Report
Report
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives a brief history of SIWES, its aims and objectives, as well as a short narrative on my
application and posting. It also introduces the processes of palm kernel oil production in a factory,
where I had my SIWES training.
The student work experience scheme (SIWES) is a worldwide program practiced in countries like
Japan, Australia, USA, Europe, and in African countries too. It is popularly known as co-operative
education and referred to as sandwich in Europe. It is a six (6) months students industrial work
experience scheme (SIWES) taken in the third year of the degree program, where the students go to
various establishments related to their course ofstudy.The program was initially introduced in
Nigeria by the Industrial Training Fund (I.T.F.) which was established under Decree 47 of 1972 by the
Supreme Military Council, headed by General Yakubu Gowon. The Decree was billed to take effect
from 31St March, 1974 and had as its core objective, the gradual reduction of the percentage of
foreign participation in most of Nigeria’s Economic activities, accompanied by a systematic
cooperation of locally oriented skilled manpower into the vast economic sector. One of the key
functions of the ITF is to work as cooperative body with industry and commerce where students in
institutions of higher learning can undertake mid-career work experience attachment in industries
which are Compatible with student’s area of study. The students Industrial Work Experience Scheme
(SIWES) is a skill Training program designed to expose and prepare students for the Industrial work
situation which they are likely to meet after graduation. Participation in SIWES has become a
necessary pre-condition for the award of diploma and degree certificate in specific disciplines in
most institutions of higher learning in the country in accordance with the education policy of
government.
The word SIWES (Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme) was introduce by the federal
government in the year 1973 to develop the technological, physical and social skill of our nation,
through this, adequate and intelligent student are provide the department involved the actual
challenge various discipline before they can be awarded as am Bachelor of engineering graduate.
Provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial skills and
experience in their approved course of study and also by interacting with people with more experience
in the field under consideration. Prepare students for the industrial work situation which they are likely
to meet after graduation. Expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and
machinery that are mostly not available in their various institutions. Provide students with an
opportunity to apply their knowledge in real world situation thereby reducing the gap between
theoretical knowledge and practical work. Enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entire
educational Process and prepare students for employment in Industry and Commerce.
CHAPTER THREE
Palm Kernel OIL is an edible vegetable oil high in saturated fats and free of trans fats.The oil palm tree
(Elaeis guineensis) is a native to West Africa and was imported into SE Asia in the mid 19 th century. Oil
palm flourishes in the humid tropics and produces high yield when grown 10 degrees north and south of
the equator.
Palm fruit develops in dense bunches weighing 10 kilograms (kg) or more and containing more than a
thousand individual fruits similar in size to a small plum which tree produces 2 types of oil. Palm oil (PO)
is obtained from the flesh of the fruit and Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) is produced by extracting the oil from
the internal seed (Kernel).
Every oil palm tree requires approximately 3m diameter clear around the base of each tree to allow full
growth. Oil palm is highly productive crop which is capable of yielding more oil from less land than any
other vegetable oil in existence. One oil palm tree will produce ongoing fruit for up to 30 years deeming
the crop as high yielding and sustainable..
Palm Oil is used in around 50% of products consumers purchase and use on a daily basis. Palm Oil and
derivatives otherwise known as fractions of the oil are used in the manufacture of prepackaged food,
cosmetics, cleaning products, hair care, soaps and personal care items. Palm Wax is used in the
manufacture of candles.
Palm Oil is also used to manufacture bio fuel and has become what is called the green fuel option for
Motor Vehicles, shipping and Aircraft fuel. Palm is also used as feed for livestock named as palm kernel
cake (PKC) which is a by-product of palm kernel oil. PKC is considered a medium grade protein feed
used to fatten cattle and other livestock.
Palm Kernel oil is rich in carotenoids, (pigments found in plants and animals) from which it derives its
deep red colour, and the major component of its glycerides is the saturated fatty acid palmitic; hence it
is a viscous semi-solid, even at tropical ambients, and a solid fat in temperate climates.
