Orbit Maneuvers

• At some point during the lifetime of most space

vehicles or satellites, we must change one or more
of the orbital elements. For example, we may need
to transfer from an initial parking orbit to the final
mission orbit, rendezvous with or intercept another
spacecraft, or correct the orbital elements to adjust
for the perturbations discussed in the previous
section. Most frequently, we must change the orbit
altitude, plane, or both. To change the orbit of a
space vehicle, we have to change its velocity vector
in magnitude or direction.
 Orbit Maneuvers Strategy
• Most propulsion systems operate for only a short
time compared to the orbital period, thus we can
treat the maneuver as an impulsive change in
velocity while the position remains fixed.
• For this reason, any maneuver changing the orbit
of a space vehicle must occur at a point where
the old orbit intersects the new orbit.
• If the orbits do not intersect, we must use an
intermediate orbit that intersects both. In this
case, the total maneuver will require at least two
propulsive burns.
 Orbit Attitude Transfer
• The most common type of in-plane maneuver
changes the size and energy of an orbit, usually
from a low-altitude parking orbit to a higher-
altitude mission orbit such as a geosynchronous
orbit. Because the initial and final orbits do not
intersect, the maneuver requires a transfer
orbit. Figure represents a Hohmann transfer
orbit.
• In this case, the transfer orbit's ellipse is tangent
to both the initial and final orbits at the transfer
orbit's perigee and apogee respectively. The
orbits are tangential, so the velocity vectors are
collinear, and the Hohmann transfer represents
the most fuel-efficient transfer between two
circular, coplanar orbits.
• When transferring from a smaller orbit to a
larger orbit, the change in velocity is applied in
the direction of motion; when transferring from
a larger orbit to a smaller, the change of velocity
is opposite to the direction of motion.
 Hohmann Transfer
• The total change in velocity required for the
orbit transfer is the sum of the velocity
changes at perigee and apogee of the
transfer ellipse. Since the velocity vectors
are collinear, the velocity changes are just
the differences in magnitudes of the
velocities in each orbit. If we know the
initial and final orbits, rA and rB, we can
calculate the total velocity change using the
following equations
Hohmann Transfer Equations
 Problem 1
A spacecraft is in a circular parking orbit with an altitude of 200 km.
Calculate the velocity change required to perform a Hohmann transfer to a circular
orbit at geosynchronous altitude.
Given: rA = (6,378.14 + 200) × 1,000 = 6,578,140 m
For geosynchronous orbits, rB = 42,164,170 m
Equations given previously:
atx = (rA + rB) / 2
atx = (6,578,140 + 42,164,170) / 2
atx = 24,371,155 m

ViA = SQRT[ GM / rA ]
ViA = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 / 6,578,140 ]
ViA = 7,784 m/s

VfB = SQRT[ GM / rB ]
VfB = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 / 42,164,170 ]
VfB = 3,075 m/s

VtxA = SQRT[ GM × (2 / rA - 1 / atx)]

VtxA = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 × (2 / 6,578,140 - 1 / 24,371,155)]
VtxA = 10,239 m/s
VtxB = SQRT[ GM × (2 / rB - 1 / atx)]
VtxB = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 × (2 / 42,164,170 - 1 / 24,371,155)]
VtxB = 1,597 m/s

