INTERPRETATION OF THE AMPERE EXPERIMENTS

BY
PARRY M O O N I AND DOMINA EBERLE SPENCER 2

SUMMARY

The celebrated Ampere experiments and their phenomenological interpretation

by Amp~re's equation are, in many respects, more closely allied with the spirit of
modern physics than are the flux visualizations of Faraday and Maxwell. Further
study of this subject may lead to an improved theory of electrodynamics.
Amp6re's equation for the force between current elements is unique, assuming
th~ correctness of Amp~re's five postulates. But two of these postulates may be
questioned. The present paper develops the general equations that apply if either
the fifth or the third postulate is omitted.

I. INTRODUCTION
The discovery that an electric current can deflect a magnetic needle
was announced by Hans Christian Oersted (1)3 in July, 1820. On
September 11 of that year, Oersted's discovery was described before
the French Academy by Arago; and only a week later Andre-Marie
Ampbre showed that two current-carrying wires exert a force on each
other. Ampbre's celebrated researches were summarized in his paper
(z), "M~moire sur la th~orie math~matique des ph6nom~nes 61ectro-
dynamiques, uniquement d6duite de l'exp6rience." Maxwell said of
this paper, " I t is perfect in form and unassailable in accuracy; and it is
summed up in a formula from which all the phenomena may be deduced,
and which must always remain the cardinal formula of electrodynamics."
The phenomenological approach of AmpSre was continued by Gauss
(3), Grassmann (4) (1845), Stefan (5) (1869), Tait (6) (1873), Helm-
holtz (7) (1873), Riemann (s) (1876), and Korteweg (9) (1881), all of
whom treated electrodynamics without the concept of a magnetic field.
Maxwell gave a good r6sum~ of this work in Chapter 23 of his Elec-
tricity and Magnetism (1873). Had he chosen to continue in the direc-
tion mapped out by the foregoing investigators, the present status of
electromagnetism might be vastly different from what it is. Actually,
Maxwell preferred the Faraday visualization in terms of flux lines; and
the resulting mathematical edifice was so imposing that pre-Maxwellian
work on electrodynamics was soon almost forgotten.
Yet there are at least two reasons why AmpSre's work should not
be neglected :
x Department of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam-
bridge, Mass.
Department of Mathematics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Conn.
s The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the references appended to this paper.
203
204 PARRY MOON AND DOMINA EBERLE SPENCER [J. F. I.

1. A direct calculation of force between electric circuits, without the

intermediary of a magnetic field, m a y yield results very simply, free
from the uncertainties t h a t are sometimes associated with the mag-
netic-field concept (10).
2. An application of the Ampere m e t h o d to moving charges is a promis-
ing step toward an improved theory of electrodynamics (11).
T h e textbooks list two forms of equation based on Ampfire's ex-
periments. The first equation is t h a t used by Ampere himself. Ex-
pressed in rationalized mks units, it m a y be written

d2F2 = a~
M112ds~ds2
[-2 sin 01 sin 02 cos ~ - cos 01 cos 02-], (1)
47rr2

where d~F2 is the force exerted by current element Ildsl on element

V IV
/- r J ~,,,~

FIG. 1.

I~ds, (Fig. 1), and a, is a unit vector in the positive direction along the
xl-axis. The equation m a y be written also as

d~F2 = a, MlI2 E2(dsl. ds,) - 3 (dSl. a,) (ds2. a,)J. (la)

A characteristic of Amp~re's equation is t h a t the force is always along

the line of centers.
The other equation seems to have been first published by Grass-
m a n n (4) in 1845 and independently developed by Reynard (6) in 1870
Mar., 1954.] INTERPRETATIONOF THE AMPP~RE EXPERIMENTS 20 5

i¸ 1~

I Y

f l l/lllilift!llil / j • ,

x/b/ [' ,

Fit. 2.

and T a i t in 1873. In vector notation, it is

d~Y, - ~I~I~ [(ds~ × a~) X ds~.-I (2)

