The characteristics of the consonant sounds nsonants characteristics of the consonant sounds Raising awareness of consonant sounds Sample lessons Lesson 1: ‘Hangman’: Consonant and vowel sounds Lesson 2: ‘I'm going to the party’: Particular consonant sounds Lesson 3: Phonemic word search: Consonant and vowel sounds Lesson 4: Advertising slogans: Particular consonant sounds Lesson 5: Running dictation: Particular consonant/vowel sounds As we saw in Chapter 1, consonants are formed by interrupting, restricting or diverting the airflow in a variety of ways. There are three ways of describing the consonant sounds: 1 the manner of articulation 2 the place of articulation 3. the force of articulation The manner of articulation refers to the interaction between the various articulators and the airstream. For example, with plosive sounds, the articulators act in such a way that the air is temporarily trapped, and then suddenly released. The manners of articulation are: plosive affricate fricative nasal lateral approximant These are the categories used for classification in the tables in this chapter. For more details on these terms, see page 6. Describing the consonant sounds in terms of the place of articulation gives more information about what the various articulators actually do. The term ‘bilabial’, for example, indicates that both lips are used to form a closure. For a general description of places of articulation, see page 6. With regard to the force of articulation, the following terms are used: fortis or strong, and lenis or weak. In spoken English, ‘fortis’ happens to equate with unvoiced sounds, which require a more forcefully expelled airstream than ‘lenis’ sounds, which in English happen to be voiced. As far as English consonants are concerned, the distinction is most useful when it comes to distinguishing between sounds that are articulated in essentially the same way, one using the voice, the other not. An example pair is /p/ a7®) (unvoiced, and fortis) and /b/ (voiced, and lenis). Most teachers (and students) find the terms ‘unvoiced’ and ‘voiced’ more memorable, and so we will use these as the main way of distinguishing between such pairs of sounds, As suggested in Chapter 1, the difference between unvoiced and voiced sounds can be felt by touching your Adam's apple while speaking. You will feel vibration for the voiced sounds only. At times, certain voiced sounds may be devoiced, like the /d/ at the end of Aard /ha:d/, for example, where the voicing is not so apparent. This is useful factual knowledge, but as an allophone (i.e. a variation of a sound which does not lead to a different word being produced), it is not so important for classroom teaching. The sounds and phonemic symbols we will consider represent, in reality, a family of possible variations. The tables on the following pages are similar to those in the previous chapter on vowels, except that the pictures show the positions taken by the various articulators when these sounds are produced. ‘Pairs’ of sounds are shown together. Unvoiced sounds like /p/ are shown on a grey background. Voiced sounds like /b/ are shown on a white background. (You may find it useful to refer back to the table of consonant phonemes in Chapter 1, page 7, and also to the learners’ reference chart of English sounds, page 143. All of the sounds and example words are on the CD. The languages which are listed in shorthand are explained on page 30.) Plosives Plosives occur when a complete closure is made somewhere in the vocal tract. Air pressure increases behind the closure, and is then released ‘explosively’. Plosive sounds are also sometimes referred to as stops. Characteristics Bilabial sounds: total closure is made using both lips. The soft Difficulties for: | palate is raised. /p/ is unvoiced and A, Ind, P, R, Sp | fortis. /b/ is voiced and lenis. /b/ is devoiced at the end of a word. As in... pin/bin, cap/cab, happen, cabbage Difficulties for: A,C,G,R, Se, SpDifficulties for: Ind,J,P,R d Difficulties for: C,G, Ind, J, P, R, Sc, Sp. Characteristics Alveolar sounds. Closure is made by the tongue blade against the alveolar ridge. The soft palate is raised. /t/ is unvoiced and fortis. /d/ is voiced and lenis. /d/ is devoiced at the end of a word. As in... to/do, hat/bad, hotter, harder Difficulties for: A, Ind, PR, Sp g Difficulties for: A,C,GBR, Sc, Sp Characteristics Velar sounds. Closure is made by the back of the tongue against the soft palate. /k/ is unvoiced and fortis. /g/ is voiced and lenis. /g/ is devoiced at the end of a word. As in... cot/got, pick/pig, packet, forget, queue Affricates Affricates occur when a complete closure is made somewhere in the mouth, and the soft palate is raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure, and is then released more slowly than in plosives. > Difficulties for: A,CEGk, Ind, P, Sp ds Difficulties for: A,C,F,G,Gk, P, Sp, Ta Characteristics Palato-alveolar sounds. The tongue tip, blade and rims close against the alveolar ridge and side teeth. The front of the tongue is raised, and when the air is released, there is audible friction. The soft palate is also