3.

1 Definition of consonants
Consonants are the sounds in the production of which one articulator moves
towards another or two articulators come together, obstructing the air-stream and
the air-stream can't get out freely.
3.2 Classification
In order to form consonants, the air-stream through the vocal cords must be
obstructed some way. Therefore, consonants can be classified:
According to the place where the air-stream is obstructed (the place of articulation)
The way in which the air-stream is obstructed (the manner of articulation).
3.2.1 According to place of articulation
The place of articulation is the location of the obstruction of the air-stream in the
articulation of consonants. It describes the point at which the articulators actually
touch or are at their closest. The most important places of articulation for the
production of English consonants are listed in the table below.
Notes: The terms used to describe the sounds are those which denote the place of
articulation of the sounds
Bilabials: are the sounds made with the two lips pressed together or coming
together.
Example: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/
Labio-dentals: are the sounds which are produced with the lower lip touching the
upper front teeth.
Example: /f/, /v/
Dentals: are the sounds which are produced with the tip or blade of the tongue
touching the upper front teeth.
Example: /θ/, /ð/
Alveolars: are the sounds which are produced with the tip or blade of the tongue
touching or approaching the alveolar ridge.
Example: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /l/, /n/, /r/, /h/
Retroflex: is the sound which is produced with the tip of the tongue curling back
towards the back of the alveolar ridge.
Example: /r/
Palato - alveolar: are the sounds which are produced with the tongue tip or blade
coming close to the area between the back of the alveolar ridge and the front of the
hard palate.
Example: /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/
Palatal: is the sound which is produced with the front of the tongue coming close to
the hard palate.
Example: /j/
Velars: are the sounds which are produced with the back of the tongue touching the
soft palate.
Example: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/
Glottal: are the sounds which are produced without the active use of the tongue and
other parts of the mouth.
Example: /h/
3.2.2. According to manner of articulation
Manner of articulation is the way in which the air-stream is obstructed or altered in
the production of speech sounds. It describes the types of obstruction caused by the
narrowing or closure of the articulators.
3.2.2.1. Stops: are the sounds in the production of which there is a complete closure
of the articulators involved so that the air-stream can’t escape through the mouth.
There are two kinds of stops:
a. Oral stops (Plosives): are the sounds which are produced with the air-stream
being stopped in the oral cavity and the soft palate is raised blocking off the nasal
cavity. Then the two articulators come apart quickly and the air escapes through the
oral tract.
Example: /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/
b. Nasal stops (Nasals): they are produced with the air- stream being stopped in the
oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that the air can go out through the nose.
Example: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/
Notes: Although both oral stops and nasal stops can be classified as “stops”, the
term “stop” itself is almost used by phoneticians to indicate an oral stop, and the
term “nasal” to indicate a nasal stop.
3.2.2.2. Fricatives: are the sounds in the production of which two articulators come
close together but there is still a small opening between them so the air-stream is
partially obstructed and an audible friction noise (a hissing sound) is produced.
Example: /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/
Notes: Fricatives are continuants consonants which means that you can continue
making them as long as you have enough air in your lungs.
3.2.2.3. Affricates: are the sounds which are produced when a stop is immediately
followed by a fricative.
Example: /ʧ/, /ʤ/
3.2.2.4. Lateral: is the sound which is made when the air-stream is obstructed at a
point along the centre of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or
both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.
Example: /l/
3.2.2.5. Approximants: are the sounds in the production of which two articulators
come close together but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent
that a friction noise is produced.
Example: /r/, /w/, /j/
Notes: Approximants are called frictionless continuants.
3.2.3. According to voicing
Voiced consonants: are produced when the vocal cords are vibrating.
Example: /b/, /v/, /ð/, /d/, /z/, /ʒ/, /ʤ/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /j/, /g/, /w/, /r/, /ŋ/
Voiceless consonants: are produced when the vocal cords are not vibrating.
Example: /p/, /f/, /θ/, /t/, /s/, /ʃ/, /ʧ/, /k/, /h/
3.3. Fortis and lenis
The first question is: "Are b, d, g voiced plosives?". The description of them makes it
clear that it is not very accurate to call them “voiced”; in initial and final position
they are scarcely voiced at all, and any voicing they may have seems to have no
perceptual importance. Some phoneticians say that p, t, k are produced with more
force than b, d, g, and that it would therefore be better to give the two sets of
plosives (and some other consonants) names that indicate that fact.
Another example is that a voiced/voiceless pair such as /s/ and /z/ are distinguished
not only by the presence or absence of voice but also by the degree of breath and
muscular effort involved in the articulation. It is generally said that those English
consonants which are usually voiced tend to be articulated with relatively weak
energy, whereas those which are always voiceless are relatively strong. Thus, the
voiceless consonants are sometimes called ‘fortis’ meaning ‘strong’, and the
voiceless consonants in opposition are then called ‘lenis’ meaning ‘weak’.
Example: Fortis – voiceless consonant: /f, s, ʃ, p, t/
Lenis – voiced consonant: /v, z, ʒ, b, d/
Fortis consonants have the effect of shortening a preceding vowel. The effect is
most noticeable in the case of long vowels and diphthongs, though it does also
affect short vowels.
SUMMARY
This module mainly explains definition of consonants, classification of consonants
according to manner of articulation, place of articulation, voicing. Additionally, it
distinguishes the difference between fortis and lenis.