4~rr2

W r i t t e n in cartesian form, Eq. 2 is

ellI~dslds~
d 2Fr sin O~sin O~cos 77,
47rr2
d2F~ _- ~IlI2dslds~ .
47rr2 sm O~cos 02 cos ~, (2a)

l~I~I2dsldS2 .
d2F~ = 4~rr~ s i n 01 c o s 02 sin ~,

where the n o m e n c l a t u r e is as in Fig. 2. M o d e r n t r e a t m e n t s of Eq. 2

are given b y Mason and W e a v e r (12), F r a n k (13), Harnwell (14), and
others (15).
M o s t physicists do not seem to realize t h a t Eq. 2 is not the equation
of A m p e r e and c a n n o t be derived from it. In fact, the force given b y
Eq. 2 is not even along the line of centers, although both Eq. 1 and 2
satisfy Amp~re's experimental results.
According to E q . 1, the force on element 1 is always equal and
opposite to the force on element 2, and these forces are always along
206 PARRY MOON AND DOMINA EBERLE SPENCER [J. F. I.

the line of centers. According to Eq. 2, however, the force on each

element is perpendicular to t h a t element; so in general the forces are
not along a, and are not opposite in direction. For example, if the
elements are perpendicular to each other with 01 = 7r/2, 02 = 0, n = 0,
Eq. 1 predicts a zero force. But Eq. 2 reduces to

ulJ~iSldS~
d2F2 = - an
47rr 2

where the force is downward (Fig. 1).

The purpose of our investigation is to study the totality of equations
t h a t satisfy the Ampere experiments. Judging from the title of his
paper, " . . . - - u n i q u e m e n t d6duite de l'exp6rience," one concludes t h a t
Amp6re felt t h a t Eq. 1 is the one and only expression of the experi-
mental facts. This is true, however, only if one assumes in a d d i t i o n - -
as Ampere d i d - - t h a t the force between current elements m u s t always
act along the line of centers.
T h a t Amp~re's fifth assumption is somewhat arbitrary (4) was
pointed o u t as early as 1845, and a n u m b e r of a t t e m p t s were made to
obtain more general expressions. In particular, Stefan (5) derived an
equation containing two arbitrary constants and subsuming both
the Ampere and the Grassmann equations as degenerate cases. Stefan's
equation is the most general one obtainable from the Ampere experi-
ments with the additional assumption t h a t the force on ds2 is in the
plane determined by dSl and ar. Korteweg (9) included the possibility
of torques on current elements. Each element is considered as analo-
gous to a tiny bar magnet, which can not only move bodily b u t can
turn about an axis. Since an isolated current element is impossible,
however, one finds it difficult to see how such torques could have
physical significance.

2. T H E A M P E R E E X P E R I M E N T S A N D POSTULATES

Ampere made four null experiments on closed electric circuits in

air. To detect forces, he employed a suspended loop of wire, so ar-
ranged t h a t it did not respond to the earth's magnetic field. F u r t h e r
experimental work, extending over more than a century, has not
revealed any error in Amp~re's experimental results.
T h e four experiments (2) were as follows :
1. A conductor was doubled back on itself. Current in this conductor
produced no measurable effect on the suspended coil.
2. Two parallel conductors carried the same current. One conductor
was straight; the other was of the form _.vx.vT._VT_. When the
detecting coil was midway between the two conductors, it ex-
perienced no force.
Mar., I954.] INTERPRETATION OF THE AMPI~RE EXPERIMENTS 207

3. The third experiment employed a wire forming a circular arc,

pivoted at its center of curvature and counterbalanced. Contact
was made to the movable wire by means of two stationary mercury
cups. With the wire carrying current, other current-carrying
conductors were brought near the apparatus; but no tendency to
turn was observed.
4. Three circular coaxial loops were used, all parallel and traversed
by the same current. With similar geometry, no force was ex-
perienced by the center loop.
These four experiments dealt with closed circuits. But Amp6re
wished to formulate a mathematical expression for the force between
current elements, so that forces could be calculated by integration for
circuits of any shape. The current element is a convenient concept
but it is also a pure fiction. Common sense is as helpless in predicting
the behavior of current elements as it is in predicting the behavior of
unicorns. All that one can do is to consider the various expressions
for force between current elements, subject to the requirement that the
complete circuits shall behave as in Amp~re's experiments.
Corresponding to the four experiments, it is customary to infer the
following :
Postulate I. The force between two current elements is directly
proportional to the product of the currents and is unchanged in
magnitude but reversed in direction if either current is reversed.
Postulate I I . An elementary current-carrying conductor ds may be
replaced by its components dx ~, dx ~, dx s along three axes, without
altering the force on another current element.
Postulate I I I . A closed circuit (1) produces no component of force along
the current element ds~.
Postulate I V . The force between current elements Ilds~ and I2ds2 is
directly proportional to the lengths ds~ and ds2 and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the elements.

