CONTENTS

1 Determinants
1.1 Definition
1.2 Expansion of determinants
1.3 Evaluation of determinants
1.4 Properties of determinants
1.5 Minors and cofactors
1.6 Product of two determinants
1.7 Summation of determinants
1.8 Differentiation and integration of determinants
1.9 Application in solving a system of linear equations
1.10 Application in co-ordinate geometry
1.11 Some special determinants
G. Cramer
2 Matrices
2.1 Definition
2.2
2.3
Order of a matrix
Equality of matrices
The theory of determinants may be said to have begun with
G.W. Leibnitz (1646-1716) who gave a rule for the solution of
2.4 Types of matrices simultaneous linear equations equivalent to that of the Chinese.
2.5 Addition and subtraction of matrices This rule was simplified by G. Cramer (1704-1752), a Swiss
2.6 Scalar multiplication of matrices mathematician, in 1750. E. Bezout (1730-1783), a French
2.7 Multiplication of matrices mathematician simplified it further in 1764. However, A.T.
Vandermonde (1735-1796) gave the first systematic account of
2.8 Positive integral powers of a matrix determinants in 1771. P.S. Laplace (1749-1827), in 1772, gave
2.9 Matrix polynomial the general method of expanding a determinant in terms of
2.10 Transpose of a matrix minors. In 1773, J.L,. Lagrange (1736-1813) treated
2.11 determinants of a matrix determinants fo order 2 and 3 and used them for purposes other
than the solution of equations. Carl F. Gauss (1777-1855) used
2.12 Special types of matrices determinants in the theory of numbers.
2.13 Adjoint of a square matrix
2.14 J.J. Sylvester, who was very fond of assigning imaginative
Inverse of a matrix
names to his creations and inventions, wrote down in 1850,
2.15 Elementary transformation or Elementary certain terms and expressions in the form of a rectangular
operations of a matrix arrangement, Sylvester gave this rectangular arrangement the
2.16 Elementary matrix name ‘matrix’. In particular, the names of Sir William
2.17 Rank of matrix Rowan Hamilton, (1805-1865) and Arthur Cayley deserve
special mention. Sir Hamilton, in 1853, and Arthur Cayley,
2.18 Echelon form of a matrix in 1858, made significant contributions to the theory of
2.19 System of simultaneous linear equations matrices.
2.20 Solution of a non-homogeneous system of linear
equations
2.21 Cayley-Hamilton theorem
2.22 Geometrical transformations
2.23 Matrices of rotations of axes
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Determinants & Matrices

1.1 Definition .
(1) Consider two equations, a 1 x  b1 y  0 .....(i) and a 2 x  b 2 y  0 .....(ii)
Multiplying (i) by b 2 and (ii) by b1 and subtracting, dividing by x, we get, a 1 b 2  a 2 b1  0
a1 b1
The result a 1 b 2  a 2 b1 is represented by
a2 b2
Which is known as determinant of order two and a 1 b 2  a 2 b1 is the expansion of this determinant. The
horizontal lines are called rows and vertical lines are called columns.
Now let us consider three homogeneous linear equations
a 1 x  b1 y  c 1 z  0 , a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  0 and a 3 x  b 3 y  c 3 z  0
Eliminated x, y, z from above three equations we obtain
a 1 (b 2 c 3  b 3 c 2 )  b1 (a 2 c 3  a 3 c 2 )  c 1 (a 2 b 3  a 3 b 2 )  0 .....(iii)

a1 b1 c1
The L.H.S. of (iii) is represented by a 2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
Its contains three rows and three columns, it is called a determinant of third order.

Note :  The number of elements in a second order is 2 2  4 and the number of elements in a third
order determinant is 3 2  9 .

(2) Rows and columns of a determinant : In a determinant horizontal lines counting from top 1st, 2nd,
3rd,….. respectively known as rows and denoted by R1 , R 2 , R 3 , ...... and vertical lines counting left to right, 1st,
2nd, 3rd,….. respectively known as columns and denoted by C1 , C 2 , C 3 ,.....

(3) Shape and constituents of a determinant : Shape of every determinant is square. If a determinant
of n order then it contains n rows and n columns.
i.e., Number of constituents in determinants = n2
(4) Sign system for expansion of determinant : Sign system for order 2, order 3, order 4,….. are
   
  
     
given by ,    , , .....
     