Because of its economic importance as an high-yielding source of edible and technical oils, the oil palm
is now grown as a plantation crop in most countries with high rainfall (minimum 1 600 mm/yr) in
tropical climates within 10° of the equator. The palm bears its fruit in bunches (Fig.1) varying in weight
from 10 to 40 kg. The individual fruit, (Fig. 2) ranging from 6 to 20 gm, are made up of an outer skin (the
exocarp), a pulp (mesocarp) containing the palm oil in a fibrous matrix; a central nut consisting of a shell
(endocarp); and the kernel, which itself contains an oil, quite different to palm oil, resembling coconut
oil.
Fig. 1. Fresh fruit bunch (ffb)
The main process of the palm oil factory includes: sterilization, threshing, pressing, clarification,
purification, drying and storage. For the kernel line, there are steps such as nut/fiber separation, nut
conditioning and cracking, cracked mixture separation, and kernel drying and storage. The dried kernels
are often sold to palm kernel crushers for extraction of crude palm kernel oil.
Palm fruit bunch is transported to factory by truck.after the weighbridge weighting, driving to unloading
platform, unload the fruit bunch through Ramp into hopper.
The palm fruit transported to sterilizer by FFB loading conveyor, sterilizing for 1 hour.The mixing be
separated out is collected in catch oil pool to reclaimed oil, and the condensate be pumped to sewage
treatment station.
Strong vibrations through the palm fruit from palm fruit bunches separated
Palm Fruit Crushing and Pressing:
Mixing tank will mash and crush palm fruit until broken after fruit threshing.The broken palm fruit flow
into the palm oil press machine to pressing. Oil and water mixture outflow from pressing chamber shell
hole, in the same time, the fiber cake and core was discharged from bonehead clearance and then drop
in the packing anger of broken cake.
The extrued fiber pie enters air separation system after crushed to get separation of fibers and cores.
Crusher divided fruit core into palm kernel and shell after separated with fiber. Air separation and
washing systems separate palm kernels and shells. Shells enters boiler system as fuel, and palm kernels
are storage after drying.
Crude palm oil first diluted with water washing, through settlement and filtration, the fiber material
removed from the oil, and then carry out continuous settlement, the whole divided into two parts: oil
and sediment. The oil and the sludge will be taken out.
The pressed palm fiber cake gets into the cake breaker then get into the winnowing system to separate
the fiber and nut. Then nut will be crushed to get shell and kernel. Through winnowing and washing
system to separate the shell and kernel. The shell can be used as fuel for boiler, the kernel will be dried
for storage.
Mechanical extraction
Mechanical extraction processes are suitable for both small- and large- capacity operations. The three
basic steps in these processes are (a) kernel pre-treatment, (b) screw-pressing, and (c) oil clarification.
Kernel pre-treatment
Proper kernel pre-treatment is necessary to efficiently extract the oil from the kernels. The feed kernels
must first be cleaned of foreign materials that may cause damage to the screw-presses, increasing
maintenance costs and down time, and contamination of products. Magnetic separators commonly are
installed to remove metal debris, while vibrating screens are used to sieve sand, stones or other
undesirable materials.
A swinging hammer grinder, breaker rolls or a combination of both then breaks the kernels into small
fragments. This process increases the surface area of the kernels, thus facilitating flaking. The kernel
fragments subsequently are subjected to flaking in a roller mill. A large roller mill can consist of up to
five rollers mounted vertically above one another, each revolving at 200-300 rpm. The thickness of
kernel cakes is progressively reduced as it travels from the top roller to the bottom. This progressive
rolling initiates rupturing of cell walls. The flakes that leave the bottom nip are from 0.25 to 0.4 mm
thick.
The kernel flakes are then conveyed to a stack cooker for steam conditioning, the purpose of which is to:
Screw-pressing
The properly cooked meal is then fed to the screw-press, which consists of an interrupted helical thread
(worm) which revolves within a stationary perforated cylinder called the cage or barrel. The meal is
forced through the barrel by the action of the revolving worms. The volume axially displaced by the
worm diminishes from the feeding end to the discharge end, thus compressing the meal as it passes
through the barrel.