ΔVA = VtxA - ViA

ΔVA = 10,239 - 7,784
ΔVA = 2,455 m/s

ΔVB = VfB - VtxB

ΔVB = 3,075 - 1,597
ΔVB = 1,478 m/s

ΔVT = Δ VA + Δ VB
ΔVT = 2,455 + 1,478
ΔVT = 3,933 m/s
 One Tangent Burn
• Ordinarily we want to transfer a
space vehicle using the smallest
amount of energy, which usually
leads to using a Hohmann
transfer orbit. However,
sometimes we may need to
transfer a satellite between
orbits in less time than that
required to complete the
Hohmann transfer. Figure shows
a faster transfer called the One-
Tangent Burn. In this instance the
transfer orbit is tangential to the
initial orbit. It intersects the final
orbit at an angle equal to the
flight path angle of the transfer
orbit at the point of intersection.
 One Tangent Burn Maneuver
• An infinite number of transfer orbits are
tangential to the initial orbit and intersect the
final orbit at some angle. Thus, we may choose
the transfer orbit by specifying the size of the
transfer orbit, the angular change of the
transfer, or the time required to complete the
transfer. We can then define the transfer orbit
and calculate the required velocities.
• For example, we may specify the size of the
transfer orbit, choosing any semi-major axis
that is greater than the semi-major axis of the
Hohmann transfer ellipse. Once we know the
semi-major axis of the ellipse, atx, we can
calculate the eccentricity, angular distance
traveled in the transfer, the velocity change
required for the transfer, and the time
required to complete the transfer.
One Tangent Burn Equations
PROBLEM 2: A satellite is in a circular parking orbit with an altitude of 200 km. Using
a one-tangent burn, it is to be transferred to geosynchronous altitude using a transfer
ellipse with a semi-major axis of 30,000 km. Calculate the total required velocity
change and the time required to complete the transfer.
SOLUTION,
Given: rA = (6,378.14 + 200) × 1,000 = 6,578,140 m
rB = 42,164,170 m
atx = 30,000 × 1,000 = 30,000,000 m ; Equations for One Tangent Burn
• e = 1 - rA / atx
e = 1 - 6,578,140 / 30,000,000
e = 0.780729
• ν= arccos[(atx × (1 - e2) / rB - 1) / e ]
ν = arccos[(30,000,000 × (1 - 0.780729^2) / 42,164,170 - 1) / 0.780729 ]
ν = 157.670 degrees
• φ= arctan[ e × sin ν / (1 + e × cos ν)]
φ = arctan[ 0.780729 × sin(157.670) / (1 + 0.780729 × cos(157.670))]
φ = 46.876 degrees ; Equations from Hohmann Transfer

• ViA = SQRT[ GM / rA ]
ViA = SQRT[ 3.986005×10^14 / 6,578,140 ]
ViA = 7,784 m/s
• VfB = SQRT[ GM / rB ]
VfB = SQRT[ 3.986005×10^14 / 42,164,170 ]
VfB = 3,075 m/s
• VtxA = SQRT[ GM × (2 / rA - 1 / atx)]
VtxA = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 × (2 / 6,578,140 - 1 / 30,000,000)]
VtxA = 10,388 m/s
• VtxB = SQRT[ GM × (2 / rB - 1 / atx)]
VtxB = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 × (2 / 42,164,170 - 1 / 30,000,000)]
VtxB = 2,371 m/s
• ΔVA = VtxA - ViA
Δ VA = 10,388 - 7,784
Δ VA = 2,604 m/s

• Δ VB = SQRT[ VtxB2 + VfB2 - 2 × VtxB × VfB × cosφ ]

Δ VB = SQRT[ 2,3712 + 3,0752 - 2 × 2,371 × 3,075 × cos(46.876)]
Δ VB = 2,260 m/s

• Δ VT = Δ VA + Δ VB
Δ VT = 2,604 + 2,260
Δ VT = 4,864 m/s

• E = arctan[(1 - e2)1/2 × sin ν / (e + cos ν)]

E = arctan[(1 - 0.7807292)1/2 × sin(157.670) / (0.780729 + cos(157.670))]
E = 2.11688 radians

• TOF = (E - e × sin E) × SQRT[ atx3 / GM ]

TOF = (2.11688 - 0.780729 × sin(2.11688)) × SQRT[ 30,000,0003 / 3.986005×1014 ]
TOF = 11,931 s = 3.314 hours
 Spiral Transfer
• Another option for changing the size of an orbit is
to use electric propulsion to produce a constant
low-thrust burn, which results in a spiral transfer.
We can approximate the velocity change for this
type of orbit transfer by

• where the velocities are the circular velocities of the

two orbits.
 Orbit Plane Changes
• To change the orientation of a satellite's
orbital plane, typically the inclination, we
must change the direction of the velocity
vector. This maneuver requires a
component of V to be perpendicular to
the orbital plane and, therefore,
perpendicular to the initial velocity
vector. If the size of the orbit remains
constant, the maneuver is called a simple
plane change. We can find the required
change in velocity by using the law of
cosines. For the case in which Vf is equal
to Vi, this expression reduces to

• where Vi is the velocity before and after

the burn, and is the angle change
required.
 PROBLEM 3
Calculate the velocity change required to transfer a satellite
from a circular 600 km orbit with an inclination of 28 degrees to an orbit of equal
size with an inclination of 20 degrees.

