CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the several research literature, materials and studies that

are focused with the strategy that will improve the numeracy of Grade 7 and 8 learners.

This study presents the strategy on improving the knowledge of students in

mathematics. In the use of one-on-one tutorial or The Concrete-Pictorial-Abstract

Learning Progress.

CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE

Numeracy Skill

The ability to use, interpret, and communicate mathematical information to solve

problems in the real world is known as numeracy. Basic math skills like addition,

subtraction, division, and multiplication are among them. The application of graphical,

geographic, statistical, and mathematical concepts as well as the capacity to analyze

data and apply it to actual situations are all parts of more advanced numeracy skills.

Understanding numbers, counting, solving math problems, measuring,

estimating, sorting, spotting patterns, and adding and subtracting numbers are all part of

numeracy skills. Understanding and analyzing numerical data and drawing the

appropriate findings and judgments require a variety of skills. They also include the

capacity to convey concepts and circumstances through the use of numerical or

mathematical data.
 Instead of implying knowledge of various branches of mathematics or

complicated mathematical formulas, mathematics literacy refers to a broad range of

knowledge, understanding, and appreciation of what mathematics can accomplish.

Mathematics literacy, according to the Journal of Physics: Conference of Series, entails

understanding and combining mathematical core concepts, terminologies, facts, and

skills in response to the external situation's requirement of the real-world.

The George W. Bush Institute asserts that mathematics plays a crucial role in

students' life by providing them with career options in a variety of fields related to the

sciences, technology, engineering, and mathematics. It assists in fostering critical

thinking and addressing learning challenges. This benefits them in a variety of ways for

the future.

Contrary to popular belief, math problems like the one above has a lot more

application than you might think. Without realizing it, we use mathematical concepts and

the skills we get through solving math problems on a daily basis. Math is tremendously

vital in our life. Everything in our environment is governed by mathematical principles,

and living a successful life requires a thorough comprehension of these laws.

Your brain benefits from learning math. According to Dr. Tanya Evans' research

at Stanford University, children who perform better in math are better able to reliably

recruit certain brain regions and have larger gray matter volume in those regions than

those who perform less well. Various cognitive activities involving visual attention and

decision-making were linked to the brain regions implicated with improved math skills in

high-achieving children.
The Meaning of Peer Tutoring

According to Ellinogermanik (2009) Peer tutoring is the process between two or

more students in a group where one of the students acts as a tutor for the other

groupmate(s). Peer tutoring can be applied among students of the same age or

students belonging to different age groups. Encouragement of peer tutoring is a useful

strategy that can be applied effectively by teachers in many cases in both monograde

and multigrade schools.

A peer tutor is anyone who is of a similar status as the person being tutored. In

an undergraduate institution this would usually be other undergraduates, as distinct

from the graduate students who may be teaching the writing classes; in and Senior

Secondary school this is usually a student from the same grade or higher. (According to

Outhred & Chester (2010).

Peer tutoring is a method of instruction that involves students teaching other

students, a system of instruction in which learners help each other and learn by

teaching. Paul (2006) defined peer tutoring as an instructional strategy that partners

students to help one another learn material, reinforce skills or practice a learned task.

Washington State Institute (2014) viewed peer tutoring is an instructional strategy

that uses students to provide academic assistance to struggling peers. Peer tutoring

may use students from the same classrooms or pair older students with younger

struggling students.
Types/ Approaches of Peer Tutoring

According to Ellinogermanik (2009) there are two types of peer tutoring: (a)

incidental and (b) structured peer tutoring. It further explained the types as thus:

 Incidental peer tutoring often takes place, either at school or while

students are playing after school or when they are socializing. Whenever

children are cooperating, playing or studying and one guides the others, it

may be stated that we have a kind of incidental peer tutoring. For

example, when a student asks his/her classmate to help him/her in Maths

or asks for tips on how to improve his/her performance while playing a

new video game, we have cases of incidental peer tutoring.

 Structured peer tutoring refers to peer tutoring implemented in specific

cases and for specific subjects, following a well-structured plan prepared

by the teacher. Structured peer tutoring is spontaneously used by

experienced teachers who are able to plan well in advance and are

familiar on how to combine tutors and tutees appropriately in order to have

good results.