The expelled oil drains through the perforation of the lining bars of the barrel, while the de-oiled cake is
discharged through an annular orifice. In order to prevent extreme temperatures that could damage the
oil and cake quality, the worm-shaft is always cooled with circulating water while the barrel is cooled
externally by recycling some cooled oil.
Oil clarification
The expelled oil invariably contains a certain quantity of ‘fines and foots’ that need to be removed. The
oil from the presses is drained to a reservoir. It is then either pumped to a decanter or revolving coarse
screen to remove a large part of the solid impurities. The oil is then pumped to a filter press to remove
the remaining solids and fines in order to produce clear oil prior to storage. The cakes discharged from
the presses are conveyed for bagging or bulk storage.
As can be seen from Diagram 2, not all crushers use the same procedure for mechanical extraction of
kernel oil. There are three variations: direct screw-pressing, partial pre-treatment, and complete pre-
treatment.
Direct screw-pressing
Some mills crush the kernels directly in the presses without any pre-treatment. Double pressing usually
is required to ensure efficient oil extraction. The screw-presses used normally are less than 10 tons per
unit per day.
Partial pre-treatment
The kernels are first broken down to smaller fragments by grinding prior to screw-pressing. In some
cases, cooking is also carried out.
Complete pre-treatment
The full pre-treatment processes described earlier are carried out prior to screw-pressing. Plants with
larger capacities (50-500 tonnes per day) choose complete pre-treatment and the equipment is usually
imported from Europe. FATECO and Faith Engineering now offer the complete line for small-scale
operators.
Solvent Extraction
Solvent extraction processes can be divided into three main unit operations: kernel pre-treatment, oil
extraction, and solvent recovery from the oil and meal. For the purposes of small-scale operations it is
sufficient to mention the solvent extraction process is an alternative for high capacity mills. However the
process is not recommended for small enterprises.
Palm kernel extraction is a specialized operation undertaken by a completely different set of processors.
They are usually better organized as a group and are not as dispersed as palm oil processors. The kernel
processors have to go around the palm oil processors during the peak season, when prices are lowest, to
purchase the nuts for drying. The nut processing and oil extraction is undertaken in the dry season when
the pressure to obtain raw materials has subsided.
The traditional palm oil processing starts with the shelling of the palm nuts. The shelling used to be
performed using two stones to crack each nut and separating the kernel and shell simultaneously. This
manual operation has been largely superseded by the use of nut-cracking stations.
The mechanical nut-crackers deliver a mixture of kernels and shells that must be separated. The
kernel/shell separation is usually performed in a clay-bath, which is a concentrated viscous mixture of
clay and water. The density of the clay-bath is such that the shells sink while the lighter kernels float to
the top of the mixture. The floating kernels are scooped in baskets, washed with clean water and dried.
Periodically, the shells are scooped out of the bath and discarded.
The traditional oil extraction method is to fry palm kernels in old oil or simply heat the dried nuts. The
fried kernels are then pounded or ground to a paste in a motorised grinder. The paste is mixed with a
small quantity of water and heated to release the palm kernel oil. The released oil is periodically
skimmed from the top.
Today, there are stations in villages that will accept well-dried kernels for direct extraction of the oil in
mechanised, motorised expellers.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
In a well run palm oil mill, it is expected that each 100 tonnes of FFB processed yields 20 to 24 tonnes of
crude palm oil and about 4 tonnes of palm kernels. Thus between 72 to 76 percent of the FFB comes out
at various stages of the process as waste.
The solid wastes that result from the milling operations are:
Empty fruit bunches,
Palm fibre, and
Palm kernel shell.
In the large- and medium-scale mills the above-mentioned waste products are all put to economically
useful purpose. They could therefore be referred to as by-products rather than waste products.
Wet, empty bunches are partly dried in the sun and later used as fuel. Another economic use for the
empty bunches is to return them to the plantation as a mulch to enhance moisture retention and
organic matter in the soil.
