Unit 4: Solution
Some Basic Definitions
1.1 Mixtures
Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances in which each substance retains its own
chemical identity and hence its own properties. Eg. Clean air consists of O2, N2, CO2, noble
gases, and water vapor (H2O)
Categories of mixtures
There are two categories of mixtures: - -homogeneous mixtures & heterogeneous mixtures
▪ Homogeneous Mixtures
➢ It is a mixture in which the composition of the mixture is the same throughout.
➢ it has no visible boundaries because the components are mixed as individual
atoms, ions and molecules.
➢ For example, when a spoonful of sugar dissolves in the water you obtain a
homogeneous mixture
➢ Different types of solutions are examples of homogeneous mixtures
▪ Heterogeneous mixtures
➢ It has one or more visible boundaries between the components.
➢ Thus, its composition is not uniform. In this type of mixture, each component’s
particles can be detected by the naked eye or with a magnifying glass.
➢ A mixture of sand with iron filings is an example of heterogeneous mixture.
Solution consists of at least two substances; Solute and solvent
i. Solute: solute is a substance in smaller amounts
–may undergo a state change
ii. Solvent: solvent is a substance in smaller amounts; retains its identity
Suspension and Colloids
Suspension: -It is a heterogeneous mixture in which the suspending particles are large enough to
settle down upon standing. Eg paint, milk of magnesia in water, a mixture of mud and water.
-The suspended particles appear cloudy and settle down in due course of time
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Colloids: - It is a heterogeneous mixture in which the particles are not large enough to settle
down up on standing.
They are large enough to scatter light very effectively. Consequently, most colloids appear
cloudy or opaque unless they are very dilute. For example, clouds are colloidal mixtures
composed of air and water droplets that are small enough that they do not settle out.
1.2 TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
State State State of Type of Examples
solute solvent solution solution
Gas Gas Gas gas-gas Air
Gas liquid liquid gas-liquid Soft drink, ambo mineral water, beer, champagne…
liquid liquid liquid Liquid-liquid Alcohol in water, Br2 in CCl4
Solid liquid liquid Solid-liquid Salt in water, sucrose in water, I2 in CCl4
Liquid solid solid Liquid-solid Dental amalgam(Ag/Hg, Au/Hg)
Solid solid solid Solid-solid Alloys( brass(Cu/Zn), bronze(Cu/Sn),solder(Pb/Sn)
1.3 THE SOLUTION PROCESS
Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle Forces of Attractions
The tendency to mix is affected by the relative strengths of the three types of interaction. These
are
Solvent-solvent interaction
Solute-solute interaction
Solvent-solute interaction
Strong forces of attraction between solute particles (solute-solute interactions) or between
solvent particles (solvent-solvent interactions) tend to keep like particles close together and
reduce the solubility of the solute in the solvent. On the other hand, strong attraction forces
between solute and solvent particles (solute-solvent interactions) make dissolving easier and help
to keep particles in solution.
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Step 1 – is the separation of solvent molecules from each other to “make room” for the
incoming solute particles
step 2 – is the separation of solute molecules. These two steps require energy input to break
attractive intermolecular forces. Therefore, they are endothermic.
step 3 – the solvent and solute molecules mix. This process can be exothermic or endothermic.
Solution of liquids in liquids
Follow a rule “like dissolves like”? The “like dissolves like” principle is helpful in predicting the
solubility of a substance in a given solvent. What this expression means is that two substances
with intermolecular forces of similar type and magnitude are likely to be soluble in each other.
These solubility’s depends on the type of intermolecular forces:- dipole-dipole force, Hydrogen
bonding, London forces and ion-dipole force.
For example: alcohols such as methanol, ethanol and 1, 2-ethylene glycol are miscible in
water because they can form hydrogen bonding. Liquid bromine dissolves in CCl4 because of
London force. Cyclo hexane soluble in benzene because of London force.
