11 Cold Forming of Metals
11. 1 Development
Of all the metal-working processes pressworking has had
the most phenomenal development, and has made the greatest
contribution to industry, through substantial weight
reductions enhanced beauty of design, and greatly lowered
costs. Pressworking is primarily adapted to massproduction
methods, as illustrated by the evolution in design of the
automobile, the electric refrigerator, gas and electric
ranges and other kitchen appliances.
The development of the automobile resulted in extending
presswork to much larger objects and very heavy, highly
specialized presses were evolved. The early automobiles,
like the farm wagon and the carriage, were made with wooden
frames and heavy cast-iron boxes. Here, as in the other
industries, reduction of weight, interchangeability, and
cheapening of costs became increasingly important. Men with
experience in pressed-steel work became interested in this
field. Such things as clips, braces and brackets first drew
their attention. Once the advantages of the new method were
demonstrated, it was rapidly extended to larger and more
complicated pieces. This development required an enormous
outlay for heavy presses, which only became possible as the
automobile ceased to be locked upon as a rich man's toy.
Today it is the exception to and a well-organized
manufacturing plant that does not find the use of metal-
working presses necessary.
Types of dies are numerous and include cutting,
bending, curling, seaming, coining, and drawing tools. The
use of each of these kinds of dies presented many puzzling
and interesting problems, but the one process that had the
greatest development, and the one that offers the greatest
possibilities, is that of drawing, Drawing work is being
done in nearly every shop, and many toolmakers and designers
have acquired knowledge of much value to their companies on
the subject, but very knowledge of much value to their
companies on the subject, but very little has been written
and no attempt has been made to bring this experience
together and analyze it, as has been done with the metal-
cutting process.
11.2 Classification
Cold forming is defined as the shaping of metals by the
plastic deformation at a temperature below the
recrystallization temperature. Metal cold-forming operations
may de divided into four general classes: squeezing,
shearing, drawing, and bending. The specific operations
under each of these are given below:
1. Squeezing
a) Cold rolling
b) Sizing
c) Swaging and cold forging
d) Coining
e) Stamping
f) Impact extrusion
g) Hobbing
2. Shearing
a) Blanking
b) Perforating
c) Trimming
d) Slitting
e) Parting
3. Drawing
a) Forming of blanks
b) Bulging
c) Tube drawing
d) Wire drawing
e) Spinning
f) Embossing
g) Stretch-forming
4. Bending
a) Angle bending
b) Bolt forming
c) Seaming
Distinction between these classes of cold-forming operation
lies in the character of stress by which the forming is
accomplished in the squeezing operations, the metal is made
to flow primarily as a result of compressive stresses set up
in the material. In shearing the stresses are primarily
shear stresses which bring about the fracture of the
material. In drawing, the material flows principally as a
result of the application are involved which act in such a
manner that the surface are of the articles is not
appreciably changed.
11.3 Cold Rolling
Cold rolling is a squeezing process used to finish
sheet or bar stock for special purposes. It is accomplished
on rolling mills similar to those used in hot rolling as
previously described. In this case the mills are more
rigidly constructed, in order to maintain accuracy, and the
rolls are polished.
The sheets for the cold rolling mills are prepared by
the hot rolling process and are then carefully pickled and
washed to clean the surfaces of scale and foreign material.
The sheet is then fen to the mill and in successive stages
is rolled down to the desired thickness. As the sheet
emerges from the rolling mill, it is coiled on a drum, after
which it is taken to the trimming and shearing machine where
the edges are trued and line sheet is sheared to the proper
lengths. One of the largest uses for soft-steel sheet is for
pressing into shapes such as fenders and automobile bodies.
Stainless steel sheet is now widely used for ornamental work
and for tanks and other containers.
11.4 Sizing
Sizing is a squeezing operation used for flattening on
surfacing various parts where a very small amount of flow of
the material is involved. This operation is the least severe
of all the squeezing operations. By means of a heavy press,
bosses, bevels, and flats on drop forgings or on malleable
castings may be brought to a true and accurate size. This
eliminates the more expensive milling or grinding
operations.
With this process, very close tolerances can be
obtained together with a rate of production that is much
greater than can by milling or grinding. However, this
process is restricted to materials that are relatively
ductile and that will flow under the action of the press.
