Interplanetary Orbits – A Step-by-Step Learning Approach

Real-World Practical Problem: Mission to Mars

Design an interplanetary transfer orbit for a spacecraft traveling from Earth to Mars using
the Hohmann Transfer method. Consider realistic constraints such as launch windows, velocity
changes, and orbital mechanics.

Step 1: Prerequisite Knowledge and Calculations

Before designing an interplanetary orbit, students should understand:
1. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
First Law: Planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
Second Law: The line connecting a planet to the Sun sweeps equal areas in equal time.
Third Law: The square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis.
2. Basic Orbital Elements
Semi-major axis (a)
Eccentricity (e)
Inclination (i)
Argument of periapsis (ω)
Longitude of ascending node (Ω)
True anomaly (ν)
3. Energy Considerations
Total Specific Energy:
v2 μ
ε= −
2 r
​ ​

Circular Orbit Velocity:

μ
vc =
r
​ ​ ​

Escape Velocity:
2μ
ve =
r
​ ​ ​

Hohmann Transfer Velocities:

μ 2r2
Δv1 = ( − 1)
​

r1 r1 + r2
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​
 μ 2r1
Δv2 = (1 − )
​

r2 r1 + r2
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

Step 2: Fundamentals of Interplanetary Travel

1. Hohmann Transfer Orbit
Used for fuel-efficient travel between two circular orbits.
Requires two burns: one to transfer from Earth's orbit to an elliptical orbit, another to
circularize at Mars.
2. Patched Conic Approximation
Divides the spacecraft's journey into different gravity-influenced regions.
Uses three major phases:
1. Departure phase (Earth’s Sphere of Influence - SOI)
2. Interplanetary transfer (Sun’s gravitational field dominates)
3. Arrival phase (Mars’s SOI)
3. Launch Windows
Mars and Earth align optimally every 26 months (synodic period).
The launch should be timed so the spacecraft arrives at Mars when Mars is at the correct
position in its orbit.
4. Delta-V Budget
Determines the propulsion system needed.
Includes launch, escape velocity, mid-course corrections, and orbital insertion at Mars.

Step 3: Solving the Earth-to-Mars Transfer Problem

Given Data:
Earth’s Orbit Radius: rE ​ = 1 AU = 1.496 × 108 km
Mars’ Orbit Radius: rM ​ = 1.524 AU = 2.279 × 108 km
Gravitational Parameter of the Sun: μ = 1.327 × 1020 m³/s²
Orbital Period of Earth: 365.25 days
Orbital Period of Mars: 687 days

Step 1: Calculate the Semi-Major Axis of Transfer Orbit

8 8
 rE + rM 1.496 × 108 + 2.279 × 108
at = = = 1.888 × 108 km
​ ​

2 2
​ ​ ​

Step 2: Calculate the Transfer Time

Using Kepler’s Third Law:

4π 2 a3t
Tt =
​

μ
​ ​ ​

Approximating,

Tt ≈ 259 days (half of a full elliptical orbit)

​

Step 3: Compute the Velocities

Velocity in Earth's Orbit:

μ
vE =
rE
​ ​ ​

Velocity in Mars' Orbit:

μ
vM =
rM
​ ​ ​

Velocity at Perihelion (departure) in Transfer Orbit:

2 1
vp = μ( − )
r E at
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​

Velocity at Aphelion (arrival) in Transfer Orbit:

2 1
va = μ( − )
r M at
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​

Step 4: Compute ΔV for Departure and Arrival

ΔV at Departure (from Earth’s orbit to transfer orbit)

Δv1 = vp − vE
​ ​ ​

ΔV at Arrival (insertion into Mars' orbit)

Δv2 = vM − va
​ ​ ​

Step 5: Calculate Total ΔV Budget

ΔVtotal = Δv1 + Δv2

​ ​ ​
Step 4: Interpretation and Next Steps
1. Verify ΔV is within propulsion system limits
2. Consider aerobraking at Mars for fuel savings
3. Analyze launch window constraints and timing precision
4. Perform trajectory correction maneuvers

This approach provides a realistic framework for designing interplanetary orbits from first
principles. Let me know if you need numerical solutions for these steps! 🚀
1. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
Kepler’s three laws govern the motion of celestial bodies around a larger central mass (like planets around the Sun). These laws form the
foundation for calculating interplanetary orbits.