raised. /t{/ is unvoiced and fortis. /ds/ is voiced and lenis. /d3/ is devoiced at the end of a word. Asin... church, judge, nature, largerFricatives Fricatives occur when two vocal organs come close enough together for the movement of air to be heard between them. Characteristics Labio-dental sounds. The lower lip makes light contact with the Difficulties for: | upper teeth. The soft palate is raised. /f/ is unvoiced and fortis. /v/ is voiced and lenis. /v/ is devoiced at the end of a word. fan/wan, hoof, hooves, caf, e, above Vv Difficulties for: A,C, G, Ind, J, Sp, Tu Characteristics Dental sounds. The tongue tip makes light contact with the back fficulties for: A, | Of the top, front teeth. Or, tongue C,F,G, Ind, It,J, | tip may protrude between upper PR,Sc,Tu | and lower teeth. The soft palate is raised. /0/ is unvoiced and fortis. 0 /8/ is voiced and lenis. /3/ is devoiced at the end of a word. Difficulties for. | 4 . A.CEG Ind. Is | AS in. think, the, bath, bathe, TBR Se Te | Mathematics, father Characteristics Alveolar sounds. The tongue blade makes light contact with the Difficulties for: | alveolar ridge. The soft palate is J raised. /s/ is unvoiced and fortis. /2/ is voiced and lenis. /2/ is devoiced at the end of a word. Asin... sue/z00, this, these, icy, lazy Ind, It, P, R, Se, Sp, ThDifficulties for: C, Gk, Sp Characteristics Palato-alveolar sounds. The tongue blade makes light contact with the alveolar ridge, and the front of the tongue is raised. The soft palate is also raised. // is unvoiced and 3 Difficulties for: A,C,G, Gk, ‘Ind, It, R, Se, Sp fortis. /3/ is voiced and lenis. /3/ is devoiced at the end of a word. As in... she, fish, Beige, nation, measure /s/ does not occur as an initial sound in English, and is rare as a final sound. Difficulties for: A,C,F, Gk, It, JPR, Sp Characteristics A glottal sound. Air passes from the lungs through the open glottis, causing audible friction. Tongue and lip position is that of the following vowel sound. The soft palate is raised. /h/ is unvoiced. As in... hello, behind /h/ does not occur as a final sound. Nasals Nasal sounds occur when a complete closure is made somewhere in the mouth, the soft palate is lowered, and air escapes through the nasal cavity. m Difficulties for: Sp (at end of words) Characteristics A bilabial sound. Total closure is made by both lips. If followed by /t/ ox /v/, the closure may be labio-dental. The soft palate is lowered, and air passes out through the nasal cavity. /m/ is voiced, but may be devoiced, after /s/, for example (as in smart), Asin... more, room, cameran Difficulties for: c Characteristics An alveolar sound. The tongue blade| closes against the alveolar ridge, and the rims of the tongue against the side teeth. If followed by /f/ or /v/, the closure may be labio-dental, or bilabial if followed by /p/ or /b/. The soft palate is lowered, and air passes out through the nasal cavity. /n/ is voiced, but may be devoiced, after (s/, for example (as in snow). Asin ....n0, om infant, know q) R,Tu Difficulties for: A, F,G, Gk, It, Characteristics A velar sound. The back of the tongue closes against the soft palate. The closure is further forward if it follows on from a front vowel (compare sing and ey bang). The soft palate is lowered, and air passes out through the nasal cavity, /ty is voiced. As in .... sing, sink, singing, sinking ‘Any does not occur as an initial sound. Lateral of the tongue. The lateral is so called because, in this sound, the airflow is around the sides I GLP Difficulties for: Characteristics A lateral sound. A partial closure is made by the blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. Air is able to flow around the sides of the tongue. The soft palate is raised, /1/ is voiced. As in .... five, pool, pulling Alveolar closure with the tip of the tongue gives ‘clear’ /, as in sive. This occurs before vowel sounds. After vowel sounds, ( consonants (as in help), palate, giving ‘dark’ / (an allophone). as in pool), before , the back of the tongue is raised towards the softApproximants Approximants occur when one articulator moves close to another, but not close enough to cause friction or to stop the airflow. Note that /w/ and /j/ are sometimes referred to as ‘semi-vowels’. This is because they are made without a restriction to the airflow, unlike the other consonants. But they act ina consonant-like way; we say az apple, but we say a pear, a watermelon and a yam, All three approximants are important linking sounds in connected speech (see Chapter 7). r Difficulties for: A,C,E,G, Ind, J,P, Se, Sp Characteristics A post-alveolar sound, as the tongue tip is held just behind (not touching) the alveolar ridge. Back rims of tongue touch upper molars. The soft palate is raised. It/ is voiced. Asin... red, hurry, “party, *car ce page 111). J Difficulties for: Sp Characteristics A palatal semi-vowel. The tongue is in the position of a close front vowel (similar to /t/). The soft palate is raised. The sound glides quickly to the following vowel. /j/ is voiced. As in... yes, young, usual, few, yes; young, queue, educate, suit /j/ does not occus