  
   
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Determinants & Matrices

1.2 Expansion of Determinants .

Unlike a matrix, determinant is not just a table of numerical data but (quite differently) a short hand way of
writing algebraic expression, whose value can be computed when the values of terms or elements are known.
a1 b1
(1) The 4 numbers a 1 , b1 , a 2 , b 2 arranged as is a determinant of second order. These numbers
a2 b2
a1 b1
are called elements of the determinant. The value of the determinant is defined as  a 1 b 2  a 2 b1 .
a2 b2
The expanded form of determinant has 2! terms.
a1 b1 c1
(2) The 9 numbers a r , b r , c r (r  1, 2, 3) arranged as a 2 b2 c2 is a determinant of third order. Take
a3 b3 c3
any row (or column); the value of the determinant is the sum of products of the elements of the row (or column)
and the corresponding determinant obtained by omitting the row and the column of the element with a proper
sign, given by the rule (1)i j , where i and j are the number of rows and the number of columns respectively of
a1 b1 c1
b c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
the element of the row (or the column) chosen. Thus a2 b2 c 2 = a1 2  b1  c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
The diagonal through the left-hand top corner which contains the element a 1 , b 2 , c 3 is called the leading
diagonal or principal diagonal and the terms are called the leading terms. The expanded form of determinant has 3!
terms.
Short cut method or Sarrus diagram method : To find the value of third order determinant,
following method is also useful

a1
b1 c1 b1
a1
a2
b2
a2 b2 c2 =

b3
a3 b3
c3 a3

Taking product of R.H.S. diagonal elements positive and L.H.S. diagonal elements negative and adding
them. We get the value of determinant as  a 1 b 2 c 3  b1 c 2 a 3  c 1 a 2 b 3  c 1 b 2 a 3  a 1 c 2 b 3  b1 a 2 c 3

Note : This method does not work for determinants of order greater than three.

1.3 Evaluation of Determinants .

If A is a square matrix of order 2, then its determinant can be easily found. But to evaluate determinants of
square matrices of higher orders, we should always try to introduce zeros at maximum number of places in a
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Determinants & Matrices

particular row (column) by using the properties and then we should expand the determinant along that row
(column).
We shall be using the following notations to evaluate a determinant :
(1) R i to denote i th row.
(2) Ri  R j to denote the interchange of i th and j th rows.

(3) Ri  Ri  R j to denote the addition of  times the elements of j th row to the corresponding
elements of i th row.
(4) R i ( ) to denote the multiplication of all element of i th row by  .
Similar notations are used to denote column operations if R is replaced by C.

1.4 Properties of Determinants .

P-1 : The value of determinant remains unchanged, if the rows and the columns are interchanged.
a1 b1 c 1 a1 a 2 a 3
If D  a 2 b 2 c 2 and D'  b1 b 2 b 3 . Then D'  D, D and D' are transpose of each other.
a 3 b3 c 3 c1 c 2 c 3

Note :  Since the determinant remains unchanged when rows and columns are interchanged, it is
obvious that any theorem which is true for ‘rows’ must also be true for ‘columns’.
P-2 : If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant be interchanged, the determinant is unaltered in
numerical value but is changed in sign only.
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
Let D  a2 b2 c 2 and D'  a1 b1 c 1 . Then D '   D
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
P-3 : If a determinant has two rows (or columns) identical, then its value is zero.
a1 b1 c1
Let D  a1 b1 c 1 . Then, D = 0
a2 b2 c2
P-4 : If all the elements of any row (or column) be multiplied by the same number, then the value of
determinant is multiplied by that number.
a1 b1 c1 ka1 kb1 kc 1
Let D  a 2 b2 c 2 and D   a 2 b2 c 2 . Then D'  kD
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
P-5 : If each element of any row (or column) can be expressed as a sum of two terms, then the
determinant can be expressed as the sum of the determinants.
a1  x b1  y c 1  z a1 b1 c1 x y z
e.g., a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 c 2 + a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
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Determinants & Matrices

P-6 : The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the elements of any row (or column) the
same multiples of the corresponding elements of any other row (or column)
a1 b1 c 1 a1  ma 2 b1  mb 2 c 1  mc 2
e.g., D  a 2 b 2 c 2 and D'  a2 b2 c2 . Then D'  D
a 3 b3 c 3 a 3  na1 b 3  nb1 c 3  nc 1

Note :  It should be noted that while applying P-6 at least one row (or column) must remain
unchanged.
P-7 : If all elements below leading diagonal or above leading diagonal or except leading diagonal
elements are zero then the value of the determinant equal to multiplied of all leading diagonal elements.
a1 b1 c 1 a1 0 0 a1 0 0
e.g., 0 b 2 c 2  a 2 b2 0  0 b 2 0  a1b 2 c 3
0 0 c3 a 3 b3 c 3 0 0 c3

P-8 : If a determinant D becomes zero on putting x   , then we say that ( x   ) is factor of

determinant.
x 5 2
e.g., if D  x 2 9 4 . At x  2, D  0 (because C1 and C 2 are identical at x  2 )
x 3 16 8
Hence (x  2) is a factor of D.

