are not respected...

8.3.4 Domestic power sockets:

Indoors (dry area):

No IP constraint (sealing classification), the equipment must meet the standards (French).

Figure 285: Sockets must be installed in an Figure 286: Wall sockets

adapted trim

All power sockets must have an earth pin.

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A two-pole socket (10/16A) must be supplied by a 3 conductor cable with cross-sectional

area 3G2.5 mm², the ‘G’ indicates that there is an earth conductor with green-yellow
insulation.

Outdoors or indoors (damp area):

Indoor sockets subject to water splashes must be at least IP 55, the same is true for the
sockets installed outdoors (even under shelter).

'Plexo 55' by Legrand

On indoor consumer
Plexo 55 = IP55 IP 44-5
unit

Figure 287: Different types of sockets

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8.3.5 Earth circuits

The protection panel incorporates an earth bar.

This earth bar is connected to an earth test junction (to check the value of the earth in
ohms) which is itself connected to the earth electrode (earth rod, buried cable electrode,
etc.).

All the distribution cables from the protection panel have a green-yellow conductor
connected to the earth busbar.

All the metal frame grounds are interconnected with an independent green-yellow wire of
6mm² min. connected to the earth bar.

Figure 288: Earth circuits

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Earth electrode

Figure 289: Earth electrode

Installed at bottom grade, made of 25mm² bare copper wire (during construction) or earth
rod (copper or steel), galvanised tube, grille, strip, etc., everything which can provide a
good dissipation.

Earth inspection cover

Earth grille where the (high quality) Earth rod
connection with the earth
rod is located

Figure 290: Earth electrode equipment

Earth test junction:

It is mandatory for all electrical

installations…

Figure 291: Earth test junction

And we will terminate this course on this

last image.

We could say more, and we could say

less. This is a course which aims to be
simple and adapted to working on the
sites (except for this last paragraph…).

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8.4 EXERCISES

72. What voltage is available on this power socket?

73. On what surface is it installed?

74. Where can I find it on a site?

75. A welding set with 3Ph-80Amp + E can be connected to a socket

‰ 3+E 125A

‰ 3+E+N 63A

‰ 3+E 80A

76. A class 3 (III) portable electric tool used in a damp area, out of doors has a
maximum voltage of

‰ 48 V DC

‰ 48 V AC

‰ 24 V AC

77. A temporary lamp 1,000W, 220 V AC, (1 P+N+E) is connected using one of the
following 3 available cables

‰ 3G2.5 flexible

‰ 3x2.5 flexible

‰ 3G2.5 rigid

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78. I want to supply an office lighting circuit. I only supply the lamps which total 500W at
220V, which of the 3 following protections must I use?