SOLUTION,
Given: r = (6,378.14 + 600) × 1,000 = 6,978,140 m
θ= 28 - 20 = 8 degrees

Vi = SQRT[ GM / r ]
Vi = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 / 6,978,140 ]
Vi = 7,558 m/s

ΔV = 2 × Vi × sin(θ /2)
Δ V = 2 × 7,558 × sin(8/2)
Δ V = 1,054 m/s
 Location of Orbit Plane Changes
• Plane changes are very expensive in terms of the required
change in velocity and resulting propellant consumption. To
minimize this, we should change the plane at a point where
the velocity of the satellite is a minimum: at apogee for an
elliptical orbit. In some cases, it may even be cheaper to
boost the satellite into a higher orbit, change the orbit plane
at apogee, and return the satellite to its original orbit.
• Typically, orbital transfers require changes in both the size and
the plane of the orbit, such as transferring from an inclined
parking orbit at low altitude to a zero-inclination orbit at
geosynchronous altitude.
• We can do this transfer in two steps: a Hohmann transfer to
change the size of the orbit and a simple plane change to
make the orbit equatorial. A more efficient method (less total
change in velocity) would be to combine the plane change
with the tangential burn at apogee of the transfer orbit.
 Orbit Plane Change Equation
• As we must change both the magnitude and direction
of the velocity vector, we can find the required change
in velocity using the law of cosines:

• where Vi is the initial velocity, Vf is the final velocity,

and is the angle change required. As can be seen from
equation, a small plane change can be combined with
an altitude change for almost no cost in delta V or
propellant. Consequently, in practice, geosynchronous
transfer is done with a small plane change at perigee
and most of the plane change at apogee.
 PROBLEM 4
A satellite is in a parking orbit with an altitude of 200 km and an inclination of 28
degrees. Calculate the total velocity change required to transfer the satellite to a
zero-inclination geosynchronous orbit using a Hohmann transfer with a combined
plane change at apogee.
Given: rA = (6,378.14 + 200) × 1,000 = 6,578,140 m
rB = 42,164,170 m
θ = 28 degrees
From problem 1,
VfB = 3,075 m/s
VtxB = 1,597 m/s
Δ VA = 2,455 m/s
Equation (4.74),
Δ VB = SQRT[ VtxB2 + VfB2 - 2 × VtxB × VfB × cos ]
Δ VB = SQRT[ 1,5972 + 3,0752 - 2 × 1,597 × 3,075 × cos(28)]
Δ VB = 1,826 m/s

From previous equation we know that:

Δ VT = Δ VA + Δ VB
Δ VT = 2,455 + 1,826
Δ VT = 4,281 m/s
 Three Burn Maneuver
• The first burn is a coplanar maneuver placing the
satellite into a transfer orbit with an apogee much
higher than the final orbit. When the satellite reaches
apogee of the transfer orbit, a combined plane change
maneuver is done.
• This places the satellite in a second transfer orbit that is
coplanar with the final orbit and has a perigee altitude
equal to the altitude of the final orbit.
• Finally, when the satellite reaches perigee of the
second transfer orbit, another coplanar maneuver
places the satellite into the final orbit. This three-burn
maneuver may save propellant, but the propellant
savings comes at the expense of the total time required
to complete the maneuver.
 Correcting Out of Plane Errors
• In some instances, however, a plane change is used to alter an
orbit's longitude of ascending node in addition to the
inclination.
• An example might be a maneuver to correct out-of-plane
errors to make the orbits of two space vehicles coplanar in
preparation for a rendezvous.
• If the orbital elements of the initial and final orbits are
known, the then the plane change angle is determined by
the:
 PROBLEM 5
A spacecraft is in an orbit with an inclination of 30 degrees and the longitude
of the ascending node is 75 degrees. Calculate the angle change required to
change the inclination to 32 degrees and the longitude of the ascending node
to 80 degrees.
SOLUTION,
Given: ii = 30 degrees
Ωi = 75 degrees
if = 32 degrees
Ω f = 80 degrees