Because of their lack of plasticity, hardened steels and
gray cast iron are not adapted to sizing process. Connecting
rods, lever forgings, and bracket castings are frequently
sized.
11.5 Swagging and Cold Forging
Swaging and cold forging are two of the most severe
cold-working processes, as the material is required to flow
plastically in the dies. Many small parts can be easily and
cheaply produced by swaging. Swaging process starts with the
cutting out of a blank as thick as the thickest portion of
the finished article. Swaging is used extensively in
producing parts of sewing machines, adding machines and
speedometers. Swaging and cold forging are almost synonymous
terms, cold forging usually refers to forming operations
carried out in heavy specialized machines such as that the
operation of cold-heading bolts, nails, and the like, is
carried out in this types of machine.
In the first operation the rod is pushed through the
die block in a stop. Fingers then shears a length of the
rod, called a blank, and carry it over the die clamp a
portion of the rod extending through the die.
These machines operate at a high rate of speed. For
example, in the forming T-bolts ¾ in long from a blank of 1
1/3 in. long, 400 bolts can be produced per minute.
11.6 Coining
Coining is another squeezing operation employed
particularly in the minting of money. This process is
carried out in a press with two dies on which the proper
inscription is milled. These two dies make the reverse and
obverse side of the article. In this case, the metal is a
completely contained in closed die so that flow is
restricted in all directions. This process, of course is not
restricted to the production of coins but may also be used
for making medals and emblems. High pressures are required;
for example, 35 tons to coin dimes, 60 tons for quarters,
and 160 tons for silver dollars (commemorative silver
dollars are still coined from time to time in limited
numbers).
11.7 Stamping
Stamping is a term, which has been used for most press
operations. The use of the term has led to considerable
confusions, and therefore no mention has been made of
stamping in the previous articles. However, there is one
operation that can definitely be classified as stamping:
that of imprinting numbers and figures into the surface of a
solid metal by means of dies. In this case, a small area of
the metal at the surface is compressed and pushed slightly
upward around the die. The operation is a cold forming of
the squeezing type, in which a punch strikes a slug of metal
placed in a die, extruding the metal through the space
between the punch and the die. While this process is classed
as a cold-working operation, in some cases the metal slug is
heated to temperatures that may be somewhat above the
recrystallization temperature. This process is used mostly
for the production of collapsible tubes (for tooth paste,
creams, lubricants, and so forth), but it is also employed
for making, for example, zinc cases for dry cells cans for
condensers, and radio-tube shields.
In this process the metal is extruded between the die
orifice and the small punch. At the end of the impact, the
tube contains a flange consisting of the metal remaining in
the die. If it is desired that the flange remain on the
tube, the flanged tube is knocked out. If a simple tube is
desired, the flange is trimmed from the tubular portion.
11.9 Hobbing
One method of producing cavities in metal to form a
mold is by a process known as hobbing. In this process, a
hardened steel form having the shape of the cavity to be
produced is pressed into the mold material. The material
must be relatively soft, such as a soft steel or a tin-
bismuth alloy, as used in making the patterns in precision
investment casting. The mold is provided with a heavy
retainer ring to prevent any appreciable lateral movement of
the material of the mold. This is a heavy pressing operation
requiring high capacity presses. The steel form that makes
the impression is called a hob.
11.10 Shearing
The shearing processes include the operation of
blanking, perforating, trimming, slitting, and parting. In
all of these process, the metal is separated by means of a
tool. The simplest and most common type of shearing may be
done with ordinary tin snips, scissors or shears.
Blanking is a process of shearing in which sheet or
plate is cut out to a definite outline in a press. The
material used in blanking small thin articles is received in
the form of a long strip.
11.11 Cold-Drawing
Cold-drawing is a process of cold forming in which the
material is made to flow plastically by the application of
tensile stresses to the material. Cold-drawing operations
include the forming of blanks, wire drawing, embossing, and
spinning. Drawing is a development of the use of presses and
dies. Pressworking operations from a very important division
of cold-drawing and therefore will be considered first.
Dies for cold-drawing are generally made of an alloy
steel, depending upon the service to which they are to be
subjected. However, for forming operations that do not
involve shearing and where relatively short runs are
involved, it is economical to use zinc-base alloy dies.