‰ 2P 16A 30 mA circuit breaker

‰ 2P 2A 30 mA circuit breaker

‰ 2P 10A 300mA circuit breaker

79. The cable connecting a three-phase welding set drawing a maximum of 80A must
have a cross-sectional area of:

‰ 16 mm²

‰ 10 mm²

‰ 25 mm²

80. A 400V 45 Amp machine is connected to a power socket. What colour is the socket

‰ Red

‰ Blue

‰ Purple

81. To connect a 380V 3-Phase 24 Amp machine to a socket, the socket must be:

‰ 3P+N+N 32A

‰ 3P+E 16A

‰ 3P+E 32A

82. A 400V 3P+N+E 32A power socket must be protected by one of the following circuit
breakers. Which one:

‰ 4P 32A 300mA

‰ 4P 32A 30mA

‰ 4P 32A + E

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9 GLOSSARY

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10 FIGURES
Figure 1: The electric genie .................................................................................................7
Figure 2: The magnet ..........................................................................................................7
Figure 3: Lines of force of a magnetic filed ..........................................................................9
Figure 4: Lines of latitude and longitude ..............................................................................9
Figure 5: Poles of a magnet...............................................................................................10
Figure 6: Attraction of two magnets ...................................................................................10
Figure 7: Repelled magnets...............................................................................................10
Figure 8: The compass ......................................................................................................11
Figure 9: The permanent magnet ......................................................................................11
Figure 10: The Oersted experiment ...................................................................................12
Figure 11: The corkscrew rule ...........................................................................................13
Figure 12: Induction for a "spiral" inductor .........................................................................13
Figure 13: The electromagnet............................................................................................14
Figure 14: Ferromagnetic core...........................................................................................14
Figure 15: Electromagnetic force and right hand rule ........................................................15
Figure 16: Induced voltage ................................................................................................16
Figure 17: Simple AC generator ........................................................................................17
Figure 18: AC generator ....................................................................................................17
Figure 19: AC current production.......................................................................................18
Figure 20: The bicycle dynamo..........................................................................................19
Figure 21: Sine wave .........................................................................................................19
Figure 22: Three-phase alternating current generation principle .......................................20
Figure 23: Three-phase generator construction principle ..................................................20
Figure 24: A stator coil .......................................................................................................20
Figure 25: DC generator principle......................................................................................21
Figure 26: Simple DC generator ........................................................................................21
Figure 27: Emf produced by a DC generator .....................................................................22
Figure 28: Rectified sine wave...........................................................................................22
Figure 29: Effect of smoothing the torque ..........................................................................22
Figure 30: Rotor with 6 windings........................................................................................22
Figure 31: Composition of a DC machine ..........................................................................23
Figure 32: Shunt machine..................................................................................................24
Figure 33: Shunt wiring of a DC machine ..........................................................................25
Figure 34: Series machine .................................................................................................25
Figure 35: Series wiring of a DC machine..........................................................................26
Figure 36: Compound machine..........................................................................................26
Figure 37: Conventional current direction and electron flow direction................................37
Figure 38: Analogy between a hydroelectric installation and an electric circuit..................37
Figure 39: Voltage direction ...............................................................................................38
Figure 40: Resistors in series ............................................................................................39
Figure 41: Resistors in parallel ..........................................................................................39
Figure 42: Various electric components.............................................................................42
Figure 43: Electric circuit....................................................................................................43
Figure 44: Sign convention ................................................................................................44
Figure 45: Efficiency of a device ........................................................................................46
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Figure 46: Example of an electrical device ........................................................................46

Figure 47: Inductance ........................................................................................................48
Figure 48: Symbol for an inductor......................................................................................48
Figure 49: Inductors in series.............................................................................................48
Figure 50: Inductors in parallel...........................................................................................48
Figure 51: Ideal inductor in a switched circuit ....................................................................49
Figure 52: Graphic representation of the ideal inductor .....................................................49
Figure 53: Real inductor.....................................................................................................49
Figure 54: Graphic representation of the real inductor.......................................................50
Figure 55: Inductors used in electronics ............................................................................50
Figure 56: Capacitor ..........................................................................................................51
Figure 57: Symbol for a capacitor ......................................................................................51
Figure 58: Capacitors in series ..........................................................................................51
Figure 59: Capacitors in parallel ........................................................................................51
Figure 60: Ideal capacitor in a switched arrangement .......................................................52
Figure 61: Graphic representation of an ideal capacitor ....................................................52
Figure 62: Circuit with R-C in parallel ................................................................................52
Figure 63: Graphic representation of a circuit with R-C in parallel .....................................53
Figure 64: Circuit with R-C in series ..................................................................................53
Figure 65: Graphic representation of a circuit with R-C in series .......................................54
Figure 66: Electrolytic capacitors .......................................................................................55
Figure 67: Plastic film capacitors .......................................................................................55
Figure 68: Ceramic capacitors ...........................................................................................55
Figure 69: Super capacitors...............................................................................................56
Figure 70: Circuit diagram..................................................................................................56
Figure 71: Simplified circuit diagram..................................................................................57
Figure 72: Behaviour of an alternating current...................................................................58
Figure 73: Behaviour of the inductor in alternating current ................................................59
Figure 74: Behaviour of the capacitor in an alternating current..........................................59
Figure 75: Pythagoras's theorem .......................................................................................61
Figure 76: Circuit with a resistor and inductor in series .....................................................61
Figure 77: Circuit with a resistor and capacitor in series....................................................62
Figure 78: Circuit with a resistor, inductor and capacitor in series .....................................63
Figure 79: Circuit with resistors in parallel .........................................................................64
Figure 80: Circuit with a resistor and inductor in parallel ...................................................64
Figure 81: Circuit with a resistor and capacitor in parallel..................................................65
Figure 82: Circuit with a resistor, inductor and capacitor in parallel ...................................65
Figure 83: Direct current measurement .............................................................................66
Figure 84: Alternating current measurement......................................................................66
Figure 85: Power in a resistive circuit ................................................................................67
Figure 86: Power in an inductive circuit .............................................................................68
Figure 87: Power in an R+L circuit (1) ...............................................................................68
Figure 88: Power in an R+L circuit (2) ...............................................................................68
Figure 89: Powers and Pythagoras's triangle ....................................................................69
Figure 90: Apparent power ................................................................................................70
Figure 91: Active power .....................................................................................................70
Figure 92: Reactive power .................................................................................................70
Figure 93: Three-phase distribution ...................................................................................70