These postulates are in agreement with Amp6re's experiments, but they

are not unique and they are not sufficient to determine a force equation.

3. FORCE BETWEEN CURRENTELEMENTS

Consider two elementary conductors with lengths dst and ds~,

carrying currents I1 and I~ (Fig. 1). The conductors are represented
by the vectors dsl and ds2, the sense being in the directions of the cur-
rents. Without loss of generality, we can introduce a cartesian co-
ordinate system so that ds~ is at the origin and lies in the xlx~-plane;
and the line of centers is along the xt-axis. The element t/st lies in a
plane making an angle ~ with the x~x2-plane.
208 PARRY MOON AND DO35INA EBERLE SPENCER [J. F. I.

According to Postulate II, the vectors dsl and ds2 m a y be replaced

by vector sums along the axes:
dsl = a~(dSl cos 01) + a~(ds, sin 01 cos 7) + ap(dSl sin 01 sin 7),
ds~ = ar(ds2 cos 0~) + a~(ds2 sin 02),
where a~ are unit vectors. It will be convenient to designate by
d2F~jk the kth c o m p o n e n t of the force exerted by the ith c o m p o n e n t
of Ildsl on the j t h c o m p o n e n t of I2ds2. By Postulates I and IV,
d2F~jk is directly proportional to the product of the ith c o m p o n e n t of
IldSl and the j t h c o m p o n e n t of I2ds2. By Postulate IV, d~-F~jk is
inversely proportional to r 2. T h u s the force components m a y be
written

"d2Ftlk = A-~21klI 1 [ I2 [dsldS2 cos 01 cos 02,

A 21k
d2F21k = r~[Ii[ [I2]dslds2 sin 01 COS 02 COS 7,

i31k
d~F31k- r2 [I1[ I~]dsldS2 sin 01 cos 0~ sin 7,
(3)
d2F12k = @111.[ I2 [dsldS2 cos 01 sin 02,

d2F22k = -A~k [I1] I2[dslds: sin 01 sin 02 cos '7,

I2[dslds~ sin 01 sin 02 sin 7,

k = 1,2,3.
If both elements are directed along the x'-axis, there is no physical
way of distinguishing the directions perpendicular to this axis. Con-
sequently,
A m = A m = 0. (4)
Also, by symmetry,
AsI1 = A m , A31, = A m , A213 = Aal2. (.5)

There remain thirteen arbitrary coefficients A~jk in Eq. 3. As shown

in Section 4, however, some of these coefficients can be eliminated by
employing Postulate I I I.
It is now advantageous to introduce a new coordinate system
(X, Y, Z), so oriented t h a t ds2 lies along the Z-axis (Fig. 2). Evidently
the force on I2ds2, in the direction of its axis, is
d2Fz = (d2Fnl + d~F211 --~ d~Faix -'1-"d2F121 -}- d2F221 "1- d2F321) cos 02
+ (d2F:12 + d2F3~ + d~F12~ + d2F2,~ + d2F322) sin 02
Mar., I954.] INTERPRETATION OF THE/AMPI~RE EXPERIMENTS 20 9

or

d2Fz = [I1 ] [I2]ds2ds3 [A 111 COS 0yeos 2 02-[-A 221 sin 01 cos 3 02 (sin n + c o s n)
r2
+ A ~31 cos 02 sin 0~ cos 03 + (A 231 + A 22~) sin 01 sin 02 cos 0~ cos
+ (A ,21 + A 3~3) sin 01 sin 02 cos 0: sin n + A 122 cos 02 sin ~ 02
+ A223sinOlsin303cos~ + A322sinO2sin~O~sin~-]. (6)

B u t f r o m t h e g e o m e t r y , of Fig. 2,

sin 03 = q/r, cos 02 Z/r , =

sin ~b = Y/q, cos ~b = X / q ,

ds2 cos 0~ = X d x + Y d Y + Z dZ,

r r r
XZ YZ q
d31 sin 02 cos ~ = -- - - D X -- - - d Y + - dZ,
rq rq • r

ds2 sin O~ sin n = -r- d X - x e Y,

q q

w h e r e d X , d Y , d Z a r e t h e c o m p o n e n t s of dsl a l o n g t h e t h r e e axes, a n d
q = (X: + y3)+. S u b s t i t u t i o n i n t o E q . 6 gives

d*Fz = l l i l [ I s l d s ~ P x d X + P y d Y + P z d Z 3, (7)
where

XZ~ A ~22) q X Z
P x = ( A m - Asoa - A~12) ~ + (A~l - r5

YZ XZ 3 Y Z ~"
+ (A 312.3f_ A 321) V A 211 -- -~ A 211 - -
qr 5 qr*
-~- A122q~5 + A32~ qY,