First Law: Elliptical Orbits

"The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the foci."

Interplanetary transfer orbits (e.g., Hohmann transfers) are elliptical.

The semi-major axis (𝑎) and eccentricity (𝑒) define the orbit’s shape.
The transfer orbit will have periapsis (closest point to the Sun) near Earth's orbit and apoapsis (farthest point) near Mars’ orbit.

Equation of an Ellipse:

a(1 − e2 )
r=
1 + e cos(θ)
​

where:
r = distance from the Sun at any point
a = semi-major axis
e = orbital eccentricity
θ = true anomaly (angle from periapsis)

💡 How this supports interplanetary calculations?

It helps define the path of the spacecraft.
Determines perihelion and aphelion distances for orbit transfer.

Second Law: Equal Areas in Equal Time

"A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal time intervals."

A spacecraft moves faster near periapsis (close to the Sun) and slower near apoapsis.
For interplanetary travel, this means the spacecraft’s velocity is not constant in the transfer orbit.

Equation for Areal Velocity:

dA 1 2
= r ω = constant
dt 2
​ ​

where ω is angular velocity.

💡 How this supports interplanetary calculations?
Determines time spent in different sections of the orbit.
Affects the timing of arrival at Mars for proper orbital insertion.

Third Law: Relationship Between Period and Semi-Major Axis

"The square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit."

4π 2 a3
T2 =
μ
where:
 T = orbital period
a = semi-major axis
μ = standard gravitational parameter (μ = GM , where G is the gravitational constant and M is the mass of the central body)

For interplanetary orbits:

4π 2 a3t
Tt =
​

μ
​ ​ ​

where at is the semi-major axis of the transfer orbit.

​

💡 How this supports interplanetary calculations?

Helps calculate transfer time for spacecraft.
Ensures correct launch windows so Mars is in the right position upon arrival.

2. Basic Orbital Elements

To describe an orbit fully, six parameters are used. These are necessary for defining the starting and ending conditions of an
interplanetary transfer.

Orbital Element Definition Relevance for Interplanetary Transfer

Semi-Major Axis (𝑎) Distance from orbit center to farthest point Defines orbit size and energy

Eccentricity (𝑒) Shape of the orbit (0 = circular, 1 = parabolic) Determines trajectory type

Inclination (𝑖) Angle between orbital plane and reference plane Important for aligning departure and arrival orbits

Argument of Periapsis (ω) Angle from ascending node to periapsis Determines where closest approach occurs

Longitude of Ascending Node (Ω) Orientation of the orbital plane Helps in aligning with planetary orbits

True Anomaly (ν) Current position of the spacecraft in orbit Needed for timing maneuvers

💡 How this supports interplanetary calculations?

Ensures the correct orientation and alignment of transfer orbits.
Helps in calculating when and where to perform maneuvers.

3. Energy Considerations for Orbital Transfers

Energy calculations determine the amount of velocity change (ΔV) required for a spacecraft to move from one orbit to another.

Total Specific Energy in an Orbit

v2 μ
ε= −
2 r
​ ​

where:
v = velocity
r = radial distance from central body
μ = gravitational parameter

💡 How this supports interplanetary calculations?

Helps in calculating escape velocity and required ΔV for transfers.
Circular Orbit Velocity
For a circular orbit at radius r :

μ
vc =
r
​ ​ ​

Escape Velocity
For a spacecraft to escape Earth’s gravity:

2μ
ve =
r
​ ​ ​

💡 How this supports interplanetary calculations?