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Figure 94: Example of a one-line diagram (1)....................................................................79

Figure 95: Example of a one-line diagram (2)....................................................................80
Figure 96: Example of a schematic diagram (1) ................................................................81
Figure 97: Example of a schematic diagram (2) ................................................................82
Figure 98: Example of a wiring and connection diagram ...................................................83
Figure 99: Simplified one-line diagram ..............................................................................86
Figure 100: Electricity generation ......................................................................................87
Figure 101: One-line representation of the alternator's power diagram .............................87
Figure 102: One-line diagram representating a three-phase generator power diagram ....88
Figure 103: Distribution with 400 V between phases .........................................................88
Figure 104: Vector representation of a three-phase distribution system............................88
Figure 105: HV links ..........................................................................................................90
Figure 106: Example of an HV cable .................................................................................92
Figure 107: LV cables ........................................................................................................93
Figure 108: Power cable colours .......................................................................................94
Figure 109: Example of an LV cable..................................................................................95
Figure 110: "Rigid core" control cable................................................................................96
Figure 111: Multiwire core control cable (semi-rigid) .........................................................96
Figure 112: Flexible core control cable ..............................................................................97
Figure 113: "Armoured" control cable for trenches ............................................................97
Figure 114: Control cables.................................................................................................97
Figure 115: Cable trays......................................................................................................99
Figure 116: Distances between horizontally installed cable ways......................................99
Figure 117: Distances between vertically installed cable ways..........................................99
Figure 118: Installation in trefoil or aligned configuration .................................................100
Figure 119: Trench with one layer of cables ....................................................................101
Figure 120: Trench with two layers of cables...................................................................102
Figure 121: Trench with two layers of cables (HV and LV) ..............................................102
Figure 122: HV cables .....................................................................................................103
Figure 123: Cable joint or splice ......................................................................................103
Figure 124: Interior end (in HV cubicle) ...........................................................................103
Figure 125: Exterior end (transformer).............................................................................103
Figure 126: Three-pole cable terminal for interior connection 6/10 (12) kV in HV cubicle103
Figure 127: Exterior single pole end (polluted area) 26 / 45 (52) kV................................103
Figure 128: Different types of cable glands......................................................................104
Figure 129: Industrial cable glands (1).............................................................................105
Figure 130: Industrial cable glands (2).............................................................................105
Figure 131: "Ex" cable glands for Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries .........105
Figure 132: "Ex" cable glands..........................................................................................106
Figure 133: HV cubicles...................................................................................................107
Figure 134: HV Cubicles(1)..............................................................................................107
Figure 135: HV Cubicles (2).............................................................................................107
Figure 136: "Simplified" distribution substations ..............................................................107
Figure 137: LV cabinet.....................................................................................................108
Figure 138: MCC distribution cabinet...............................................................................108
Figure 139: Subdistribution cabinets................................................................................108
Figure 140: 50 MV electric motor.....................................................................................109
Figure 141: Induction motor .............................................................................................109

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Figure 142: HV/LV (or LV/HV) power transformer ...........................................................110

Figure 143: Electrical hazards .........................................................................................120
Figure 144: Graph of electrical hazards ...........................................................................121
Figure 145: Some examples of electrical hazards ...........................................................123
Figure 146: Spark hazards associated with gas and fumes.............................................123
Figure 147: Electrical hazards .........................................................................................124
Figure 148: Equipment not earthed .................................................................................125
Figure 149: Equipment not earthed .................................................................................125
Figure 150: Neutral not earthed .......................................................................................126
Figure 151: Neutral connected to earth through an impedance .......................................126
Figure 152: Neutral TT.....................................................................................................128
Figure 153: Neutral IT ......................................................................................................128
Figure 154: Neutral TN-C.................................................................................................129
Figure 155: Neutral TN-C.................................................................................................129
Figure 156: Neutral TN-C-S .............................................................................................130
Figure 157: Examples of connections on the structure ....................................................131
Figure 158: Examples of good weld joints .......................................................................132
Figure 159: Earth well ......................................................................................................132
Figure 160: Earth bar (collector) ......................................................................................133
Figure 161: "Electrical" ground and "mechanical" ground................................................134
Figure 162: Personal tooling ............................................................................................135
Figure 163: Category 0 device.........................................................................................135
Figure 164: Category I equipment ...................................................................................136
Figure 165: Category II equipment ..................................................................................136
Figure 166: Category III equipment .................................................................................137
Figure 167: Light fitting Ex and IP67................................................................................138
Figure 168: HV substation (1) ..........................................................................................144
Figure 169: HV substation (2) ..........................................................................................144
Figure 170: HV substation (3) ..........................................................................................144
Figure 171: One-line diagram of a UniGear switchboard .................................................145
Figure 172: HV loops .......................................................................................................145
Figure 173: Loop interlocking...........................................................................................146
Figure 174: Safety interlocking equipment (standard equipment)....................................146
Figure 175: Safety interlocking equipment (on option).....................................................146
Figure 176: Key interlocking systems ..............................................................................147
Figure 177: Padlocking ....................................................................................................147
Figure 178: Interlocking magnets.....................................................................................148
Figure 179: One-line diagrams of the typical units...........................................................149
Figure 180: One-line diagrams of the busbar applications...............................................150
Figure 181: Graphic symbols ...........................................................................................150
Figure 182: Plug-in vacuum circuit breaker......................................................................152
Figure 183: Plug-in SF6 gas circuit breaker.....................................................................152
Figure 184: Vacuum (or SF6) contactor with fuses..........................................................152
Figure 185: Switch-disconnectors....................................................................................153
Figure 186: Current ring transformer ...............................................................................154
Figure 187: Block of 3 TPs in an ABB cubicle..................................................................154
Figure 188: Typical protection system for standard level motors .....................................155
Figure 189: Typical protection system for high integrity motors .......................................155