• . yz 2
Py = (A 111 " A221 A212)7 - -[- (A121 - - A222) q Y Z
XZ YZ ~ XZ:
- (A,I, + -
qr 5 qr 4
q~ Y qX,
+AI~2~--A32~ --r4

P z = (A 121 + A 211") q~Z52+ (A ~,~ + A 2,~ + A~22) q~Zr~

Z8 q3
+ A111~- Av A222~.
210 PARRY MOON AND D O M I N A E B E R L E S P E N C E R [J. F. I.

4. INTRODUCTION OF POSTULATE III

According to Postulate III, the force dFz, produced by a n y closed
circuit m a d e up of elements I,dsl, is zero. Thus,

dFz = . ¢ (PxdX + Prd Y + PzdZ)

P ' d s l = O, (8)
J
where
P = i P x + j Py + k P z ,
dsl = i d X + j d Y + k d Z .
By Green's theorem,

d~e p ' d s ' = f s curl P . d A = 0, (9)

where S is a n y surface bounded b y the closed circuit C. Since Eq. 9

m u s t hold for all surfaces S,
curl P = 0, (lO)
or
OPx OPy OPx OPz OPt OPz
0Y OX' OZ OX' OZ 0 Y"
Substitution of Eq. 7 into Eq. 10 yields the following conditions which
m u s t be satisfied to m e e t Postulate I I I :
A m --- A,11 = A 2 3 2 --- A333 -- 0,
Aa13 = - A~I, (11)
A213 = 2 A m - 2 A m - A331.
T h u s the m o s t general equations t h a t satisfy the four postulates are

d'F, = [I1[ [I, ids,ds3 [ A m cos 01 cos 02 + A32, sin 01 sin 03 cos n
r2
+ A 331 sin 01 sin 03 sin 71],
d'F,, = [I1 [ [I, [ds,ds2 [ A m cos 0, sin 03
+ (2A,m - 2Aan -- A231) sin 0, cos 0, cos
- Am, sin 01 cos 02 sin 7], (12)
e,p. = Iz,[ Iz, les,as2
r3 [ - - A 331 sin 0, cos 02 cos
+ (2A12~ -- 2A,11 - A331) sin 01 cos 02 sin
+ A123 cos 01 sin 02 + A333 sin 01 sin 02 cos 71
+ A 32a sin 0, sin 03 sin ,1-],
i,j = 1,2,3,
where t h e forces are along the three coordinate axes of Fig. 1.
Mar., I954.] INTERPRETATION OF THE AMPff-RE EXPERIMENTS 211

$. PARALLELCONDUCTORS
We h a v e now employed all four postulates and b y this m e a n s have
reduced the original 18 constants of Eq. 3 to the 7 constants of Eq. 12.
Still f u r t h e r reduction can be effected b y using the well-known equation
for force between parallel conductors:

a F ~ = O, a F y = ~,lIll I / , l d s , (13)
2rl
T h e subscripts refer to the axes of Fig. 2. E q u a t i o n 13 expresses the
force on the element I~ds~, produced b y an infinitely long wire, Fig. 3.

&

.y

Fit;. 3.

F r o m the g e o m e t r y of Fig. 2,
~Fx = d~F, sin 02 cos ~b -- d2F. cos O~cos ~k + d~F~, sin ~k.
{dd2Fr d~F. sin 02 sin ~ d2F. cos 02 sin ~b I d~F~ cos 6.
(13a)

Substitution of Eq. 12 yields

d'Fx = II~l II'lds'ds2

r~ [ ( A m - A I , ) cos 01 sin 0~ cos 02 cos ~b
+ A 2 , sin.01 sin 2 0, cos ~ cos ~b + A321 sin 01 sin ~ cos
- ( 2 A , 2 -- 2A m -- A 22~) sin 0a cos 2 02 cos ~ cos
-- A aN1sin 01 cos 0~ cos n sin
+ (2A,2~ - 2 A m -- A , 1 ) sin 0i cos 0~ sin ~ sin ~b
+ A 1~ cos 01 sin 0t sin ~ + A , , sin 01 sin 02 cos ~ sin
+ A , , sin 0t sin 02 sin ~ sin ~], (14)
212 PARRY MOON AND DOMINA EBERLE SPENCER [J. F. I.