Determines how fast the spacecraft needs to move to escape Earth.
Ensures efficient fuel use by optimizing launch speeds.

4. Hohmann Transfer Calculations

A Hohmann Transfer Orbit is the most fuel-efficient way to travel between two planets in circular orbits.

Velocity Changes (ΔV) for Transfer:

1. First Burn (Earth Departure)
The spacecraft moves from Earth's orbit to an elliptical transfer orbit.

μ 2r2
Δv1 = ( − 1)
​

r1 r1 + r2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

2. Second Burn (Mars Orbit Insertion)

The spacecraft adjusts velocity to match Mars’ orbit.

μ 2r1
Δv2 = (1 − )
​

r2 r1 + r2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

where:
r1 = Earth's orbital radius
​

r2 = Mars’ orbital radius

​

💡 How this supports interplanetary calculations?

Calculates the exact velocity changes needed for departure and arrival.
Optimizes fuel efficiency for the mission.

Summary: How These Concepts Support Interplanetary Orbit Calculations

Concept How It Helps?

Kepler’s Laws Defines orbital motion and transfer timing

Orbital Elements Provides parameters for trajectory design

Energy Equations Determines required velocities and ΔV

Hohmann Transfer Computes the fuel-optimal path to Mars

By mastering these prerequisite calculations, students gain the ability to design their own interplanetary orbits and solve real-world
space travel problems. 🚀
Problem Statement
Design an optimal Hohmann transfer orbit for a spacecraft traveling from Earth to Mars. Compute:
1. The ΔV (velocity changes) required for transfer.
2. The time taken to reach Mars.
3. The energy required for the transfer.

Given Data
Parameter Earth Mars

Semi-major axis (AU) 1 AU = 149.6 × 10⁶ km 1.524 AU = 227.9 × 10⁶ km

Orbital velocity (km/s) 29.78 km/s 24.07 km/s

Standard gravitational parameter (μ) Sun: 1.327 × 10¹¹ km³/s²

Conversions
1 AU = 149.6 × 10⁶ km
Mars’ orbital radius = 1.524 × 149.6 × 10⁶ km = 227.9 × 10⁶ km
We assume the initial and final orbits are circular around the Sun.

Step 1: Compute Transfer Orbit Parameters

1.1: Semi-Major Axis of Transfer Orbit
The semi-major axis (at ) of the elliptical Hohmann transfer orbit is the average of Earth and Mars’ orbits:
​

r1 + r2 149.6 + 227.9
at = = × 106 km
​ ​

2 2
​ ​ ​

377.5
at = × 106 km = 188.75 × 106 km
2
​ ​

Step 2: Compute Velocity Changes (ΔV)

We use the vis-viva equation to find velocity at each point:

2 1
v= μ( − )
r a
​ ​ ​

where:
μ = 1.327 × 1011 km³/s² (Sun’s gravitational parameter)
r1 = 149.6 × 10⁶ km (Earth’s orbit)
​

r2 = 227.9 × 10⁶ km (Mars’ orbit)

​

at = 188.75 × 10⁶ km (semi-major axis of transfer orbit)

​

2.1: Velocity at Earth in Transfer Orbit (Periapsis)

2 1
v1 = 1.327 × 1011 × ( − )
149.6 × 10 6 188.75 × 106
​ ​ ​ ​
 2 1
v1 = 1.327 × 1011 × ( − ) × 10−6
149.6 188.75
​ ​ ​ ​

v1 =
​ 1.327 × 1011 × (0.01337 − 0.00530) × 10−6 ​

v1 =
​
1.327 × 1011 × 8.07 × 10−6 ​

v1 = ​ 1.071 × 106 ​

v1 = 32.74 km/s ​

2.2: ΔV at Earth (Launch)

Δv1 = v1 − vEarth orbit

​ ​ ​

Δv1 = 32.74 − 29.78

​

Δv1 = 2.96 km/s ​

This is the boost required to leave Earth’s orbit and enter the transfer orbit.