Approaches to Peer-tutoring include the followings:

Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT)

Reciprocal Peer Tutoring is an intervention strategy combining self-management

methods, group interdependent reward contingencies, and reciprocal peer teaching to

promote academic and social competency (Fantuzzo & Rohrbeck,1992).

alternate between the role of tutor and tutee. Unlike the previous peer tutoring strategies

discussed, RPT may involve more than a one -to-one relationship. students’ alternate

roles while in pairs or groups. Peer tutoring is one collaborative. approach where pairs

of students interact to assist each other the role of tutee. Peer tutoring has been well

validated for promoting the development of low-level skills such as spelling, math, and

reading (e.g. Fuchs, Fuchs, Phillips, Hamlett, & Karns, 1995; Greenwood, Delquadri, &

Hall, 1989 as cited in William, et al (2003). This approach also has been used with

college students to develop higher-order skills such as reading comprehension

(Dansereau,1987) and understanding of statistical concepts (Keeler & Steinhorst,

1994). Interestingly, students who provide the assistance seem to experience greater

gains than those who receive the tutorial help (Webb, 1991; Webb, 1992; Yager,

Johnson & Johnson, 1985).

RPT gives students the opportunity to make choices throughout the learning

process. By making choices, students enhance their self-management skills, and

enhance control over learning and cooperation with others (Fantuzzo, et al., 1995).

Reciprocal can be used as positive reinforcement to shape appropriate behaviors

academically and socially within the classroom (Fantuzzo, et al 1992). They can also

motivate learners to participate and achieve in difficult content areas.

Cross Age Tutoring

Cross-Age Tutoring is a peer tutoring approach that joins students of different

ages, with older students assuming the role of tutor and younger students assuming the

role of tutee. Student pairings may include a variety of combinations such as elementary
students with high school students or older students with disabilities with younger

students with disabilities. There are no stringent tutoring procedures established for

Cross-Age Tutoring, however most tutors do engage in some type of training. These

training sessions vary in range; some are scripted others have few pre-set guidelines.

Training sessions tend to include a discussion of goals, problem solving strategies

(academically and behaviorally), and appropriate feedback and reinforcement strategies

(Barbetta & Miller, 1999 as cited in Razia, 2012). Tutors become models of appropriate

behavior, organizing work, asking questions, demonstrating self-management,

encouraging social interaction, and facilitating better study habits.

Cross-Age Tutoring actively engaged both tutors and tutees with disabilities in

their education and gives them a feeling of control over academic outcomes. Cross-Age

Tutoring has been applied with students with varying disabilities. By involving students

with disabilities in their education and giving them self-management tools, students can

generalize motivation into other areas. Students can use their skills to participate in

Individualized Education Plans (IEPs), thereby taking an active role in their future.

Students can practice appropriate social skills while being academically engaged.

The positive effects of peer tutoring have been demonstrated across subjects

such as reading (Oddo, Barnett, Hawkins, & Musti-Rao, 2010), math (Hawkins, Musti-

Rao, Hughes, Berry, & McGuire, 2009), social studies (Lo & Cartledge, 2004), and

science (Bowman-Perrott, Greenwood, & Tapia, 2007), and across a wide range of

settings that include general education classrooms (Lo & Cartledge, 2004), resource

rooms (Maheady et al., 1988), self-contained classrooms (Sutherland & Snyder, 2007),
alternative placements (Bowman-Perrott et al., 2007) and group homes (Mayfield &

Vollmer, 2007).

Peer tutoring configurations include cross-age (Jun, Ramirez & Cumming, 2010),

small group (Maheady, Sacca, & Harper, 1987), and class-wide (Greenwood et

al.,1992). In addition, peer tutoring is effective for students with and without disabilities,

native English-speaking students, and English language learners (Okilwa & Shelby,

2010).

RELATED STUDIES

Peer Tutoring seems to be a common trend, with regards to social

constructivism, in teaching and learning mathematics. Social constructivism is a

philosophical belief that students need socialization to learn and grow with each other,

meaning that students learn by sharing with one another (Summers,2006).