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Solutions of Solids in Liquids
Solids composed of polar molecules or ions, are insoluble in non-polar solvents. The weak
solute-solvent interaction, compared with the strong attractions within the crystal, is not
sufficient to tear apart the lattice. This is why sugar, which consists of molecules lightly bound to
each other by hydrogen bonding, is insoluble in solvents like oil. However, sugar is soluble in
water, because this solvent attracts sugar molecules in the same way that sugar molecules attract
each other.
Water and other polar molecules are attracted to ions. The electrostatic attraction between an ion
and a molecule with a dipole is called an ion-dipole attraction. These attractions play an
important role in the dissolution of ionic compounds in water.
In general, when a solute particle becomes surrounded by solvent molecules, we say that it is
solvated. When the solvent is water the process is called hydration.
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The Rate of Dissolution
what are the major factors that affect the rate of dissolution?
1. The inter-particle forces: - the major factor
2. Surface area of the solid solute
3. The temperature
4. The pressure of the system: - affects only gases
Energy Changes in the Solution Process
Heat of Solution
The amount of energy that is absorbed or released when one mole of a substance enters the
solution is called the heat of solution and is given the symbol ∆H°Sol, which is the sum of the
enthalpies associated with the three steps in the solution process
➢ The separation of solute particles is endothermic because energy is required to overcome
the forces holding the solute particles together. For gases, this step isignored because
their molecules are already widely separated.
➢ The separation of solvent particles is also endothermic because energy is required
to overcome the forces holding the solvent molecules together.
➢ Each solute particle is surrounded by a layer or “cage” of solvent molecules that is
attracted to it by intermolecular forces. This step can be endothermic or exothermic,
and is referred to as solvation.
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The heat of solution ∆Ho, Sol = ∆H1° + ∆H2° + ∆H3° = ∆H°Hydration + ∆H°Latice energy
where ∆H1° and ∆H2° are enthalpies required to separate solute particles and solvent
molecules, respectively, and∆H3° is the enthalpy of solvation. If the solute-solvent attraction
is stronger than both the solvent-solvent attraction and the solute-solute attraction, the
solution process is favourable, or exothermic (∆HoSol < 0). If the solute-solvent interaction is
weaker than the solvent-solvent and solute-solute interactions, then the solution process is
endothermic (∆HoSol > 0).
Hydration of Ionic Solids in Water
Hydration of ions favours the dissolution of an ionic solid in water. The ions in an ionic
crystal is very strongly attracted to one another. Therefore, the solubility of an ionic solid
depends not only on the energy of the hydration of ions but also on lattice energy, which
are the energy holding ions together in the crystal lattice? Lattice energy works against the
solution process, so an ionic solid with relatively large lattice energy is usually insoluble.
Lattice energies depend on the charge of the ions and also the distance between the centres of the
neighboring positive and negative ions. As the magnitude of the charge on the ions increases the
lattice energy also increases. For this reason, you can expect substances with single-charged ions
to be more comparatively soluble, and those with multiply charged ions to be less soluble in
water.
Q. Indicate the type of solute-solvent interaction that should be most important in
each of the following solutions:
a. KBr in water c. NaCl in water d. sucrose in water f. Iodine in CCl4
b. Toluene, C7H8 ,in cyclohexane,C6H12 e. NaOH in water
1.4 SOLUBILITY AS AN EQLIBRIUM PROCESS
When an ionic solid dissolves, ions leave the solid and become dispersed in the solvent.
Occasionally some dissolved ions collide with the undissolved solute and crystallize. As
long as the rate of dissolution is greater than the rate of crystallization, the concentration of
ions in the solution rises. Eventually, ions from the solid are dissolved at the same rate as
the ions in the solution are crystallized. At this point, even though dissolution and crystallization
continue, there is no further change in the concentration over time. The system has reached
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equilibrium. That is, excess undissolved solute is in equilibrium with the dissolved solute.
Before equilibrium is reached, the solution is said to be unsaturated. An unsaturated solution.