The palm kernel shell is also used as a source of fuel for the boilers. Unfortunately the shell contains
silicates that form a scale in the boilers if too much shell is fed to the furnace, thus limiting the amount
of shell that can be utilised in the boilers. Residual shell is disposed of as gravel for plantation roads
maintenance. Blacksmiths also buy the shells to use as fuel material in their casting and forging
operations. Palm nut shell is also used in the preparation of pozzolana, a cement substitute material that
has been developed by the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
The fibre recovered from the nut/fibre separation stage Is a good combustible material and finds ready
use as fuel to boil the fruit. (Fig. 22) The fibre constitutes the bulk of material used to fire the large
boilers used to generate superheated steam to drive turbines for electrical power generation in large-
scale plants.
Boiler ash is recycled as fertilizer and factory floor cleaning agent. The potash in the ashes reacts with
the oil to form a weak potash soap that is washed away with water.
Small-scale mills also use the fibre and bunch waste as fuel material. Most small-scale mills do not
undertake the shelling of recovered palm nuts. The nuts are sold to palm kernel processors.
Small-scale palm kernel processors use clay baths to separate kernels from shells. The shells are
normally left in a pile to dry. Some of the shells are used for fuel but there are always residual amounts
found around the palm kernel processing centres. Periodically the pile is removed and used as landfill.
Large- and medium-scale mills produce copious volumes of liquid waste from the sterilizer, clarifying
centrifuges and hydrocyclones. This effluent must be treated before discharge to avoid serious
environmental pollution.
Liquid waste treatment involves anaerobic fermentation followed by aerobic fermentation in large
ponds until the effluent quality is suitable for discharge. In some of the mills the treated effluent is used
on the farm as manure and source of water for irrigation. The sludge accumulating in the fermentation
ponds is periodically removed and fed to the land.
To manage the amount of oil entrained in the effluent, while at the same time improving the efficiency
of oil recovery, the large mills use de-watering and decanting centrifuges at various locations in the
process line.
When it comes to liquid waste management most traditional processors and small-scale palm oil
processors do not adhere to any environmental protection practices. The environmental awareness
level of the operators in this industrial area is low. Indeed much is desired of the hygiene of most
facilities. Traditional processors operate so close to nature that they simply return liquids to the
surrounding bushes. The discharged quantities are so small that the ground easily absorbs the waste
matter and the operators have not yet seen their activities as injurious to their surroundings.
However in the more organized intermediate technology mills sludge from the clarifying tanks are
carried in buckets or rudimentary gutters to sludge pits dug in the nearby bushes. When the sludge pit
begins to give off a bad odour the pit is filled in and another one dug for the purpose. Charcoal from the
cooking fires is dumped into the pits to absorb some of the odour.
Sometimes the oil in the sludge pit is recovered and mixed with fibre to make a fire-starting cake called
‘flint’.
It has been observed that when the small-scale mill operators empty their sludge on the surrounding
bushes the bushes slowly die. Operators say they use the sludge as a herbicide to clear their
surroundings. It is, however, time to develop simple inexpensive aqueous pollution control systems for
small-scale operators.
Environmental pollution considerations in small-scale palm oil milling need concentrated attention as
this industrial segment assumes greater importance. It is hoped that as more educated people come
into the industry they will bring increased awareness and a greater commitment to adopt improved
environmental management practices in their operations.
HEALTH BENEFITS OF PALM KERNEL OIL
Palm oil contains a sufficient amount of vitamin E and antioxidants, which are capable of providing
protection against harmful UV rays and other toxins. It also keeps your skin healthy and young.
Palm oil provides amazing anti-aging benefits that prevent wrinkles and fine lines.
2. It improves vision
Palm kernel oil contains an important element that is good for vision. This element is referred to as
Beta-carotene. It builds and provides a powerful defensive mechanism that protects the eyes from free
radicals. These radicals cause breakdown and mutation of the cell, damaging the vision. Using palm oil in
replacement for other oils helps to prevent eye diseases.
Palm kernel oil contains Vitamin E which is an antioxidant which helps to prevent cancer by dissolving or
neutralizing free radicals. These radicals are healthy cells that could grow to cancerous cells.
Palm kernel oil helps to condition, thicken your hair and also reduces hair breakage. It can be used as a
hot oil treatment. By this, it nourishes your hair and gives it a soothing effect.