Note :  It should be noted that while applying operations on determinants then at least one row (or
column) must remain unchanged.or, Maximum number of operations = order or
determinant –1
 It should be noted that if the row (or column) which is changed by multiplied a non zero
number, then the determinant will be divided by that number.
1  n  2n
2n
Example: 1 2
If n  3k and 1,  ,  are the cube roots of unity, then    1  n has the value
 n  2n 1

(a) 0 (b)  (c) 2 (d) 1

Solution: (a) Applying C1  C1  C 2  C 3 , we get
1   n   2n n  2n 0 n  2n
  1   n   2n 1 n  0 1 n  0 ( 1   n   2n  0 if n is not multiple of 3)
1   n   2n  2n 1 0  2n 1

1 x 1 1
Example: 2 1 1 y 1 
1 1 1 z
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) xyz  1     (b) xyz (c) 1   (d)  
 x y z x y z x y z
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Determinants & Matrices

1 1 1
1
x x x 1 1 1
1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution: (a)   xyz 1  xyz 1     1 (by R1  R1  R 2  R 3 )
y y y  x y z y y y
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
z z z z z z

1 0 0
 1 1 1 1
 xyz 1     1 0 (by C 2  C 2  C1 and C 3  C 3  C1 )
 x y z y
1
0 1
z
 1 1 1 1 0  1 1 1
 xyz 1      xyz 1    
 x y z 0 1  x y z

2 1 1
Trick : Put x  1, y  2 and z  3 , then 1 3 1  2(11)  1(3)  1(1  3)  17 .
1 1 4
 1 1 1
option (a) gives 1  2  3 1      17
 1 2 3
10 10 11
C4 C5 Cm
11 11 12
Example: 3 The value of   C6 C7 C m 2 is equal to zero, where m is
12 12 13
C8 C9 C m 4

(a) 6 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) None of these

10 10 11
C4 C5 Cm
11 11 12
Solution: (c)  C6 C7 C m 2 =0
12 12 13
C8 C9 C m 4

Applying C 2  C1  C 2
10 10
C4 C 4  10 C 5 11
Cm 10
C4 11
C5 11
Cm
11 11
 C6 C 6  11 C7 12
C m 2  0    11
C6 12
C7 12
C m 2 = 0
12 12
C8 C 8  12 C 9 13
C m 4 12
C8 13
C9 13
C m 4

Clearly m  5 satisfies the above result [ C2 , C3 will be identical ]

log a n log a n1 log a n 2

Example: 4 If a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ......., a n , ...... are in G.P. then the value of the determinant log a n 3 log a n 4 log a n 5 is
log a n 6 log a n7 log a n 8

(a) –2 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 0

Solution: (d)  a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ......., a n , ...... are in G.P.
 a n21  a n .a n  2  2 log a n 1  log a n  log a n  2

a n2 4  a n  3 .a n  5  2 log a n  4  log a n  3  log a n  5

a n2 7  a n  6 .a n  8  2 log a n  7  log a n  6  log a n  8

Putting these values in the second column of the given determinant, we get
log a n log a n  log a n 2 log a n 2
1
 log a n 3 log a n 3  log a n 5 log a n 5
2
log a n 6 log a n 6  log a n 8 log a n 8
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Determinants & Matrices

1
 (0)  0 [ C2 is the sum of two elements, first identical with C1 and second with C 3 ]
2
1 1 1
Example: 5 The value of (2 x  2 x )2 (3 x  3 x )2 (5 x  5  x )2
(2 x  2 x )2 (3 x  3 x )2 (5 x  5  x )2

(a) 0 (b) 30 x (c) 30  x (d) None of these

Solution: (a) Applying R 2  R 2  R 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
x x x x x x
  2.2 .2.2 2.3 .2.3 2.5 .2.5 4 1 1 1 0
(2 x  2  x ) 2 (3 x  3  x ) 2 (5 x  5  x ) 2 (2 x  2  x ) 2 (3 x  3  x ) 2 (5 x  5  x ) 2
[ R1 and R2 are identical ]
Trick : Putting x  0 , we get option (a) is correct

Example: 6 If x, y, z are integers in A.P. lying between 1 and 9 and x51, y41 and z31 are three digit numbers then the value of
5 4 3
x 51 y 41 z 31 is
x y z
(a) xyz (b) xyz (c) 0 (d) None of these
Solution: (c)  x 51  100 x  50  1 ,
y 41  100 y  40  1
z 31  100 z  30  1

5 4 3
   100 x  50  1 100y  40  1 100 z  30  1
x y z
Applying R 2  R 2  100 R 3  10 R1
5 4 3
  1 1 1  x  2y  z
x y z
 x, y, z are in A.P. ,  x  2y  z  0 ,    0
0 x a x b
Example: 7 If a  b  c , the value of x which satisfies the equation x  a 0 x  c  0 is
xb xc 0

Solution: (a) Expanding determinant, we get,   ( x  a)[( x  b)(x  c)]  ( x  b)[(x  a)(x  c)]  0  2 x 3  (2 ab )x  0

 Either x  0 or x 2  ab . Since x  0 satisfies the given equation.