The solubility of many ionic solids in water increases as temperature increases. They form
supersaturated solutions, which actually contain larger amounts of solute than in saturated
solutions. Supersaturated solutions can sometimes be prepared by saturating a solution at
a high temperature. Honey is an example of a naturally occurring supersaturated solution. It
contains glucose, as a solute, and water, as a solvent. If honey is left to stand, the glucose
eventually crystallizes. Supersaturated solutions are unstable, and the addition of a “seed” crystal
of solute will generally cause all of the excess solute to suddenly crystallize in a solution that can
dissolve more solute at a given temperature.
Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Solute
Temperature affects the solubility of most substances. When a solid dissolves in a liquid, the
solute particles must separate, so energy must be added. Thus, for a solid, H°Solute > 0.
In contrast, gas particles are already separated, so ∆H°Solute = 0. Because the hydration step is
exothermic (∆H°Hydra < 0), the sum of these two terms must be negative. Thus, for all gases in
water, ∆H°Sol < 0.
The Effect of Pressure on Solubility
Why does pressure significantly affect only the solubility of gases? Since liquids and solids
are almost incompressible, pressure has little effect on their solubility, but it has a major
effect on gas solubility. The solubility of gases always increases with increasing pressure.
The effect of increased pressure on solubility has long been used in the beverage industry,
where carbonated beverages such as champagne, beer and many soft drinks are bottled
under CO2 pressure, up to 4 Pa.
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
over the solution.
The quantitative relationship between gas solubility and pressure is given by Henry’s law,
which states that“ at a given temperature the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional
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to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution”.
Cg= kH Pg
where Cg is the molar concentration (mol/L) of the dissolved gas, Pg is the pressure (in atm) of
the gas over the solution and kH is Henry’s law constant, which is expressed in mol/L.atm.
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1.5 WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTION
The concentration of a solution can be expressed either qualitatively or quantitatively. The terms
dilute and concentrated are used to describe a solution qualitatively.
A solution with a relatively small amount of solute is said to be dilute. One with a large
amount of the solutes is said to be concentrated. Quantitatively, can be expressed using % by
mass, ppm and ppb, mole fraction, molarity, molality and Normality.
A. Mass Percentage, ppm and ppb of Solute
Percent by mass: The percent by mass, also called percent by weight or weight percent,
is the ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass of the solution, multiplied by 100.
Percent by mass of solute = Mass of solute X100
Mass of solute + Mass of solvent
or
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Percent by mass of solute = Mass of solute × 100
Mass of solution
The percent by mass has no unit because it is the ratio of two similar quantities.
Examples
1. A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose, C6H12O6, in 0.100 kg of water. What is
the mass percentage of solute in this solution?
Solution: Given:
Mass of solute = 13.5 g Required: % by mass of solute?
Mass of solvent = 0.100 kg = 100 g
%by mass of glucose= mass of glucose x 100 = 13.5/113.5 x100 = 11.9%
mass of glucose + mass of water
Parts per million (ppm): When the mass of solute in the solution is very small, a widely
used expression is parts per million (ppm).
ppm of component = Mass of solute × 106
Mass of solution
or
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ppm = Mass percentage of solute × 10
1. A 2.5 g sample of groundwater was found to contain 5.4 µg of Zn2+. What is the
concentration of Zn2+, in parts per million?
Solution:
Because 1 µg is 1 × 10–6 g, 5.4 µg = 5.4 ×10–6 g Thus, ppm = Mass of solute× 106
Mass of solution
= 5.4 x 10 g –6 × 106 = 2.16 ppm
2.5
Q. A 150g of orange juice contains 120mg of ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Express this
concentration in ppm.
N.B. For solutions that are even more dilute, parts per billion (ppb) is used. A concentration of 1
ppb represents 1 g of solute per billion (109) grams of solution.
ppb = Mass of solute × 109
Mass of solution
B. Mole Fraction (X)
The mole fraction (X) of a solute is the ratio of the number of moles of solute divided by the total
number of moles of a solution (moles of solute + moles of solvent).
i. for non-electrolytic solute
Mole fraction of solute(X) = mole of solute / mole of solution
Mole fraction of solvent(x) = mole of solvent/ mole of solution
ii. for electrolytic solute
Mole fraction of cation = mole of cation / mole of cation+ mole of anion + mole of solvent
Mole fraction of anion = mole of anion/mole of anion + mole of cation + mole of solvent
N.B. mole fraction of solute + mole fraction of solvent = 1
Eg. What is the mole fraction of I2 in a solution containing 30 g of I2 in 400 g of CCl4?