• a1 = sin(ii)cos(Ωi) = sin(30)cos(75) = 0.129410

• a2 = sin(ii)sin(Ωi) = sin(30)sin(75) = 0.482963
• a3 = cos(ii) = cos(30) = 0.866025
• b1 = sin(if)cos(Ωf) = sin(32)cos(80) = 0.0920195
• b2 = sin(if)sin(Ω) = sin(32)sin(80) = 0.521869
• b3 = cos(if) = cos(32) = 0.848048

• θ = arccos(a1 × b1 + a2 × b2 + a3 × b3)
θ = arccos(0.129410 × 0.0920195 + 0.482963 × 0.521869 + 0.866025 × 0.848048)
θ = 3.259 degrees
 Orbit Maneuver Latitude and
Longitude
• The plane change maneuver takes place at one of
two nodes where the initial and final orbits
intersect. The latitude and longitude of these nodes
are determined by the vector cross product. The
position of one of the two nodes is given by

• Knowing the position of one node, the second node

is simply
PROBLEM 6Calculate the latitude and longitude of the intersection nodes
between the initial and final orbits for the spacecraft in problem 6.
SOLUTION, From problem 5,
a1 = 0.129410
a2 = 0.482963
a3 = 0.866025
b1 = 0.0920195
b2 = 0.521869
b3 = 0.848048
• c1 = a2 × b3 - a3 × b2 = 0.482963 × 0.848048 - 0.866025 × 0.521869 = -0.0423757
• c2 = a3 × b1 - a1 × b3 = 0.866025 × 0.0920195-0.129410 × 0.848048 = -0.0300543
• c3 = a1 × b2 - a2 × b1 = 0.129410 × 0.521869 - 0.482963 × 0.0920195 = 0.0230928
• lat1 = arctan(c3 / (c12 + c22)1/2)
lat1 = arctan(0.0230928 / (-0.04237572 + -0.03005432)1/2)
lat1 = 23.965 degrees

long1 = arctan(c2 / c1) + 90

long1 = arctan(-0.0300543 / -0.0423757) + 90
long1 = 125.346 degrees

lat2 = -23.965 degrees

• long2 = 125.346 + 180 = 305.346 degrees
 Orbit Rendezvous
• Orbital transfer becomes more complicated when the object
is to rendezvous with or intercept another object in space:
both the interceptor and the target must arrive at the
rendezvous point at the same time. This precision demands a
phasing orbit to accomplish the maneuver.
• A phasing orbit is any orbit that results in the interceptor
achieving the desired geometry relative to the target to
initiate a Hohmann transfer. If the initial and final orbits are
circular, coplanar, and of different sizes, then the phasing
orbit is simply the initial interceptor orbit.
• The interceptor remains in the initial orbit until the relative
motion between the interceptor and target results in the
desired geometry. At that point, we would inject the
interceptor into a Hohmann transfer orbit.
 Launch Windows
• Similar to the rendezvous problem is the launch-
window problem, or determining the appropriate
time to launch from the surface of the Earth into
the desired orbital plane. Because the orbital plane
is fixed in inertial space, the launch window is the
time when the launch site on the surface of the
Earth rotates through the orbital plane.
• The time of the launch depends on the launch site's
latitude and longitude and the satellite orbit's
inclination and longitude of ascending node.
 Orbit Maintenance
• Once in their mission orbits, many satellites need no
additional orbit adjustment. On the other hand, mission
requirements may demand that we maneuver the satellite to
correct the orbital elements when perturbing forces have
changed them. Two particular cases of note are satellites with
repeating ground tracks and geostationary satellites.
• After the mission of a satellite is complete, several options
exist, depending on the orbit. We may allow low-altitude
orbits to decay and reenter the atmosphere or use a velocity
change to speed up the process. We may also boost satellites
at all altitudes into benign orbits to reduce the probability of
collision with active payloads, especially at synchronous
altitudes.
 Tsiolkovsky Equation
• From the Newton’s equations of motion and momentum:
Since Thrust is defined as :