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Figure 190: A range of ABB relays ..................................................................................155

Figure 191: "SEPAM" relays ............................................................................................155
Figure 192: International code for HV / LV (1) protection numbers..................................156
Figure 193: International code for HV / LV (2) protection numbers..................................157
Figure 194: Homopolar protection ...................................................................................158
Figure 195: Protective gloves ..........................................................................................159
Figure 196: Example of fully equipped HV or HV/BV substation......................................159
Figure 197: "Catu" parts list and references ....................................................................160
Figure 198: Safety kit for transformer substations ...........................................................161
Figure 199: Main LV switchboard ....................................................................................162
Figure 200: Main LV switchboard ....................................................................................162
Figure 201: Installation with Siemens equipment.............................................................163
Figure 202: Protection racking modules ..........................................................................163
Figure 203: Subdistribution cabinets................................................................................163
Figure 204: Schematic example of a distribution assembly (Schneider catalogue) .........164
Figure 205: Main circuit breaker (1) .................................................................................165
Figure 206: Main circuit breaker (2) .................................................................................165
Figure 207: Distribution busbars (1).................................................................................165
Figure 208: Distribution busbars (2).................................................................................165
Figure 209: Busbar tie-in..................................................................................................166
Figure 210: Distribution racking modules.........................................................................166
Figure 211: Connection trunking (1) ................................................................................167
Figure 212: Connection trunking (2) ................................................................................167
Figure 213: Earth connections (1)....................................................................................167
Figure 214: Earth connections (2)....................................................................................168
Figure 215: Fuse..............................................................................................................168
Figure 216: Circuit breaker ..............................................................................................168
Figure 217: Outgoing line to motor ..................................................................................168
Figure 218: Single-, two-, three- and four-phase outgoing lines ......................................169
Figure 219: Fusing time ...................................................................................................170
Figure 220: Different types of fuses .................................................................................171
Figure 221: Cylindrical fuse .............................................................................................171
Figure 222: Example of a cylindrical fuse ........................................................................171
Figure 223: Blade fuses ...................................................................................................172
Figure 224: Fuse holders .................................................................................................172
Figure 225: Neutral bar ....................................................................................................173
Figure 226: Manually operated fuse holders....................................................................173
Figure 227: Switch ...........................................................................................................174
Figure 228: Circuit breaker ..............................................................................................174
Figure 229: Switch ...........................................................................................................174
Figure 230: Interpact by Merlin Gérin ..............................................................................174
Figure 231: ‘Changeover’ switch with Interpacts..............................................................174
Figure 232: Protection by upstream circuit breaker and downstream switch ...................175
Figure 233: Thermal trip unit and magnetic trip unit.........................................................176
Figure 234: Logarithmic scale for the time and current of a thermal trip unit; ..................176
Figure 235: Graph of the time and current of a magnetic trip unit....................................176
Figure 236: Breaking capacity .........................................................................................177
Figure 237: Magnetothermic circuit breaker tripping curve ..............................................177

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Figure 238: Composition of a circuit breaker ...................................................................178