2.3: Velocity at Mars in Transfer Orbit (Apoapsis)

2 1
v2 = 1.327 × 1011 × ( − )
227.9 × 10 6 188.75 × 106
​ ​ ​ ​

2 1
v2 = 1.327 × 1011 × ( − ) × 10−6
227.9 188.75
​ ​ ​ ​

v2 =
​ 1.327 × 1011 × (0.00877 − 0.00530) × 10−6 ​

v2 =
​ 1.327 × 1011 × 3.47 × 10−6 ​

v2 = ​ 4.6 × 105 ​

v2 = 24.14 km/s ​

2.4: ΔV at Mars (Orbit Insertion)

Δv2 = vMars orbit − v2

​ ​ ​

Δv2 = 24.07 − 24.14

​

Δv2 = −0.07 km/s ​

(A small braking maneuver is needed to enter Mars’ orbit.)

Step 3: Compute Time of Flight

The transfer time (Tt ) is half of the elliptical orbit period:
​

1 4π 2 a3t
Tt =
​

2 μ
​ ​ ​ ​

Using Kepler’s Third Law:

1 4π 2 (188.75 × 106 )3
Tt = ×
2 1.327 × 1011
​ ​ ​ ​
 1 4π 2 (6.73 × 1024 )
Tt = ×
2 1.327 × 1011
​ ​ ​ ​

1
Tt = × 2.00 × 1015
2
​ ​

1
Tt = × 4.47 × 107
2
​ ​

Tt = 2.24 × 107 seconds

​

2.24 × 107
Tt = days
86400
​ ​

Tt ≈ 260 days ≈ 8.6 months

​

Final Results
Parameter Value

Required ΔV at Earth 2.96 km/s

Required ΔV at Mars 0.07 km/s (braking)

Transfer Time 260 days (8.6 months)

Conclusion
The spacecraft needs a 2.96 km/s velocity boost at Earth to reach Mars.
After 8.6 months, a 0.07 km/s braking burn is required for orbit insertion.
This transfer is fuel-efficient but requires precise launch timing. 🚀
Problem Statement: Mars Sample Return Mission – Direct Transfer with Minimum Energy
A spacecraft is launched from Earth to Mars with the goal of collecting samples and returning to Earth. The spacecraft follows
a minimum-energy transfer orbit for both departure and return. Compute:
1. The ΔV required for departure from Earth to Mars.
2. The ΔV required for return from Mars to Earth.
3. The total time of flight (ToF) for a round trip.
4. The energy requirements for the mission.

Given Data
Parameter Earth Mars

Semi-major axis (AU) 1 AU = 149.6 × 10⁶ km 1.524 AU = 227.9 × 10⁶ km

Orbital velocity (km/s) 29.78 km/s 24.07 km/s

Standard gravitational parameter (μ) Sun: 1.327 × 10¹¹ km³/s²

Conversions
1 AU = 149.6 × 10⁶ km
Mars’ orbital radius = 1.524 × 149.6 × 10⁶ km = 227.9 × 10⁶ km
We assume the orbits are circular around the Sun and use a Hohmann transfer for both departure and return.

Step 1: Outbound Transfer from Earth to Mars

1.1: Compute Semi-Major Axis of Transfer Orbit
r1 + r2 149.6 + 227.9
at = = × 106 km
​ ​

2 2
​ ​ ​

at = 188.75 × 106 km
​

1.2: Compute Transfer Velocities

Using the vis-viva equation:

2 1
v= μ( − )
r a
​ ​ ​

where:
r1 = 149.6 × 106 km (Earth's orbit)
​

r2 = 227.9 × 106 km (Mars' orbit)

​

at = 188.75 × 106 km (semi-major axis of transfer orbit)

​

Velocity at Earth in Transfer Orbit (Periapsis)

2 1
v1 = 1.327 × 1011 × ( − )
149.6 × 106 188.75 × 106
​ ​ ​ ​

v1 = 32.74 km/s
​
ΔV at Earth (Launch)

Δv1 = v1 − vEarth orbit

​ ​ ​

Δv1 = 32.74 − 29.78

​

Δv1 = 2.96 km/s ​

1.3: Velocity at Mars in Transfer Orbit (Apoapsis)

v2 = 24.14 km/s
​

ΔV at Mars (Orbit Insertion)

Δv2 = vMars orbit − v2

​ ​ ​

Δv2 = 24.07 − 24.14

​

Δv2 = −0.07 km/s ​

(A small braking maneuver is needed to enter Mars’ orbit.)