dv .
F  ma  m F  m Ve
dt
Thus by equating these two equations:

dv dm
m   Ve
dt dt
Tsiolkovsky’s Rocket Equation is born:

M initial
V  Vexhaust ln
M final
 Delta V Budget
• To an orbit designer, a space mission is a series of
different orbits. For example, a satellite might be
released in a low-Earth parking orbit, transferred to
some mission orbit, go through a series of resphasings
or alternate mission orbits, and then move to some
final orbit at the end of its useful life. Each of these
orbit changes requires energy. T
• The Delta V budget is traditionally used to account for
this energy. It sums all the velocity changes required
throughout the space mission life. In a broad sense
the V budget represents the cost for each mission orbit
scenario.
 Hyperbolic Excess Velocity
• If you give a space vehicle exactly escape velocity, it will just barely
escape the gravitational field, which means that its velocity will be
approaching zero as its distance from the force center approaches
infinity. If, on the other hand, we give our vehicle more than
escape velocity at a point near Earth, we would expect the velocity
at a great distance from Earth to be approaching some finite
constant value. This residual velocity the vehicle would have left
over even at infinity is called hyperbolic excess velocity.
• We can calculate this velocity from the energy equation written for
two points on the hyperbolic escape trajectory – a point near
Earth called the burnout point and a point an infinite distance from
Earth where the velocity will be the hyperbolic excess velocity, v∞
 PROBLEM 7
Calculate the escape velocity of a spacecraft launched from an Earth
orbit with an altitude of 200 km.

SOLUTION,

Given:

r = (6,378.14 + 200) × 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

Equation for escaping bodies with hyperbolic orbit was:

Vesc = SQRT[ 2 × GM / r ]
Vesc = SQRT[ 2 × 3.986005×1014 / 6,578,140 ]
Vesc = 11,009 m/s
 Hyperbolic Excess Velocity Equation
• Solving for v∞ we obtain:

• Note that if v∞ = 0 (as it is on a parabolic

trajectory), the burnout velocity, vbo, becomes
simply the escape velocity.
 PROBLEM 8
A spacecraft launched from Earth has a burnout
velocity of 11,500 m/s at an altitude of 200 km. What is the
hyperbolic excess velocity?

SOLUTION, Given:
Vbo = 11,500 m/s

From Problem 7,
Vesc = 11,009 m/s

Hyberbolic Excess Velocity Equation

(Vinfinity) 2 = Vbo2 - Vesc2

Vinfinity = SQRT[ 11,5002 - 11,0092 ]
Vinfinity = 3,325 m/s
 Sphere of Influence
• It is a fact, however, that once a space vehicle is a great
distance from Earth, for all practical purposes it has escaped.
In other words, it has already slowed down to very nearly its
hyperbolic excess velocity. It is convenient to define a sphere
around every gravitational body and say that when a probe
crosses the edge of this sphere of influence it has escaped.
• For most purposes, the radius of the sphere of influence for a
planet can be calculated as follows:

• where Dsp is the distance between the Sun and the

planet, Mp is the mass of the planet, and Ms is the mass of the
Sun. Equation is also valid for calculating a moon's sphere of
influence, where the moon is substituted for the planet and
the planet for the Sun.
 PROBLEM 9
Calculate the radius of Earth's sphere of influence.
SOLUTION, From Basics Constants,

Dsp = 149,597,870 km

MP = 5.9737×1024 kg

MS = 1.9891×1030 kg

Equation (4.89),

REarth = Dsp × (MP / MS)0.4

REarth = 149,597,870 × (5.9737×1024 / 1.9891×1030)0.4

REarth = 925,000 km