d2Fr IIll II, IdsldS2

= r' [ (A 111 - A ~,2) cos 0~ sin 02 cos 02 sin ¢

+ A2,~ sin 01 sin 2 02 cos ~/sin ~b + A321 sin 0t sin ~/sin ¢

- (2A122 -- 2 A m -- A2,1) sin 01 cos' 02 cos ~/sin
+ A a21 sin 01 cos 02 cos n cos
- (2A1,2 -- 2Al1~ - A221) sin 01 cos 02 sin ~/cos ~b
- A r.,3 cos 01 sin 0, cos 6 - A,23 sin 0~ sin 02 cos n cos
- A a~3 sin 0~ sin 02 sin n cos ~b~. (is)
F o r a n y e l e m e n t in t h e YZ-plane,

c o s ¢ = 0, s i n e = 1;
s i n n = 0, c o s n = 1.

Also, 01 = 0 2 = 0, r = / / s i n O, dsl = d Z = - ldO/sin 20. S u b s t i t u t i o n

i n t o Eqs. 14 a n d 15 gives, for t h e force e x e r t e d b y a n e l e m e n t I~dsl o n
t h e e l e m e n t I2dss,

{d~Fx =

d2Fr
IZ~I lIxlds2
l

II11 IlI~ Ids~ ~ (3A

~(A12a --

111
Aa21) sin 0 cos 0 + A223sin20~dO,

-- 3A 122
+ A 221) sin 0 cos 2 0

+ A 221 sin ~ O-]dO. (16)

F o r a n infinite c o n d u c t o r ,

dFx - l [-(A123 - A~n) sin 0 cos 0 + A~23 sin 2 O-]dO

(17)
l 2

B u t d F x = 0, so A223 = 0.

Similarly,

d F r = II1[ IlI , Ids, f.Io

"
[-(3A 111 -- 3A 122 -~- A 221) sin 0 cos' 0
-~-- A 221 sin 30~dO
= 2 IIlf CI,
l (An1 -- AI~, + A,21). (18)

E m p l o y i n g E q . 13, we o b t a i n t h e r e l a t i o n ,

A122 = A n l -4- A221 -- bt/47r. (19)

Mar., I954.] INTERPRETATION OF T H E A M P E R E E X P E R I M E N T S 2I 3
6. GENERAL RESULTS

A s t u d y was m a d e of all the special cases o b t a i n a b l e b y taking one

coefficient a t a time and e q u a t i n g the o t h e r coefficients to zero. If all
A~k are zero except A321, t w o different forces are predicted for t w o
cases t h a t are geometrically identical. T h e only w a y of achieving
consistency is to set A 321 equal to zero.
T h e m o s t general equations for the force b e t w e e n current elements
are n o w o b t a i n e d from Eq. 12 b y incorporating the a b o v e d a t u m and
the results of Section 5 :

d2Fr = Ifll [ ],f2,dsldS2EAlllCOSOlcosO 2

r2
+ A 221 sin 01 sin 02 cos ~],
d2F, Illl [I21dsldS~
= r2 [-(Alll + A221 - ~/47r) cos 01 sin 02
(20)
+ (A221 -- 2u/47r) sin 01 cos 02 cos ~],
d2F, Jill 1121dslds,
= r2 [-(A221 - 2g/47r) sin 01 cos 02 sin
+ A 128 cos 01 sin 02 + A .23 sin 01 sin 02 sin 7-].

T h e force on I2ds~ is

d2F2 -- ar d2Fr + a, d2F, + a, d2F~,. (21)

E q u a t i o n 20 satisfies the four postulates and Eq. 13. T h e original 18
a r b i t r a r y c o n s t a n t s have been reduced to four: Al11, A~21, A123, and
A323. A s u m m a r y is given in T a b l e I. W e see t h a t the Ampere ex-

TABLE I.--Relations Among the Constants.

Symmetry relations
Ax12 "= An3 = O,

Postulate I I I
f A3n
A~13
A2i~
A2m
A212,
A31~.

A121 = A211 -- A222 ~ A322 --- 0,

Parallel conductors
fA312 - - A321,
A21~ = 2A12~ - 2Aln - A221.

A22s

Consistency
I A12~
= 0,
A l l l "{- A221 -- i.t/4~r.