0 a b
Trick : On putting x  0 , we observe that the determinant becomes  x 0  a 0 c  0
b c 0
 x  0 is a root of the given equation.

sin x cos x cos x

 
Example: 8 The number of distinct real roots of cos x sin x cos x  0 in the interval   x  is
4 4
cos x cos x sin x
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 3
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Determinants & Matrices

1 cos x cos x
Solution: (c) (2 cos x  sin x) 1 sin x cos x  0
1 cos x sin x
Applying, R 2  R 2  R1 and R 3  R 3  R1
1 cos x cos x
(2 cos x  sin x) 0 sin x  cos x 0  0  (2 cos x  sin x)(sin x  cos x) 2  0
0 0 sin x  cos x
   
 tan x  2, 1 But tan x  2 in   ,  . Hence tan x  1  x 
 4 4 4

 2  3   1   3
Example: 9 If p 4  q 3  r 2  s  t    1 2     4 , then value of t is
3 4 3

(a) 16 (b) 18 (c) 17 (d) 19

Solution: (b) Since it is an identity in  so satisfied by every value of  . Now put   0 in the given equation, we have
0 1 3
t 1 2  4  12  30  18
3 4 0

1 x ( x  1)
Example: 10 If f ( x)  2x x( x  1) ( x  1)x , then f (100) is equal to
3 x( x  1) x( x  1)(x  2) ( x  1)x( x  1)
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 100 (d) –100
1 x ( x  1)
Solution: (a) f ( x)  2x x( x  1) ( x  1)x
3 x( x  1) x( x  1)(x  2) ( x  1)x( x  1)
Applying C 3  C 3  C 2 , we get
1 x 1
f ( x)  2x x( x  1) 2x  0 . Hence f (100 )  0
3 x( x  1) x( x  1)( x  2) 3 x( x  1)
1 0 0 0 0
2 2 0 0 0
Example: 11 The value of 4 4 3 0 0 is
5 5 5 4 0
6 6 6 6 5
(a) 6! (b) 5! (c) 1.2 2 . 3.4 3 . 5 4 .6 4 (d) None of these
Solution: (b) The elements in the leading diagonal are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. On one side of the leading diagonal all the elements are zero.
 The value of the determinant
= The product of the elements in the leading diagonal = 1.2.3.4.5 = 5!
a b a  b
Example: 12 The determinant b b  c  0 if
c
a  b b  c 0
(a) a, b, c are in A.P.
(b) a, b, c are in G.P. or (x   ) is a factor of ax 2  2bx  c  0
(c) a, b, c are in H.P.
(d)  is a root of the equation
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Determinants & Matrices

a b a  b
Solution: (b) Applying R 3  R 3  R1  R 2 , we get b c b  c 0
0 0  a 2  b  b  c
2
  (a  2  2b  c )(ac  b 2 )  0  a  2  2b  c  0 or b  ac
 x   is a root of ax 2  2bx  c  0 or a, b, c are in G.P.
 ( x   ) is a factor of ax 2  2bx  c  0 or a, b, c are in G.P.

1.5 Minors and Cofactors .

(1) Minor of an element : If we take the element of the determinant and delete (remove) the row and
column containing that element, the determinant left is called the minor of that element. It is denoted by M ij
a11 a12 a13 M 11 M 12 M 13
Consider the determinant   a 21 a 22 a 23 , then determinant of minors M  M 21 M 22 M 23 ,
a 31 a 32 a 33 M 31 M 32 M 33
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23
where M 11  minor of a11  , M 12  minor of a12 
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33
a 21 a 22
M 13  minor of a13 
a 31 a 32
Similarly, we can find the minors of other elements . Using this concept the value of determinant can be
  a 11 M 11  a 12 M 12  a 13 M 13
or,    a 21 M 21  a 22 M 22  a 23 M 23 or,   a 31 M 31  a 32 M 32  a 33 M 33 .

(2) Cofactor of an element : The cofactor of an element aij (i.e. the element in the i th row and j th
column) is defined as (1)i j times the minor of that element. It is denoted by Cij or Aij or Fij . Cij  (1)i j M ij
a11 a12 a13 C11 C12 C13
If   a 21 a 22 a 23 , then determinant of cofactors is C  C 21 C 22 C 23 , where
a 31 a 32 a 33 C 31 C 32 C 33

C11  (1)11 M11   M11 , C12  (1)1 2 M12   M12 and C13  (1)1 3 M13   M13
Similarly, we can find the cofactors of other elements.
Note : The sum of products of the element of any row with their corresponding cofactor is equal to the
value of determinant i.e.   a 11 C11  a 12 C12  a 13 C13  a 11 C11  a 21 C 21  a 31 C 31
where the capital letters C11 , C12 , C13 etc. denote the cofactors of a 11 , a 12 , a 13 etc.