Step 2: Return Transfer from Mars to Earth

This follows the same Hohmann transfer as before but in reverse. The semi-major axis remains the same.

2.1: Velocity at Mars in Transfer Orbit (Periapsis)

v3 = 24.14 km/s
​

ΔV at Mars (Launch)

Δv3 = v3 − vMars orbit

​ ​ ​

Δv3 = 24.14 − 24.07

​

Δv3 = 0.07 km/s ​

2.2: Velocity at Earth in Transfer Orbit (Apoapsis)

v4 = 32.74 km/s
​

ΔV at Earth (Re-Entry)

Δv4 = vEarth orbit − v4

​ ​ ​

Δv4 = 29.78 − 32.74

​

Δv4 = −2.96 km/s ​

(A braking maneuver is required to enter Earth’s orbit.)

Step 3: Compute Time of Flight (ToF)

Using Kepler’s Third Law:

1 4π 2 a3t
Tt =
​

2 μ
​ ​ ​ ​

Tt = 260 days
​

Total round-trip time:

2 × 260 = 520 days ≈ 1.42 years

Final Results
Parameter Value

Outbound ΔV (Earth to Mars) 2.96 km/s

Mars Orbit Insertion ΔV 0.07 km/s

Inbound ΔV (Mars to Earth) 0.07 km/s

Earth Orbit Insertion ΔV 2.96 km/s

Total Round-Trip ΔV 6.06 km/s

Total Time of Flight 520 days (1.42 years)

Conclusion
The spacecraft requires 2.96 km/s for Earth departure and 0.07 km/s for Mars orbit insertion.
For the return journey, 0.07 km/s for Mars departure and 2.96 km/s for Earth re-entry are needed.
The total ΔV for the mission is 6.06 km/s.
The total mission duration is 520 days (1.42 years). 🚀
Problem Statement: Mars Colony Supply Mission Using Bi-Elliptic Transfer
A spacecraft is sent from Earth to Mars carrying essential supplies for a future colony. Instead of using a traditional Hohmann transfer, this
mission employs a bi-elliptic transfer to reduce fuel consumption. The objective is to compute:
1. The total ΔV required for departure from Earth to Mars.
2. The ΔV required for Mars orbit insertion (assuming a circular orbit at Mars).
3. The total mission duration using a bi-elliptic transfer.
4. A comparison of energy and efficiency between Hohmann and bi-elliptic transfer for this mission.

Prerequisite Knowledge and Calculations

Before solving this problem, let’s review the fundamental concepts necessary for interplanetary trajectory design.

1. Orbital Mechanics Fundamentals

1. Two-Body Problem Assumption: We assume that only the gravitational force from the Sun dominates the motion of Earth and Mars,
making this a two-body problem.
2. Kepler’s Laws:

Orbits are elliptical, with the Sun at one focus.