Figure 239: Modular circuit breaker, compact circuit breaker and main (heavy duty) circuit
breaker .....................................................................................................................179
Figure 240: Tripping curve ...............................................................................................180
Figure 241: Tripping curve of a 10A circuit breaker .........................................................181
Figure 242: Adjustable thermal and magnetic trip unit.....................................................181
Figure 243: Selectivity .....................................................................................................182
Figure 244: Trip thresholds ..............................................................................................182
Figure 245: Remote controlled circuit breaker .................................................................183
Figure 246: Magnetothermic relay ...................................................................................183
Figure 247: Thermal relay (1) ..........................................................................................183
Figure 248: Thermal relay (2) ..........................................................................................183
Figure 249: Insulation monitor .........................................................................................184
Figure 250: PIM connection / operating principle in an IT arrangement...........................185
Figure 251: PIM ...............................................................................................................185
Figure 252: Different types of PIMs .................................................................................186
Figure 253: Troubleshooting ............................................................................................186
Figure 254: Different types of probes...............................................................................186
Figure 255: Troubleshooting kit .......................................................................................187
Figure 256: Current measurement...................................................................................187
Figure 257: Measuring a fault current ..............................................................................188
Figure 258: Closed Torus, openable torus and "Vigirex" relays connected to the torus
secondary .................................................................................................................189
Figure 259: Cable passing through the toroidal current transformer (1) ..........................189
Figure 260: Cable passing through the toroidal current transformer (2) ..........................189
Figure 261: Graphic representation for one pole .............................................................190
Figure 262: Differential circuit breaker .............................................................................190
Figure 263: ABB differential circuit breaker and differential switch ..................................190
Figure 264: Merlin-Gérin circuit breaker...........................................................................190
Figure 265: Differential unit 4 poles (1) ............................................................................191
Figure 266: Differential unit 2 poles(2) .............................................................................191
Figure 267: Comrpact circuit breaker with separate toroidal differential current detector 191
Figure 268: Using circuit breakers + differential units ......................................................192
Figure 269: Distribution circuits........................................................................................193
Figure 270: Normal / Emergency circuits .........................................................................194
Figure 271: Emergency / Essential circuits ......................................................................195
Figure 272: Permanently backed up circuits ....................................................................196
Figure 273: Different types of power sockets...................................................................199
Figure 274: Wiring and number of sockets per circuit......................................................206
Figure 275: Power socket with disconnection system (1) ................................................207
Figure 276: Power socket with disconnection system (2) ................................................207
Figure 277: Effect of current passing through a human body ..........................................211
Figure 278: Domestic power supply.................................................................................211
Figure 279: EDF (or other) connection and protection systems.......................................212
Figure 280: Consumer unit ..............................................................................................213
Figure 281: Consumer distribution panels: the size depends on the size of the installation
.................................................................................................................................214
Figure 282: Zones 0, 1 and 2 near a bath........................................................................215

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Figure 283: Zone 0, 1 and 2 near a shower .....................................................................215

Figure 284: Zones 0, 1, 2 and 3 near a shower without a shower tray ............................216
Figure 285: Sockets must be installed in an adapted trim................................................217
Figure 286: Wall sockets..................................................................................................217
Figure 287: Different types of sockets .............................................................................218
Figure 288: Earth circuits .................................................................................................219
Figure 289: Earth electrode .............................................................................................220
Figure 290: Earth electrode equipment............................................................................220
Figure 291: Earth test junction .........................................................................................220

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11 TABLES
Table 1: Basic units ...........................................................................................................30
Table 2: Derived SI units....................................................................................................31
Table 3: Prefixes ................................................................................................................32
Table 4: Non SI technical units ..........................................................................................34
Table 5: Anglo-Saxon units................................................................................................35
Table 6: Analogy between electricity and a hydroelectric installation ................................38
Table 7: Resistivity and temperature coefficient of certain materials .................................41
Table 8: Resistor colour code ............................................................................................42
Table 9: Direct current and single-phase alternating current relations P, U, I, R
(resistance circuit)................................................................................................44
Table 10: Relationships for resistors, inductors and capacitors .........................................57
Table 11: Combination of components in a load................................................................60
Table 12: Protection index ...............................................................................................138
Table 13: Protection indices.............................................................................................139
Table 14: Fusing coefficients ...........................................................................................170
Table 15: Cylindrical fuse dimensions .............................................................................171
Table 16: Power socket colour codes ..............................................................................200
Table 17: Frequency specification colour codes ..............................................................201
Table 18: Plug-in codes ...................................................................................................203
Table 19: Current range by voltage range .......................................................................204
Table 20: Minimum cross-sectional area of the power supply cables ..............................205
Table 21: Requirements for electrical installations...........................................................217

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