 In general, it should be noted

ai1C j1  ai 2 C j 2  ai 3 C j 3  0, if i  j or a1i C1 j  a 2i C2 j  a 3i C3 j  0, if i  j

 If  ' is the determinant formed by replacing the elements of a determinant  by their

corresponding cofactors, then if   0 , then C  0 ,  '  n1 , where n is the order of the
determinant.
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Determinants & Matrices

1 3 5 1
2 3 4 2
Example: 13 The cofactor of the element 4 in the determinant is
8 0 1 1
0 2 1 1
(a) 4 (b) 10 (c) –10 (d) –4
1 3 1
Solution: (b) The cofactor of element 4, in the 2nd row and 3rd column is (1) 2 3 8 0 1 = {1(2)  3(8  0)  1.16}  10
0 2 1

a1 b1 c1
Example: 14 If   a 2 b2 c2 and A1 , B1 , C1 denote the cofactors of a 1 , b1 , c 1 respectively, then the value of the determinant
a3 b3 c3
A1 B1 C1
A2 B2 C2 is
A3 B3 C3

(a)  (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 0

a1 b1 c1 A1 B1 C1 a1 A1 0 0  0 0
Solution: (b) We know that .'  a 2 b2 c 2 . A2 B2 C2  0 a2 A2 0  0  0  3
a3 b3 c3 A3 B3 C3 0 0 a3 A3 0 0 
  '  2

Trick : According to property of cofactors '  n1  2 ( Hence n  3)

Example: 15 If the value of a third order determinant is 11, then the value of the square of the determinant formed by the cofactors
will be
(a) 11 (b) 121 (c) 1331 (d) 14641

Solution: (d) '  n1  3 1  2  (11) 2  121 . But we have to find the value of the square of the determinant, so required value
is (121) 2  14641 .

1.6 Product of two Determinants .

Let the two determinants of third order be,
a1 b1 c1 1 1  1
D1  a 2 b2 c 2 and D2   2  2  2 . Let D be their product.
a3 b3 c3 3 3  3

(1) Method of multiplying (Row by row) : Take the first row of D1 and the first row of D2 i.e.
a1 , b1 , c 1 and  1 ,  1 ,  1 multiplying the corresponding elements and add. The result is a1 1  b1  1  c 1 1 is the
first element of first row of D.
Now similar product first row of D1 and second row of D2 gives a1 2  b1  2  c 1 2 is the second
element of first row of D, and the product of first row D1 and third row of D2 gives a1 3  b1  3  c 1 3 is the
third element of first row of D. The second row and third row of D is obtained by multiplying second row and
third row of D1 with 1st , 2nd , 3rd row of D2 , in the above manner.
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Determinants & Matrices

a1 b1 c1 1 1  1
Hence, D  a 2 b2 c2   2 2  2
a3 b3 c3 3 3  3

a1 1  b1  1  c1 1 a1 2  b1  2  c1 2 a1 3  b1  3  c1 3

 a 2 1  b2  1  c 2 1 a 2 2  b2  2  c 2 2 a 2 3  b2  3  c 2 3
a 3 1  b3  1  c 3 1 a 3 2  b3  2  c 3 2 a 3 3  b3  3  c 3 3

Note :  We can also multiply rows by columns or columns by rows or columns by columns.

cos( A  P ) cos( A  Q) cos( A  R)

Example: 16 For all values of A, B, C and P, Q, R the value of cos(B  P ) cos(B  Q) cos(B  R) is
cos(C  P ) cos(C  Q) cos(C  R)

(a) 0 (b) cos A cos B cos C (c) sin A sin B sin C (d) cos P cos Q cos R

Solution: (a) The determinant can be expanded as

cos A cos P  sin A sin P cos A cos Q  sin A sin Q cos A cos R  sin A sin R cos A sin A 0 cos P sin P 0
cos B cos P  sin B sin P cos B cos Q  sin B sin Q cos B cos R  sin B sin R  cos B sin B 0  cos Q sin Q 0  0
cos C cos P  sin C sin P cos C cos Q  sin C sin Q cos C cos R  sin C sin R cos C sin C 0 cos R sin R 0

log 3 512 log 4 3 log 2 3 log 8 3

Example: 17  
log 3 8 log 4 9 log 3 4 log 3 4

(a) 7 (b) 10 (c) 13 (d) 17

log 3 512 log 4 3 log 2 3 log 8 3  log 512 log 9 log 3 log 8   log 3 log 4 log 3 log 4 
Solution: (b)           
log 3 8 log 4 9 log 3 4 log 3 4  log 3 log 4 log 4 log 3   log 2 log 3 log 8 log 3 

 log 29 log 3 2 log 23   log 22 log 22   9  2 3   2

   2
 
2  
  
3 
   2    10
 log 3 log 2 log 2   log 2 log 2   2 2   3 

1.7 Summation of Determinants .

f (r ) a l
Let  r  g(r ) b m , where a, b, c, l, m and n are constants, independent of r.
h(r ) c n
n

 f (r)
r 1
a l
n n
Then, 
r 1
r   g(r)
r 1
b m . Here function of r can be the elements of only one row or one column.
n

 h(r)
r 1
c n

p 15 8
2
Example: 18 If D p  p 35 9 , then D1  D 2  D 3  D 4  D 5 
p3 25 10
(a) 0 (b) 25 (c) 625 (d) None of these
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Determinants & Matrices