Research has unveiled result regarding peer tutoring in other subjects, such as

reading, which are commonly weaved into the mathematics classroom (McMaster,

Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). Several researchers conducted studies related to different

forms of peer tutoring such as: Cross-age (an older learner paired with a younger

learner), same – age and reciprocal (student take turns being tutor and tutee) tutoring

which showed significant gains in learners at the elementary, middle and high school

level (Spencer, 2006). Students who were placed at-risk and/or had learning difficulties,

according to Witzel, Mercer and Miller (2003).

different paces. Educators try to find ways to assist these learners in the classroom

while continuing to keep the faster learners above the standards of academic success.

When it comes to assisting teachers in increasing achievement in all learners, peer

tutoring may have major benefits.

Hulya (2004) conducted a study aimed to explore the effectiveness of one of the

interactive engage method which is peer instruction enriched by concept test on student

achievement and attitude towards physics. He used two types of teaching: peer

instruction enriched by concept test and traditional instruction. For the study, the

researcher prepared two tools: Mathematics Achievement test and attitude test three

teachers participated in the study in addition to 192 10 th grade students. Multivariate

analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) is used to analyze the data of the post-test. The

statistical results indicated the peer instruction was more effective than traditional

instruction. However, the study showed no differences in attitudes towards physics

between the two groups.

Vasay (2010) held a study to find out the effect of the strategy of peer teaching

on the student s performance in mathematics. The study consisted of two parts. Phase

1 and phase 2. In the first phase, the researcher aimed to investigate the effect of peer

teaching in developing the foundation of students in college algebra. The study used

pretest–posttest Control-Experimental group design. The data obtained by posttest was

analyzed by t-test. The result showed that the experimental group was significantly

better in their performance.

tutoring in a nursing administration course on undergraduate nursing students’

performance. The study used a quasi-experimental nonrandomized comparative design.

The participants in the study consisted of two groups: control group and experimental

group. Three tools were used for data collection: Student’s Clinical Evaluation checklist,

Clinical Teaching Preference Questionnaire, and Peer Teaching Experience

Questionnaire. The findings of the study indicated that the performance of the nursing

students who learned by peer teaching is significantly better than the performance of

control group.

Mirzeoglu (2014) conducted a study aimed to examine the effect of peer teaching

on the university students’ achievement in cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains

and game performance in volleyball courses. A quasi-experimental design was used in

this study. The sample of the study composed of 24 females and 46 males. Volleyball

achievement test, volleyball attitude scale, and volleyball skills observation forms have

been used to collect data. The results of the study showed that using different

instructional models improve students’ achievement in cognitive, psychomotor domains

and game performance.

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2019). Peer Tutoring in Mathematics: A Meta-

Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 89(2), 246-275.

The article by Johnson and Johnson (2019) provides a meta-analysis of studies

on the effectiveness of peer tutoring in mathematics. The authors begin by discussing

the importance of mathematics education and the challenges faced by students in this
subject. They argue that peer tutoring can be an effective way to support struggling

students and improve their learning outcomes.

The authors define peer tutoring as “an instructional strategy in which students of

similar ability levels work together in pairs or small groups to help one another learn

academic content” (p. 247). They note that peer tutoring can take various forms, such

as reciprocal tutoring (where students take turns tutoring each other), peer-assisted

learning strategies (where students work together on structured activities), and peer

modeling (where one student demonstrates how to solve a problem while the other

observes).

Johnson and Johnson (2019) conducted a meta-analysis of 107 studies on peer

tutoring in mathematics, which included a total of 11,803 students. The studies were

conducted in various settings, including elementary, middle, and high schools, as well

as in college and adult education programs. The authors analyzed the data using a

random-effects model, which allowed them to estimate the overall effect size of peer

tutoring on mathematics achievement.

The results of the meta-analysis showed a significant positive effect of peer

tutoring on mathematics achievement. The overall effect size was 0.47, which indicates

a moderate to large effect. The authors note that this effect size is comparable to other

effective teaching strategies, such as direct instruction and feedback.

Johnson and Johnson (2019) also conducted a subgroup analysis to explore the

factors that may moderate the effectiveness of peer tutoring. They found that peer

tutoring was more effective when students received training in tutoring skills, when the
tutoring was conducted in small groups, and when the tutor and tutee were of similar

ability levels.