A321 = 0.
The above relations reduce the 18 original coefficients A¢i, to four: A m , A~21, A~2a, A323.
214 PARRY MOON AND D O M I N A E B E R L E SPENCER [J. F. I.

periments are by no means sufficient to uniquely determine an equation

for the force between current elements. Indeed, Eq. 20 represents o04
possible solutions of the problem.
E q u a t i o n s 20 and 21 express the force in t e r m s of c o m p o n e n t s in
the directions of a., a., and a , (Fig. 1). In terms of the coordinate
s y s t e m of Fig. 2, the force is
d'F, = i d'Fx + j d2Fr + k d2Fz, (22)
where
d'Vx = II11 [I,r~Idslds, [ - (A231 - u/4~r) cos 01 sin 02 cos 03 cos ~b

+ A 3~i sin 01 sin ~ 0~ cos 11cos ~b

+ (A 3~1 - 2#/4~r) (sin n sin ~b - cos 03 cos n cos ~b) sin 01 cos 0,
+ Al~3cosOlsinO3sin~ + A~23sinOlsinO, sinnsine/], (14a)

d'Fr = ]Ix[ II,r' Ids,ds3 [ - (A ~,1 - u/41r) cos 01 sin 03 cos 0~ sin q/

+ A 2~1 sin 01 sin ~ 0~ cos ~ sin ~k

- (A~I - 2 # / 4 r ) (sin n cos ~ + cos 0~ cos n sin ~b) sin 0~ cos 02
- A123eosOlsinO3cos~- A3~3sinOlsinO~sin,lcos~], (15a)

d,F, = I l l l lI, Idslds, EArn cos 01 + ( A , , , - /4r)

r2
X (2 sin 01 cos 0~ cos ~l + cos 01 sin 03) sin 0~]. (6a)
7. SPECIAL CASES

N o w consider some special cases of Eq. 20.

A. The force is in the direction of at.

T h e n d2F. = d2F~ = 0, and each coefficient in the second and third
e q u a t i o n s of (20) m u s t be zero:
AH1 + A2~1 -- u/41r -- 0,

or A m = - # / 4 r , A2~l = 2#/4~.
f A2,, -- 21~/4r = 0,
A,,s = As03 = 0,

E q u a t i o n 21 reduces to

d2F2 = a, #[I1[ [I~[dslds~ [2 sin 01 sin 0~ cos ~ - cos 01 cos 02], (1)
4~r'
which is Amp~re's equation. T h u s we have shown t h a t Amp~re's
e q u a t i o n is a degenerate form of Eq. 20 and t h a t it is the only equation
Mar., I954.] INTERPRETATION OF T H E AMPI~:RE E X P E R I M E N T S 2I 5

t h a t satisfies the four postulates, Eq. 13, and the r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t the

force be along the line of centers.
As G r a s s m a n n (4) pointed out, however, the Amp6re expression
behaves in a peculiar m a n n e r . For instance, if ~ = 0 and 01 = 02 = 0,
t h e force becomes zero when
2 s i n ~0 = cos 20
or when
tan 0 = 1 / ~ , 0 = 35.3 ° .
For angles less t h a n 35.3 ° , the force is negative; for angles b e t w e e n
35,3 ° and 90 ° , t h e force is positive. T h o u g h one c a n n o t say t h a t such
behavior is impossible, it does seem a v e r y unlikely w a y for n a t u r e to
operate.

B. The force is in the direction of a,.

T h e equations are inconsistent, proving t h a t such a ease is impossible.
T h e same conclusion applies to dq~'2 along ap.

C. The force is perpendicular to a,.

T h e n d2Fr = 0, and therefore A m = A22t = 0. E q u a t i o n 20 reduces to

d2F, = _ , [I~ I [I~ [dslds2 [cos 01 sin 0~ + 2 sin 0~ cos 02 cos 7/],
4~y 2

d2F, = 2"1I,[ 1121ds~ds, .

- 47rr ~ sm 01 cos 02 sin (202)

+ II~1 [I21dslds2 [ A m cos 0~ sin 02 + A8,8 sin 0~ sin 02 sin ~].

r2

If, in addition, we set A 122 = A , 3 = 0, we obtain a n o t h e r fairly simple

expression which satisfies the Amp6re requirements.

D. The force is perpendicular to a..

T h e n d2F. = 0 and A22~ = 2./47r, A n l = - . / 4 T . Thus

u,-llr } tr,_,laa,_sl_s,[2 sin 01 sin o, cos ,; - cos 01 cos 0,],

4~-r~
1111 1121dslds' [A~28 cos 01 sin 0,
r2
+ A .3 sin 01 sin 02 sin ~].