1 15 8 2 15 8 3 15 8 4 15 8 5 15 8
Solution: (d)  D1  1 35 9 , D2  4 35 9 , D 3  9 35 9 , D 4  16 35 9 , D5  25 35 9
1 25 10 8 25 10 27 25 10 64 25 10 125 25 10

15 75 40
 D1  D 2  D 3  D 4  D 5  55 175 45
225 125 50
 15(3125)  75(7375)  40(32500)  46875  553125  1300000  700000

N n 1 5
Example: 19 The value of  U n , if U n  n 2 2 N  1 2 N  1 is
n 1 n3 3N 2 3N
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) None of these
N ( N  1)
1 5
N 2 6 1 5
N ( N  1)(2 N  1) N ( N  1)
Solution: (a)  Un 
6
2N  1 2N  1 
12
4N  2 2N  1 2N  1
n1 2 3 N ( N  1) 3N 2 3N
 N ( N  1)  2
  3N 3N
 2 
6 1 6
N ( N  1)
Applying C 3  C 3  C 2  4N  2 2N  1 4N  2 =0 [  C1 and C3 are identical]
12
3 N ( N  1) 3N 2 3 N ( N  1)

1.8 Differentiation and Integration of Determinants.

(1) Differentiation of a determinant : (i) Let (x) be a determinant of order two. If we write
( x ) | C1 C2 | , where C1 and C 2 denote the 1st and 2nd columns, then
' (x)  C'1 C2  C1 C2
where C' i denotes the column which contains the derivative of all the functions in the i th column Ci .
R1 R' 1 R1
In a similar fashion, if we write ( x )  , then   ( x)  
R2 R2 R 2
(ii) Let (x) be a determinant of order three. If we write (x)  C1 C2 C3 , then
' (x)  C'1 C2 C3  C1 C' 2 C3  C1 C2 C'3
R1 R'1 R1 R1
and similarly if we consider ( x)  R2 , then ' ( x)  R2  R' 2  R2
R3 R3 R3 R' 3
(iii) If only one row (or column) consists functions of x and other rows (or columns) are constant, viz.
f1( x) f2 ( x) f3 ( x)
Let ( x)  b1 b2 b3 ,
c1 c2 c3
n n n
f '1 ( x) f ' 2 ( x) f ' 3 ( x) f1 (x) f2 (x) f3 (x)
n
then ' ( x)  b1 b2 b3 and in general  (x)  b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3

where n is any positive integer and f n (x) denotes the n th derivative of f (x ) .

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Determinants & Matrices

x b b
x b
Example: 20 If 1  a x b and  2  are the given determinants, then
a x
a a x

d d
(a)  1  3( 2 ) 2 (b) ( 1 )  3 2 (c) ( 1 )  2( 2 ) 2 (d)  1  332 / 2
dx dx
x b b
d x b
Solution: (b) 1  a x b  x 3  3abx  ( 1 )  3( x 2  ab) and  2   x 2  ab
dx a x
a a x
d
 ( 1 )  3( x 2  ab)  3 2
dx
y y1 y2
dny
Example: 21 If y  sin mx , then the value of the determinant y 3 y4 y 5 , where y n  is
dx n
y6 y7 y8
9 2
(a) m (b) m (c) m3 (d) None of these
2
y y1 y2 sin mx m cos mx  m sin mx
3 4
Solution: (d) y3 y4 y5   m cos mx m sin mx m 5 cos mx
y6 y7 y8  m sin mx  m cos mx m 8 sin mx
6 7

Taking  m 6 common from R 3 , R1 and R 3 becomes identical. Hence the value of determinant is zero.
f (x) g(x) h(x)
(2) Integration of a determinant : Let (x)  a b c , where a, b, c, l, m and n are constants.
l m n
b b b

b
 f (x)dx  g(x)dx  h(x)dx
a a a
 
a
( x)dx  a b c
l m n

Note : If the elements of more than one column or rows are functions of x then the integration can be
done only after evaluation/expansion of the determinant.
1 cos x 1  cos x
 /2
Example: 22 If ( x)  1  sin x cos x 1  sin x  cos x , then
sin x sin x 1
 (x) dx is equal to
0

(a) 1/4 (b) 1/2 (c) 0 (d) –1/2

Solution: (d) Applying C 3  C 3  C 2  C1
1 cos x 0
( x)  1  sin x cos x 0  cos x  cos x(1  sin x)   sin x cos x
sin x sin x 1
 /2  /2
1  /2 1  cos 2 x  1 1


0
(x)dx  

2 0
sin 2 xdx   
2 2  0

4
(cos   cos 0)  
2

1.9 Application of Determinants in solving a system of Linear Equations.

a1 x  b1 y  c 1 z  d1 

Consider a system of simultaneous linear equations is given by a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2  .....(i)
a 3 x  b3 y  c 3 z  d 3 
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Determinants & Matrices