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First find the number of moles of I2 and the number of moles of CCl4
Mass of iodine =30g, molar mass of I2 = 254g, nI2 = 30/254=0.12 mole
Mass of CCl4 = 400g, Mol. Weight = 254 g/mol , mole of CCl4 = 400/254 = 2.6 mole
Mole fraction of I2 = 0.12/0.12+2.6 = 0.044
Q. Determine the mole fraction of the substances in a solution containing 36 g of water and
46 g of glycerine,C3H5(OH)3.
C. Molarity (M)
Molarity or molar concentration is the number of moles of solute in 1 L of solution.
Molarity is determined by the equation
Q. The concentrated sulfuric acid we use in the laboratory is 98.0% H2SO4, by mass. Calculate
the molality and molarity of the acid solution. The density of the solution is 1.83 g/mL.
D. Normality (N)
The normality of a solution (N) is the number of equivalents of the solute contained in one litre
of solution.
* The equivalent mass of an acid is obtained by dividing its molar mass by the number of H+ ions
furnished by one formula unit of the acid, or by the number of hydroxide ions with which one
formula unit of the acid reacts.
The equivalent mass of HCl, for example, is the same as its molar mass, since it contains one
acidic hydrogen per molecule. The equivalent mass of sulphuric acid, H2SO4, is usually half its
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molar mass, since both hydrogen are replaceable in most reactions of dilute sulphuric acid. An
equivalent of phosphoric acid may be 1 mol, 1/2 mol or 1/3 mol, depending on whether one, two
or three hydrogen atoms permolecule are replaced, respectively, in a particular reaction.
* The equivalent mass of a base is obtained by dividing its molar mass by the number of OH ions
–
furnished by one formula unit of a base or the number of H+ ions with which one formula unit of
the base reacts. The equivalent mass of NaOH, for example, is equal to its molar mass, since one
mole furnishes only one mole of OH– ion.
* The equivalent mass of an oxidizing agent or a reducing agent for a particular reaction is equal
to its molar mass divided by the total number of moles of electrons gained or lost when the redox
reaction occurs. For example, the equivalent mass of KMnO4 in the reaction
* The equivalent mass of a salt is equal to its molar mass divided by number of total positive
charges (total positive valency).
Notice that normality is molarity times n. It is always equal to or greater than molarity.
N=M×n
Where n is
* number of ionizable hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions per molecule for acids and bases,
respectively.
* total number of positive charges for salts.
* total number of electrons lost or gained in redox reactions.
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Q. Calculate the mass of Al2(SO4)3 in 250 mL of solution if the concentration is 0.48 N.
Q. Calculate the molarity and normality of a solution that contains 16.2 g of the salt
Fe2 (SO4)3 in 200 mL of solution.
E. Molality (m)
The molality of a solution is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent contained in a
solution.
Note that molal solutions are prepared by measuring masses of solute and solvent, not
volumes of solvent or solution.
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Q. A sample of commercial concentrated hydrochloric acid is 11.8 M HCl and has a
density of 1.190 g/mL. Calculate
a. the mass % of HCl
b. the molality of HCl
c. the mole fraction of HCl
Q. The mole fraction of ethanol in water is 0.3. Calculate: a. the molality of the solution
b. the mass percent of ethanol
1.6 PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS
A common task in school, medical, industrial and other chemical laboratories is the preparation of
solutions of known concentrations. For aqueous solutions, distilled, de-mineralized or de-ionized
water is used. Other solvents can also be used, depending on the solution specified. Solutions are
usually prepared from solutes of liquids or solids.
Occasionally they are prepared from gases. First, the solute is accurately weighed and transferred
to a volumetric flask, and then water is added through a funnel. Next, the solid is
slowly dissolved by gently swirling the flask.