The authors conclude that peer tutoring is a promising instructional strategy for

improving mathematics achievement. They note that peer tutoring can be implemented

in various settings and can be adapted to different age groups and ability levels. They

also suggest that future research should explore the mechanisms underlying the

effectiveness of peer tutoring and should examine the long-term effects of this strategy

on students’ mathematics achievement.

SYNTHESIS

Numeracy is the ability to use, interpret, and communicate mathematical

information to solve problems in the real world. It includes basic math skills like addition,

subtraction, division, and multiplication, as well as the application of graphical,

geographic, statistical, and mathematical concepts. Mathematics literacy refers to

understanding and combining mathematical core concepts, terminologies, facts, and

skills in response to the external situation's requirement of the real-world. According to

Dr. Tanya Evans' research, children who perform better in math are better able to

reliably recruit certain brain regions and have larger gray matter volume in those regions

than those who perform less well.

Peer Tutoring is a popular trend in teaching and learning mathematics, with

research showing significant gains in learners at the elementary, middle and high school

level. There are two types of peer tutoring: incidental and structured. Incidental peer

tutoring occurs when students are cooperative, playing or studying and one guides the
others. Structured peer tutoring is implemented in specific cases and for specific

subjects, following a well-structured plan prepared by the teacher. Approaches to Peer-

tutoring include Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT). RPT is a collaborative learning

strategy in which students alternate between the role of tutor and tutee. Peer tutoring

has been well validated for promoting the development of low-level skills such as

spelling, math, and reading. Cross-Age Tutoring is a peer tutoring approach that joins

students of different ages, with older students assuming the role of tutor and younger

students assuming the role of tutee. This approach can be used to shape appropriate

behaviors and motivate learners to participate and achieve in difficult content areas.

Cross-Age Tutoring involves both tutors and tutees with disabilities in their education

and gives them a feeling of control over academic outcomes. It has been applied with

students with varying disabilities and has been demonstrated across subjects such as

reading, math, social studies, and science. Peer tutoring configurations include cross-

age, small group, and class-wide. It is effective for students with and without disabilities,

native English-speaking students, and English language learners.

Hulya (2004) conducted a study to explore the effectiveness of peer instruction

enriched by concept test on student achievement and attitude towards physics. Vasay

(2010) conducted a study to investigate the effect of peer teaching on student

performance in mathematics. El-Sayed et al. (2013) conducted a study to assess the

effect of peer tutoring in a nursing administration course on undergraduate nursing

students’ performance. Mirzeoglu (2014) conducted a study to examine the effect of

peer teaching on the university students’ achievement in cognitive, affective,

psychomotor domains and game performance in volleyball courses.

Effect of a Proposed Instructional Package on the Development of Junior High School

Students' Conceptual Understanding of Integers. Journal of Education and Practice,

10(26), 1-7.

The study conducted by Ostad-Ahmad-Ghorabi and colleagues (2019) aimed to

investigate the effect of an instructional package on the development of junior high

school students' conceptual understanding of integers. The study included 300 students

in grades 7-9 and used a pre-test/post-test design to assess the effectiveness of the

instructional package.

Related literature suggests that many junior high school students struggle with basic

arithmetic operations on integers, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division (Ostad-Ahmad-Ghorabi et al., 2019). Additionally, research has shown that

students may have difficulty with understanding the concepts behind these operations,

which can affect their ability to solve problems (Yılmaz et al., 2018).

To address these issues, the study by Ostad-Ahmad-Ghorabi and colleagues

(2019) proposed an instructional package that included a variety of teaching strategies,

including hands-on activities, visual aids, and problem-solving tasks. The results of the

study showed that the instructional package was effective in improving students'

conceptual understanding of integers, as evidenced by significant improvement in post-

test scores.

Overall, the related literature supports the need for effective instructional strategies to

improve students' understanding of integers and basic arithmetic operations. The study
by Ostad-Ahmad-Ghorabi and colleagues (2019) provides evidence for the

effectiveness of an instructional package that includes a variety of teaching strategies to

improve students' conceptual understanding of integers.