One of the vitamins the body needs is vitamin K. It is an important soluble vitamin that boosts bone
health and also serves as a blood coagulant.
Palm kernel oil contains beta carotene which helps to promote the level of energy and enhances the
balance of hormones in the body.
Lack of vitamin can be harmful for pregnant women and her unborn kids. Palm oil contains vitamin D, A
and E which is beneficial for pregnant women. It is important that pregnant women have palm oil in
their diet to prevent vitamin deficiencies in their unborn kids.
USES OF PALM KERNEL OIL
Palm oil can be used in various procedures and due to its lower cost, it is widespread commercially.
Some uses are-
Palm kernel oil possesses higher oxidative stability therefore often employed for frying.
Palm kernel Oil is used to manufacture many products worldwide.
Palm Kernel Oil is also known to manufacture certain commercial products such as cosmetics,
personal care items, cleaning products, hair care, soaps, etc.
Palm Wax is popularly utilized for making candles.
It is also quite useful for manufacturing biofuel and prepackaging foods.
Palm is often used as fodder for livestock.
The consumption of red palm oil is often considered safe, even in large amounts. It rarely causes some
side effects because of its composition. However, when consumed in large amounts, it leads to some
adverse effects, such as
The skin may turn yellowish due to the presence of high levels of carotenes in the oil.
The topical application of red palm oil can also exert negative effects on the skin.
Palm kernel oil stains on clothes are more complicated to launder.
CONCLUSION
In view of the importance of palm kernel oil in the world, a palm kernel oil extraction machine
was designed, constructed and tested for palm kernel oil extraction. Test performance was
carried out on the constructed machine. The findings from the performance test of the machine
indicated that the machine was efficient. Besides, the machine required minimum processing
time and an improved palm kernel oil output, and machine throughput capacity was achieved. A
palm kernel oil extraction machine based on this technology can provide palm kernel oil at
affordable costs for average people in the world.
The SIWES TRAINING was a wonderful experience, I was able to understand the effectiveness of
hard work, though it was challenging at first but I never gave in to pressure of thoughts, I learnt
moral values and also acquire a office profession skills, grateful to GOD, ITF, my HOD ,
departmental coordinator and my elegant lecturers, thank you all for the wonderful experience
GOD bless you all, GOD bless the VICE CHANCELLOR, GOD bless ALEX EKWUEME FEDERAL
UNIVERSITY, NDUFU ALIKE- IKWO, GOD bless NIGERIA.
DEDICATION
This SIWES report is dedicated to GOD Almighty, to my parents Mr. & Mrs. EGBE MATTHIAS for
their love, advice, prayers and financial support during my SIWES training program, I pray that
the good Lord in his infinite mercy and grace will continue to keep, guide and bless them richly
in Jesus name. Amen
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My appreciation goes to GOD Almighty, the creator of heaven and earth for granting me the grace and
privilege to be able to complete this SIWES program successfully and on schedule.
I am also grateful to my industrial supervisor Mr. Jovan Nwaogwugu and my parents for their support
morally and financially and I also acknowledge my brothers EGBE FRANK CHINA, EGBE VICTOR CHIGOZIE
for their love and kind gesture GOD bless you all.
Mostly, I thank my Departmental SIWES coordinator ENGR. ALPHEUS OKAHU and my distinguish and
Amiable lecturers especially ENGR. CHARLES UGWU, for his words of wisdom and guardiance through
out my entire IT experience may GOD Almighty bless and keep you all in Jesus name. Amen
RECOMMENDATION
Government should ensure a proper supervision of SIWES student so that the purpose of the
programme will be achieved.
The federal government should make adequate provision in the annual budget for proper funding of
SIWES in view of the potential scheme to contribute to enhancing the quality of the pool to technical
skill available to the economy.
In order to guarantee quality assurance of institution and the ITF. The ITF should ensure that the backlog
in payment of student allowance is cleared urgently to remove the negative image being created for
SIWES.
IT – SIWES REPORT FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERING STUDENT
HELD AT
BY
2017/EN/5380
JUNE 2023