A set of values of the variables x, y, z which simultaneously satisfy these three equations is called a
solution. A system of linear equations may have a unique solution or many solutions, or no solution at all, if it
has a solution (whether unique or not) the system is said to be consistent. If it has no solution, it is called an
inconsistent system.
If d1  d 2  d 3  0 in (i) then the system of equations is said to be a homogeneous system. Otherwise it is
called a non-homogeneous system of equations.
Theorem 1 : (Cramer’s rule) The solution of the system of simultaneous linear equations
a 1 x  b1 y  c 1 .....(i) and a 2 x  b2 y  c 2 .....(ii)
D1 D a b1 c1 b1 a1 c1
is given by x  , y  2 , where D  1 , D1  and D 2  , provided that
D D a2 b2 c2 b2 a2 c2
D0
a1 b1  a b1 
Note :  Here D 
a 2 b2
is the determinant of the coefficient matrix  1 .
 a 2 b2 
The determinant D1 is obtained by replacing first column in D by the column of the right hand side of the
given equations. The determinant D 2 is obtained by replacing the second column in D by the right most column
in the given system of equations.

(1) Solution of system of linear equations in three variables by Cramer’s rule :

Theorem 2 : (Cramer’s Rule) The solution of the system of linear equations
a 1 x  b1 y  c 1 z  d 1 .....(i)
a 2 x  b2 y  c 2 z  d 2 .....(ii)
a 3 x  b3 y  c 3 z  d 3 .....(iii)
a1 b1 c1
D D2 D3
is given by x  1 , y and z  , where D  a 2 b2 c2 ,
D D D
a3 b3 c3
d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
D1  d 2 b2 c 2 , D2  a 2 d2 c 2 , and D 3  a 2 b2 d 2 , Provided that D  0
d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3

Note : Here D is the determinant of the coefficient matrix. The determinant D1 is obtained by
replacing the elements in first column of D by d 1 , d 2 , d 3 . D 2 is obtained by replacing the
element in the second column of D by d 1 , d 2 , d 3 and to obtain D 3 , replace elements in the third
column of D by d 1 , d 2 , d 3 .

Theorem 3 : (Cramer’s Rule) Let there be a system of n simultaneous linear equation n unknown given
by
a11 x 1  a12 x 2  ....  a1n x n  b1
a 21 x 1  a 22 x 2  ....  a 2n x n  b 2
  
a n1 x 1  a n 2 x 2  ....  a nn x n  bn
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Determinants & Matrices

a11 a12  a1n

a 21 a 22  a 2n
Let D  and let D j , be the determinant obtained from D after replacing the j th
 
a n1 a n 2  a nm
b1
b2 D1 D D
column by . Then, x 1  , x 2  2 , ....., x n  n , Provided that D  0
 D D D
bn
(2) Conditions for consistency
Case 1 : For a system of 2 simultaneous linear equations with 2 unknowns
(i) If D  0 , then the given system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution given by
D1 D
x ,y  2 .
D D
(ii) If D  0 and D1  D 2  0 , then the system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.
(iii) If D  0 and one of D1 and D 2 is non-zero, then the system is inconsistent.

Case 2 : For a system of 3 simultaneous linear equations in three unknowns

(i) If D  0 , then the given system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution given by
D1 D D
x , y  2 and z  3
D D D
(ii) If D  0 and D1  D 2  D 3  0 , then the given system of equations is consistent with infinitely many
solutions.
(iii) If D  0 and at least one of the determinants D 1 , D 2 , D 3 is non-zero, then given of equations is
inconsistent.
(3) Algorithm for solving a system of simultaneous linear equations by Cramer’s rule
(Determinant method)
Step 1 : Obtain D, D1 , D 2 and D 3
Step 2 : Find the value of D. If D  0 , then the system of the equations is consistent has a unique
D D
solution. To find the solution, obtain the values of D1 , D 2 and D 3 . The solutions is given by x  1 , y  2
D D
D
and z  3 . If D  0 go to step 3.
D
Step 3 : Find the values of D1 , D 2 , D 3 . If at least one of these determinants is non-zero, then the system is
inconsistent. If D1  D 2  D 3  0, then go to step 4
Step 4 : Take any two equations out of three given equations and shift one of the variables, say z on the right
hand side to obtain two equations in x, y. Solve these two equations by Cramer’s rule to obtain x, y, in terms of z.