If A~2~ = .1328 = 0, we obtain the A m p e r e equation. O t h e r choices

of these constants yield a v a r i e t y of o t h e r equations, all satisfying the
A m p e r e requirements.
 216 PARRY MOON AND D O M I N A EBERLE SPENCER [J. F. I.

E. The force is perpendicular to a~.

T h e n.d2Fp .= 0 and A 123 : A 32~ -= 0, A 2.,1 = 2~/47r, and

d2g~ = II1] ]I21dslds2 EAI~I cos 01 cos 02

r2
2u
+ ~ sin 01 sin 02 cos ~ , (20c)

d'F,, = IX11 112 Idslds21 (Alll ~- ./47r) COS 01 sin 02.

r2

If we let A 111 = - u/47r, the second equation disappears and we obtain

again Amp~re's equation.
B u t if Alll = 0,

I 2/z ]/11 ]I21dslds2

d2Fr = 41rr2 sin 01 sin O, cos 7,
(20d)
~d~F, ]~ I/'11 [ )r2 [ d , ldS2
= 47rr 2 cos 01 sin 02.

F. The force is perpendicular to the element ds2.

T h e n d2Fz = 0, and from Eq. 6a

A m = 0, A221 = ~/47r.

T h u s Eq. 20 becomes

d2F, = ~lI>l If2 dslds2 sin 01 sin 02 cos )7,

47rr 2
frlf fI ldslds2 .
d2F, = - Sln 01 COS 02 c o s 7,
4~r 2 (20e)
~[11[ [I2[dslds2 .
d2Fp : __ 47rr 2 sin 01cos02sin n + [Ii1 [I2[dsldS2r
2
× [-A 123 cos 01 sin 02 + A 323 sin 01 sin 02 sin 7-].

If we let A1~3 = A328 = 0, Eq. 20e reduces to G r a s s m a n n ' s equation

(2a).
8. OTHER POSTULATES
T h e foregoing results are all based on the four p o s t u l a t e s inferred
from Ampfire's experiments. B u t none of the equations is completely
satisfactory. It is true t h a t c u r r e n t elements are a fiction, so t h a t
• physical intuition m u s t not be relied u p o n too strongly in determining
allowable forms of the force equation for c u r r e n t elements. Y e t a
current e l e m e n t c a n be considered as a complex of moving charges, for
Mar., I954.l INTERPRETATION OF THE AMPI~RE EXPERIMENTS 2I 7

which we prefer to keep Newton's third law. And this law is violated
(16) by the Grassmann equation (2) and by all of the foregoing equa-
tions except Amp~re's.
If action is to be equal to reaction, therefore, Eq. 1 is the only
possibility consistent with the four postulates. B u t Eq. 1 has the
peculiarity pointed out by Grassmann, t h a t the force changes sign at
0 = 35.3°. Is it conceivable t h a t one of the four postulates is incorrect ?
Examination of the postulates (stated in Section 2) shows t h a t I,
II, and IV can hardly be questioned. Certainly the force should vary
directly with the current, directly with the length of element, and
inversely as the square of the distance. Also, one s h o u l d be able to
replace ds by its components. B u t Postulate III is in a much less
secure position. All four of the AmpSre experiments dealt with com-
plete circuits. Experiment 3 differed from the others, however, in
employing a short conductor capable of m o v e m e n t w i t h respect to the
rest of its circuit. This movable portion was supposed to represent a
current element; and the fact t h a t it experienced no longitudinal force
was supposed to prove t h a t a current element can experience no longi-
tudinal force. B u t a portion of a circuit is not identical with an isolated
current element having no leads; and the experimental result m a y be
caused by the balancing of forces which would not balance in a current
element.
Suppose t h a t Postulate I I I be replaced by Amp8re's fifth postulate:

Postulate V. The force between current elements acts along the line
of centers, and action is equal to reaction.
ThenA~.2 = A~j3 = 0. From Eqs. 3 and 5,

d2F2 = a~ [i1[ [121dsldS2 J A m cos 01 COS 02

/,2
-[- A211 sin 01 cos 02 (sin ~ -t- cos 7) -b A 121 cos 01 sin 02
q- A221 sin 01 sin 02 cos ~ -b A ~21sin 01 sin 02 sin n~. (23)
If action and reaction are equal,
A121 = - A~ll, (24)
leaving four independent constants: A m , A m , A221, and A321. Now
consider the force produced by parallel conductors. As in Section 5,
the force on element I=ds=, caused by c u r r e n t / 1 in an infinite conductor
(Fig. 3), is
= 1Ill II, las2 (13)
27rI
F r o m Eq. 13a, for ~ = 7r/2 and ~ = 0,
d2Fr -- sin 02.d2F,, (25)
218 PARRY MOON AND D O M I N A EBERLE SPENCER [J. F. I.

and, for 01 ~--" 02 = 0,

d2Fr = II, I ]I21ds,ds2 [Am cos* 0 + A,,1 sin* O]

r2

llll II:lds2 [A,~I cos, 0 + A,21 sin * 0]d0. (26)

l

Substitution of Eq. 26 into Eq. 25 gives

dp~ : [I1[ [x21~s2 ['~ J A m sin 0 cos 2 0 + A,21 sin ~ 0]d0

/ do
2 ( [I1[ ,I,[ds21 (27)
- 3 l ( A m + 2A,,1).

By use of Eq. 13, we obtain

3#
A2~1 = 8~" AtH/2. (28)
T h u s the most general equation for force on a c u r r e n t element (consistent
with Postulates I, II, IV, and V b u t not III) m u s t be

d2F2 = a~ 1111 1121ds~ds2 lAin cos 01 cos 02

r2 t
+ ( 3# _ A m / 2 ) s i n 01 sin 02 cos~

+ A2n[sin 01 cos 0~(sin 71 + cos ~) - cos 0~ sin 02]

+ A321 sin 0~ sin 02 sin ~t.
/
(2~,

A n u m b e r of special cases, derived from Eq. 29, look promising.

Consider equations having not more t h a n two terms.

1. Suppose A321 # 0, b u t A211 -- 0. T h e n there are only two de-

generate cases :
(a) Alx, = 0,
= .. ,I,j II,r2-le.,d.,[ ~3. cos n + ]
A,,I sin n sin 0, sin 0t. (29a)

(b) A m = 3 # / 4 r ,
ILl II, ldslds2
d~F2 = a,
r:

X ~ cos 01cos 02 + A an sin 0~ sin 0, s i n ~ . (29b)

 Mar., 1954.] INTERPRETATION OF THE AMPI~RE EXPERIMENTS 2i 9

2. Suppose A a21 = 0 and A ~t = 0. Then there are three simple cases :

(a) A m = 0,
3 ,1IiI
d~F2 = a~ 8rr~ sm 01 sin 02 cos 7. (29c)

(b) A , I = 3#/4=,

d2F~ = a, 47rr~ cos 01 cos 0~. (29d)

(c) A 1 . = - #/4~,

d~F~ = ar
,lx, I Ix, le le ,
47rr2 [2 sin 01 sin 0~ cos 7 -- cos 01 cos 0,]. (1)

The last equation is Amp6re's formula.

Equations 29c and 29d are simpler than Amp6re's equation and
deserve further study, particularly since they are free from the pecu-
liarity of Amp6re's formula mentioned by Grassmann. Of the two,
Eq. 29c appears to be the better. Equation 29d predicts that two
perpendicular elements (0~ = 0~ = ~/2, 7 = ~/2) will react exactly as
if they were in the same plane (7 = 0), which seems unlikely. It also
requires that parallel elements exert zero force on each other, which is
at least contrary to popular belief. Equation 29c, on the other hand,
predicts zero force for collinear elements, zero force if 7 = ~/2, and
maximum force for parallel elements that are perpendicular to a,.
These predictions seem reasonable.

O. CONCLUSIONS

The paper has developed the most general equations obtainable on

two bases; the first including Postulate III but not V, the second
including V but not III. The former leads to the general equation
(20) with four arbitrary constants; the latter to Eq. 29 with three
arbitrary constants.
Special cases of Eq. 20 include Amp~re's equation (I), Grassmann's
equation (2), and a host of others. The only one that agrees with
Newton's third law, however, is Amp~re's original equation; and this
equation has the weakness that the force changes sign in a peculiar
manner.
Special cases of Eq. 29 include Amp~re's equation and a simpler
form, Eq. 29c, which is free from the weakness of Amp6re's equation.
Further work will be necessary to determine which of the m a n y possible
equations is most satisfactory.
220 PARRY MOON AND DOMINA EBERLE SPENCER [J. F. I.

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