After all the solid has dissolved, more water is slowly added to bring the level of solution exactly
to the volume mark. Knowing the volume of the solution in the flask and the quantity of compound
(the number of moles), you can calculate the molarity of the solution using the formula of molarity.
For example, A one-molar solution of NaCl can be prepared by dissolving 58.5 g of NaCl in water
until the solution becomes one litre.
Diluting Solutions
Concentrated solutions are often stored in the laboratory as “stock” solutions for use as
needed. Frequently we dilute this stock solution before working with them.
Dilution: this is the procedure for preparing a less-concentrated solution from a more concentrated
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one.
In carrying out a dilution process, it is useful to remember that adding more solvent to a
given amount of the stock solution changes (decreases) the concentration of the solution
without changing the number of moles of solute present in the solution.
In other words, Number of moles of solute before dilution = Number of moles of solute after
dilution.
Since number of moles of solute = molarity × volume of solution,
=M×V
Number of moles of solute before dilution = MiVi
Number of moles of solute after dilution = MfVf
Therefore, dilution can be expressed as, Mi Vi= M fVf
or, more generally, CiVi = CfVf
Where Ci is initial concentration, Cf is final concentration, Vi is initial volume and Vf is
final volume.
Q. How do you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.2 M HNO3 from a stock solution of 4 M HNO3?
Q. You have 100 mL of a 0.5 M HCl solution, and you want to dilute it to exactly
0.1 M. How much water should you add?
1.7 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION
➢ Properties that depend on the number of particles or concentration of the
solute in the given amount of solvent and not on their nature are called
colligative properties. (Colligative is a Latin word that means
“depending on the collection”.)
➢ There are four important properties of a solution that are affected by the
addition of a nonvolatile solute to a solvent.
➢ These are:
1. Vapour pressure lowering
2. Boiling point elevation
3. Freezing point depression
4. Osmotic pressure
1. Vapour Pressure Lowering (∆p)
❖ If a solute is non-volatile i.e., it does not have a measurable vapour
pressure, the vapour pressure of its solution is always less than that of the
pure solvent.
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❖ Vapour pressure lowering is the lowering of the vapour pressure of the
solvents that results when a non-volatile solute is added to form a
solution.
❖ Thus, the relationship between solution vapour pressure and solvent
vapour pressure depends on the concentration of the solute in the solution
❖ The relationship between solution vapour pressure and solvent vapour
pressure is expressed by Raoult’s law.
❖ Raoult’s law states that “the partial pressure of a solvent over a
solution,P1, is given by the vapour pressure of the pure solvent, times the
mole fraction of the solvent in the solution, X1 ,at constant temperature”.
P1= X1P1°………………1
∆P1 = P1° – P1
Where, ∆P = Change in vapour pressure (vapour pressure lowering)
P° = Vapour pressure of pure solvent
P1 = Vapour pressure of solvent in solution
❖ In a solution containing only one solute, X1 = 1 – X2, where X2 is the mole
fraction of the solute.
❖ Inserting this into the Raoult’s-law equation gives:
P1 = (1 – X2) P1°
P1 = P1° – P1° X2P°
1 – P1= P1° X2
∆P = P°1 X2…………….2
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Q. The vapour pressure of pure water at 110°C is 1070 torr. A solution of ethylene glycol in water
has a vapour pressure of 1.00 atm at 110°C. Assuming that Raoult’s law is obeyed, what is the
mole fraction of ethylene glycol in water?
Q. Calculate the vapour pressure lowering, ∆P, when 10.0 mL of glycerol (C3H8O3) is added to
500.0 mL of water at 50°C. At this temperature, the vapour pressure of pure water is 92.5 torr and
its density is 0.988 g/mol. The density of glycerol is 1.26 g/mL.
Ideal solutions
➢ Solutions that obey Raoult’s law are said to be ideal solutions.
➢ If both components of a solution are volatile, i.e., have measurable vapour pressure, the
vapour pressure of the solution is the sum of the individual partial vapour pressures.