Equal areas are swept in equal time (conservation of angular momentum).
The square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis.
3. Vis-Viva Equation: The velocity at any point in an elliptical orbit is given by:

2 1
v= μ( − )
r a
​ ​ ​

where μ = 1.327 × 1011 km³/s² is the standard gravitational parameter of the Sun.
4. ΔV Calculations: The change in velocity required for orbit changes is computed using:

ΔV = vfinal − vinitial
​ ​

Given Data for Earth and Mars

Parameter Earth Mars

Orbital radius (AU) 1 AU = 149.6 × 10⁶ km 1.524 AU = 227.9 × 10⁶ km

Orbital velocity (km/s) 29.78 km/s 24.07 km/s

Standard gravitational parameter (μ) Sun: 1.327 × 10¹¹ km³/s²

Step 1: Bi-Elliptic Transfer Strategy

Unlike a Hohmann transfer, a bi-elliptic transfer consists of:
1. First transfer ellipse: The spacecraft moves to an intermediate aphelion (r₃ > r₂).
2. Second transfer ellipse: From aphelion, the spacecraft moves to Mars.

Choosing an Intermediate Aphelion

Let’s select r₃ = 3 AU, meaning the spacecraft first reaches an aphelion at 3 AU from the Sun, before moving towards Mars.

Step 2: Compute Transfer Velocities

2.1: First Burn (Earth to 3 AU Aphelion)
Semi-major axis of first transfer orbit:

r1 + r3 149.6 + 448.8
a1 = = × 106
​ ​

2 2
​ ​ ​

a1 = 299.2 × 106 km
​

Velocity at Earth in transfer orbit:

2 1
v1 = 1.327 × 1011 × ( − )
149.6 × 106 299.2 × 106
​ ​ ​ ​

v1 = 32.01 km/s
​

ΔV required at Earth (departure burn):

ΔV1 = v1 − vEarth orbit

​ ​ ​

ΔV1 = 32.01 − 29.78 = 2.23 km/s

​

2.2: Second Burn (At 3 AU Aphelion to Mars Transfer Orbit)

Velocity at 3 AU in first transfer orbit:

2 1
v3 = 1.327 × 1011 × ( − )
448.8 × 10 6 299.2 × 106
​ ​ ​ ​

v3 = 13.24 km/s
​

Velocity required for Mars transfer orbit at 3 AU:

2 1
v3′ = 1.327 × 1011 × ( − )
448.8 × 106 (448.8 + 227.9)/2 × 106
​ ​ ​

v3′ = 14.97 km/s

​

ΔV at aphelion (3 AU burn):

ΔV2 = v3′ − v3 ​ ​ ​

ΔV2 = 14.97 − 13.24 = 1.73 km/s

​

2.3: Third Burn (Mars Orbit Insertion)

Velocity at Mars in transfer orbit:

v2 = 21.34 km/s
​

ΔV at Mars:

ΔV3 = vMars orbit − v2

​ ​ ​

ΔV3 = 24.07 − 21.34 = 2.73 km/s

​

Step 3: Time of Flight Calculations

Using Kepler’s Third Law:
1. First Transfer Orbit (Earth to 3 AU)

1 4π 2 (299.2 × 106 )3
T1 =
2 μ
​ ​ ​ ​

T1 = 1.52 years
​

2. Second Transfer Orbit (3 AU to Mars)

1 4π 2 (338.35 × 106 )3
T2 =
2 μ
​ ​ ​ ​

T2 = 0.84 years
​

Ttotal = T1 + T2 = 1.52 + 0.84 = 2.36 years

​ ​ ​

Final Results
Parameter Value

First Burn (Earth departure) ΔV = 2.23 km/s

Second Burn (3 AU boost) ΔV = 1.73 km/s

Third Burn (Mars orbit insertion) ΔV = 2.73 km/s

Total ΔV (Bi-Elliptic) 6.69 km/s

Total Transfer Time 2.36 years

Comparison with Hohmann Transfer

Parameter Hohmann Transfer Bi-Elliptic Transfer

Total ΔV 5.9 km/s 6.69 km/s

Total Time 520 days (1.42 years) 864 days (2.36 years)

Conclusion
The bi-elliptic transfer requires more time (2.36 years) but reduces fuel consumption per unit ΔV for missions with large payloads.
The Hohmann transfer is faster (1.42 years) but requires a single impulsive burn.
This method is useful for high-thrust missions where fuel efficiency is a priority over time constraints. 🚀