as a final sound. WwW Difficulties for: G, Ind, R, Sc, Sp, Tu Characteristics A labio-velar semi-vowel. The tongue is in the position of a close back vowel (similar to /u/). The soft palate is raised. The sound glides quickly to the following vowel. /w/ is voiced, As in .. . wood, walk, wet, wheat, hallauay /w/ does not occur as a final sound.Teachers of course need to grade their language according to the level of the class (you can afford to be a bit more ‘technical’ with higher level students). The following table gives some suggested ways of explaining how to form the consonant sounds: jounds| Le pb |P together. Try to breathe out, but don’t let the air | ese se the air suddenly. Don't use your voice. Try again, | and add your voice, jendly explanations (-d_ |Put your tongue against the hard bump behind your teeth. Try to breathe out, but don't let the air escape. Release the air suddenly. Don't use your voice. Try again, and add your voice. kg |Put the back of your tongue against (the soft bit of) the roof of your mouth. Try to breathe out, but don’t let the air escape. Release the air suddenly. Don't use your voice. Try again, and add your voice. fv |Touch your top teeth with your bottom lip, and breathe out. Don't use your voice. Hold the sound, and add your voice. 8 0 |Put the front of your tongue against the back of your top teeth. Let the air pass through as you breathe out. Don't use your voice. Hold the sound, and add your voice. s z |Put the front of your tongue lightly against the bump behind your teeth. Let the air pass through as you breathe out. Don't | use your voice. Hold the sound, and add your voice. | J 3. [Put the front of your tongue against the bump behind your teeth. Let the air pass through as you breathe out, making an /s/ sound, Now move your tongue slightly back. Don't use your voice. Hold the sound, and add your voice. ° | |Open your mouth and breathe out. Don’t use your voice, but try | to make a noise. = i | Put your lips together. Use your voice, and let the air escape through your nose. | | on [Pur the front of your tongue against the bump behind your | teeth, Use your voice, and let the air eseape through you ‘inst the roof of your mouth, Use ny [Put the back of your tongue ag your voice, and let the air escape through your nose J [Pur the front of your tongue against the bump behind your teeth, Use your voice, and let the air pass out of your mouth, log Point the front of your tongue towards the root of your mouth | Use your voice j [Make the sound /i/, followed by the sound /a/, Now pue ehem together, and keep the sound short we | Male the sound /ui/, followed by the sound /a/, Now put the together, and keep the sound shore PAE EHoM‘The above explanations can, of course, be used in conjunction with i i consider the above suggestions while phonemic chart. Take some time to De ee Tek (ce abe looking at the learners’ reference chart at the back o} MO ther techniques can also be used to help learners articulate particular sounds. One such idea is designed to show the fortis and lenis characteristics of /p/ and /b/ respectively. A small slip of paper is dangled in front of the ips, and the two sounels are made in turn the paper shoul move more with /p/, due to the greater degree of aspiration (air) involved in producing the sound. The following table gives some more suggestions: Sounds] Ideas to help students articulate sounds p b | Hold a small piece of paper in front of your lips. Make the sounds. The paper should move for /p/, but not for /b/. td_ | Hold a match or lighter in front of your face. Make the k g_ | sounds. You should be able to make the flame flicker for /t/ and /k/, but less for /d/ and /g/. f v_ | Hold your palm in front of your mouth. Make both sounds. You should feel some air for /f/, but less for /v/. 06. | Place a finger against your lips. Try to touch your finger with your tongue. Breathe out. Now add your voice. (This exaggerates the positions, but will help nonetheless.) What noise does a snake make? (/s/). Now add your voice. What noise do you make if you want someone to be quiet? (Show ‘Shh . . .' gesture if necessary.) Now add your voice. h | Hold your palm in front of your mouth. Open your mouth and breathe out. Don't use your voice, try to make sure you can feel the air on your palm. m__| Link this with ‘liking something’ (e.g. food, as in Mmm, nice). n | Use a word as an example, with /n/ as the last sound. Hold the | sound, and get students to copy. | Use ‘ing’ words as examples (e.g. singing). 1 Use repeated syllables, as in /alalalala. r | Point your tongue towards the roof of your mouth, but don’t let the tip touch. Breathe out, using your voice, and hold the sound for as long as you can. j | Smile, and say /i:/. Now quickly say /a/. Say the two together, and keep it short. N s J wi What shape is your mouth if you are going to whistle? Now use your voice, and say /wo/. Also try /wowaewiwaiwut/ etc., to practise using different vowels after /w/. You may or may not feel comfort able using some of these ideas with your class; if in doubt, the best : advice is not to do it, but devise your own