➢ Thus, for two volatile components, A and B, the vapour pressure of each component
above the solution is proportional to its mole fraction in the solution.
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PA= xA PA°
PB= xB PB°
➢ According to Dalton’s law of partial pressure, at constant temperature, the pressure of a
mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of all of the constituent gases.
The total pressure, is:
PT = xAPA + xBPB
Q. The vapour pressure of ethanol (C2H5OH) and 1-propanol (C3H7OH) at 35°C are 100
mmHg and 37.6 mmHg, respectively. Assuming ideal behaviour, calculate the partial
vapour pressures of ethanol and 1-propanol over a solution, in which the mole fraction of
ethanol is 0.3.
➢ Ideal solutions are characterized by the following properties:
1. The volume of an ideal solution is the sum of the volumes of its pure components.
i.e., there is no expansion or contraction on mixing.
2. The heat of a solution is zero. i.e., mixing is neither exothermic nor endothermic.
Intermolecular forces between solute-solute and solute-solvent molecules are equal, as
are those between solvent-solvent molecules and solute-solvent molecules.
3. The vapour pressure above the solution is equal to the sum of the individual partial
vapour pressures.
4. The components have similarity in their chemical structures.
5. The solutions obey Raoult’s law.
➢ Many solutions do not behave ideally. They deviate from Raoult’s law and are said to be
non-ideal. Here, we can consider the following two cases.
case I : If the intermolecular forces between A and B molecules are weaker than those
between A and A molecules and those between B and B molecules, then there is a greater
tendency for A-B molecules to leave the solution, compared to the case of an ideal solution.
Consequently, the vapour pressure of the solution is greater than the sum of the vapour pressures
that would be predicted by Raoult’s law for the same concentration.
➢ This behaviour exemplifies the positive deviation from Raoult’s law
➢ In this case, the heat of mixing is an endothermic process.
Case 2: If A molecules attract B molecules more strongly than they do their own kind,
then the escaping tendency decreases and the vapour pressure of the solution is
less than the sum of the vapour pressures as predicted by Raoult’s law.
➢ In this case we have a negative deviation from Raoult’s law, and mixing is an exothermic
process.
2. Boiling Point Elevation(∆Tb)
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➢ The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure equals the
atmospheric pressure. If a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the solution’s boiling
point will be increased. This is due to the fact that the vapour pressure of a solvent at a
given temperature is lowered by the presence of a non-volatile solute in it, because less
number of solvent molecules are available on the surface exposed to atmosphere in
presence of solute molecules
➢ Therefore, such a solution must be heated to a higher temperature than the pure solvent in
order for its vapour pressure to be equal to the atmospheric pressure.
➢ The boiling-point elevation (∆Tb) is defined as the boiling point of the solution (Tb)
minus the boiling point of the pure solvent (Tb°).
∆Tb = Tb – Tb°………….1
➢ The elevation in boiling point (∆Tb) is directly proportional to the molality of the
solution.
That is: ∆Tb α m
∆Tb = Kbm………...2
Where, m is the molality of the solution, and Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant for
the solvent.
Examples
1. Calculate the boiling point of a 0.33 m solution of a solute in benzene. (Kb = 2.53°C /m).
Given: Required: Boiling point of the solution?
Molality = 0.33 m, Kb= 2.53°C /m
∆Tb = Kb m, : ∆Tb = 2.53°C /m × 0.33 m = 0.83°C
Therefore, the boiling point of the solution is determined from the boiling point of the pure solvent
Benzene and the change, in boiling point, ∆Tb.
Boiling point of the solution = 80.1°C + 0.83°C = 80.93°C
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Q. Calculate the boiling point of a solution that contains 200 g of sucrose, C12H22O11,
in 500 g of water.
Q. What is the boiling point of 1.93 m solution of a non-volatile solute in nitrobenzene?
Q. Automotive antifreeze consists of ethylene glycol, C2H6O2, a non-volatile
non-electrolyte solute. Calculate the boiling point of a 25.0 mass percent solution
of ethylene glycol in water.