Minimizing die costs is the use of rubber pads with a
single die. The material to be formed by drawing is placed
between the die and the rubber pad. The press forces the
rubber onto the blank, thus drawing the metal into
conformity with the die.
11.12 Cold-Drawing of Tubes
The cold-drawing process as applied to the finishing of
seamless tubes is used to produce tubing of smaller diameter
and with lighter walls than can be made by hot finishing. It
is also applied to shape to forms other than round, or to
secure a smooth, bright, scale-free finish on its surface,
or to increase its strength and stiffness. Cold drawing can
finish tubes smaller than 10 3/4 in. in diameter.
The process of drawing tubes consists of pulling the
tube through a ring-shaped die or collar which the amount of
reduction in a single draw is greatly exaggerated. The
plastic cold working of this process increases the hardness
of the material and makes it less ductile. Where a
considerable reduction in diameter is required, it is
necessary to anneal the tubing between successive draws.
This process may be repeated, with intermediate annealing,
until the tube has reached the proper dimensions.
11.13 Cold-Drawing of Wire
The material used in the production of wore is rolled
into rods of the proper size in the rolling mill, as
described in the previous chapter. In order to prepare the
rod for drawing, it is given certain preliminary treatments,
which depend upon the grade of the steel, the amount of
drawing necessary, and the finish desired.
This process is referred to as sulling and is not
employed for rods that are to have a bright finish.
Following the sulling operation, the coils are dipped into
tanks of hot lime, which coats the surface of the rod. The
coils are then loaded on cars and pushed into baking ovens,
which are maintained at a temperature of from 250 F to 400
F. The lime coating hardens and acts as a lubricant during
the subsequent drawing operation.
11.14 Spinning
Spinning is a special case of drawing in which the
work is rotated and formed by means of a tool. The workpiece
may have the form of a disc or a cup. It is fastened to the
spindle of a rotating chuck. The process of sealing cans to
contain foods and other products is a special application of
spinning. This process is called seaming, and it has made
possible a high rate of production in the can and canning
industries. Several seaming operations. The first type,
produces the regular double seam, in which a roll with a
curved profile curls the outer flange about the inner one
and starts folding the inner flange. A second roll closes
the seams down tightly, thus sealing the can top.
11.15 Embossing
Another very mild cold-drawing process is known as
embossing. The products of this type of process should be
familiar to everyone, as it is the method by which the
printing is placed on the lids of baking-powder cans, cocoa
cans and so on. This process is carried out by means of two
mating dies, which are placed in a press. The thin sheet
metal may be blanked in the same press, and then the two
halves of the die are forced together, making the sheet
metal conform to the configuration of the die. An example of
the equipment for this process.
11.16 Stretch-forming
In some cases, shapes may be produced in sheet metal by
the stretch-forming process. The sheet is firmly gripped and
pulled over a form so that the material stretches to conform
to the surface of a mold over which the sheet metal is
stretched. This process is used In some cases, the die can
be moved up into the sheet metal thus accomplishing the
stretching and forming operation. This process has the
advantage that elaborate press tooling is not required.
11.17 Bending
Bending may be considered as an operation in which the
surface area of the article is not appreciably changed. In
cold-drawing operation, the surface area is altered to a
marked degree. It is difficult sometimes to for simplicity,
the term bending can be restricted to those operations in
which the total surface area of the metal remains
approximately constant. The simplest machines upon which
bending operations are carried out are the folding machines,
such as the brake. Brakes are common equipment in any sheet
metal working shop. Another bending operation is that of
forming sheet metal into cylindrical shapes on forming
rolls. For bending heavy sections such as bars a bulldozer
of the type may be employed.
11.18 Roll Forming and Seaming
In roll forming, a strip of the metal is fed to series
of rolls that form it progressively into the desired shape.
The strip may be formed into a rectangular "U" shape, or
into tubular form for subsequent welding. This process lends
itself to large quantity production of long, simple shapes
from strip, and is a bending process.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Engineering
Department of Industrial Engineering
Industrial
Materials
Submitted by: Submitted to:
Marvin Daguison Miss Romiella V. Du
Roy Adrian Flores
Flordeluna Olpindo
Alvin Sarmiento
Rosalyn Barbiran