3. Freezing Point Depression (∆Tf)
➢ When a solution begins to freeze, the component that crystalizes out first is almost pure.
➢ Pure ice, for example, crystallizes out of a solution of salt and water. Solute particles,
because of their different size and shape, do not fit into the crystal lattice of the frozen
solvent. They tend to concentrate in the remaining liquid, and they interfere with the
freezing process by getting in the way of solvent molecules looking for lattice sites. This
interference causes the solution to freeze at a lower temperature than the pure solvent.
➢ The greater the concentration of the solution, the greater the interference and therefore,
the lower the freezing point of the solution.
➢ The freezing point depression (∆Tf) is defined as the freezing point of the pure solvent
(Tf0) minus the freezing point of the solution (Tf).
∆Tf = Tf0 – Tf ………………….1
➢ The freezing point depression (∆Tf) of solutions of nonelectrolytes has been found to be
equal to the molality of the solution times a proportionality constant. This constant is the
molal freezing point depression constant, Kf, of the solvent.
∆Tf = Kf m………………..2
Q. Calculate the freezing point of a solution that contains 60.0 g of urea, N2H4CO, in
500.0 g of water.
Q. Calculate the molecular mass of sulphur if 35.5 g of sulphur dissolves in 100.0 g of
CS2 to produce a solution that has a boiling point of 49.48°C.
Q. Calculate the freezing point of a solution of 3.46 g of a compound, X, in 160 g of benzene.
When a separate sample of X was vaporised, its density was found to be 3.27 g/L at 116°C and
773 torr. The freezing point of pure benzene is 5.45°C, and Kf
is 5.12°C kg/mol.
4. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure (π)
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➢ Osmosis is the selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous (semi-permeable)
membrane from a dilute to a more concentrated solution or from the solvent side into the
solution side.
➢ The pressure required to prevent osmosis is known as the osmotic pressure, π, of the
solution
➢ Jacobus Henricus Van’t Hoff found that the osmotic pressure obeys a law similar to the
ideal gas law, PV = nRT,
where V is the volume of the solution, n is the number of moles of solute, R is the ideal
gas constant, and T is the temperature on the Kelvin scale. From the equation, we can
write:
Where, M is the molarity of the solution.
➢ Like other colligative properties, osmotic pressure can be used to determine the molar
mass of solute. Especially osmotic pressure is used in biological laboratories to determine
molecular masses of huge molecules like proteins and nucleic acids.
Question
Q. What is the osmotic pressure at 17°C of 150 mL aqueous solution containing 1.75 g of sucrose
(C12H22O11) per 150 mL of solution?
Q. A sample of 2.05 g of polystyrene plastic was dissolved in enough toluene to form 100ml
of solution. The osmotic pressure of this solution was found to be 1.21kPa at 25°C. Calculate the
molar mass of polystyrene.
Q. What is the osmotic pressure, in atm, of a 0.30 M solution of glucose in water that is used for
intravenous infusion at body temperature, 37°C?
Colligative Properties of Electrolytic Solutions
❖ The effective number of moles of ions produced by one mole of a solute is
expressed in terms of the Van’t Hoff factor (i).
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❖
❖ Thus, i is 1 for all solutions of nonelectrolytes but is greater than 1 for solutions of
electrolytes.
❖ Therefore, the colligative-property relationship should be modified to account for
dissociation of electrolyte solutes. Consequently,
Examples
1. If a 0.10 m MgSO4 solution causes an elevation of 0.062°C in the boiling point of
water, what is: a. the Van’t Hoff Factor (i)?
b. the boiling point of this solution?
Given: ∆Tb = 0.062°C , Kb = 0.512°C/m , m = 0.1 m
a. 0.062°C = i × 0.512°C /m × 0.1 m
i = 1.21.
b. Recall that ∆Tb = Tb – Tb° , 0.062°C = Tb – 100°C
Tb= 100°C + 0.062°C = 100.062°C
2. A 0.0622 m solution of iron (III) chloride, FeCl3, in water freezes at –0.412°C.
Determine the Van’t Hoff’s factor of FeCl3 in this solution.
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