Note:  The system of following homogeneous equations a 1 x  b1 y  c 1 z  0 , a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  0 ,

a 3 x  b 3 y  c 3 z  0 is always consistent.
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Determinants & Matrices

a1 b1 c1
If   a 2 b2 c 2  0 , then this system has the unique solution x  y  z  0 known as
a3 b3 c3
trivial solution. But if   0 , then this system has an infinite number of solutions. Hence for
non-trivial solution   0 .
Example: 23 If the system of linear equations x  2ay  az  0, x  3 by  bz  0, x  4 cy  cz  0 has a non-zero solution, then a,
b, c
(a) Are in A.P. (b) Are in G.P. (c) Are in H.P. (d) Satisfy a  2b  3c  0

1 2a a
Solution: (c) System of linear equations has a non-zero solution, then 1 3b b  0
1 4c c

1 0 a
Applying C 2  C 2  2C 3 ; 1 b b  0
1 2c c

Applying R3  R3  R2 and R2  R2  R1
1 0 a
2 1 1
0 bb  a  0  b(c  b)  (b  a)(2c  b)  0 . On simplification   ;  a, b, c are in H.P.
b a c
0 2c  b c  b

Example: 24 If the system of equations x  ay  0, az  y  0 and ax  z  0 has infinite solutions, then the value of a is

(a) –1 (b) 1 (c) 0 (d) No real values

1 a 0
Solution: (a) 0 1 a  0  1  a(a) 2  0  a 3  1  a  1
a 0 1

Example: 25 If the system of equations ax  y  z  0, x  by  z  0 and x  y  cz  0 , where a, b, c  1 has a non-trivial

1 1 1
solution, then the value of   is
1a 1b 1c
(a) –1 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) None of these
a 1 1
Solution: (c) As the system of the equations has a non-trivial solution 1 b 1  0
1 1 c
Applying R 2  R 2  R1 and R 3  R 3  R1
a 1 1
1 a b 1 0  0  a(b  1)(c  1)  1(1  a)(c  1)  1(1  a)(b  1)  0
1 a 0 c 1
a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
   0 1  0   1
1a 1b 1c 1a 1b 1c 1a 1b 1c

Example: 26 If the system of equations x  2y  3 z  1, (k  3)z  3, (2k  1)x  z  0 is inconsistent, then the value of k is

1
(a) –3 (b) (c) 0 (d) 2
2
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Determinants & Matrices

Solution: (a) For the equations to be inconsistent D  0

1 2 3 1 2 3
 D 0 0 k  3  0  k  3 and D1  3 0 0  0 , Hence system is inconsistent for k  3 .
2k  1 0 1 0 0 1
Example: 27. The equations x  y  z  6, x  2y  3 z  10, x  2y  mz  n give infinite number of values of the triplet (x, y, z) if
(a) m  3, n  R (b) m  3, n  10 (c) m  3, n  10 (d) None of these
Solution: (c) Each of the first three options contains m  3 . When m  3 , the last two equations become x  2y  3z  10 and
x  2y  3 z  n .
Obviously, when n  10 these equations become the same. So we are left with only two independent equations to
find the values of the three unknowns.
Consequently, there will be infinite solutions.
Example: 28 The value of  for which the system of equations 2 x  y  z  12 , x  2y  z  4, x  y  z  4 has no solution is
(a) 3 (b) –3 (c) 2 (d) –2
2 1 1
Solution: (d) D 1 2 1  3  6 . For no solution the necessary condition is 3  6  0    2 . It can be see that
1 1 
for   2 , there is no solution for the given system of equations.

1.10 Application of Determinants in Co-ordinate Geometry.

(1) Area of triangle whose vertices are ( x r , y r ); r  1, 2, 3 is
x1 y1 1
1 1
  [ x 1 (y 2  y 3 )  x 2 (y 3  y1 )  x 3 (y1  y 2 )]  x2 y2 1
2 2
x3 y3 1
(2) If a r x  br y  c r  0, (r  1, 2, 3) are the sides of a triangle, then the area of the triangle is given by
2
a1 b1 c1
1
 a2 b2 c2 , where C1  a 2 b 3  a 3 b 2 , C 2  a 3 b1  a1b 3 , C 3  a1b 2  a 2 b1 are
2C1C2 C3
a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1
the cofactors of the elements c 1 , c 2 , c 3 respectively in the determinant a2 b2 c2 .
a3 b3 c3
x y 1
(3) The equation of a straight line passing through two points ( x 1 , y1 ) and ( x 2 , y 2 ) is x1 y1 1  0
x2 y2 1
a1 b1 c1
(4) If three lines a r x  br y  c r  0 ; (r  1, 2, 3) are concurrent if a 2 b2 c2  0
a3 b3 c3

(5) If ax 2  2hxy  by 2  2gx  2 fy  c  0 represents a pair of straight lines then

a h g
2 2 2
abc  2 fgh  af  bg  ch  0  h b f
g f c
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Determinants & Matrices

(6) The equation of circle through three non-collinear points A( x 1 , y1 ), B( x 2 , y 2 ), C( x 3 , y 3 ) is

x2  y2 x y 1
x12  y12 x1 y1 1
0
x 22  y 22 x2 y2 1
x 32  y 32 x3 y3 1

Example: 29 The three lines ax  by  c  0, bx  cy  a  0, cx  ay  b  0 are concurrent only when

(a) abc 0 (b) a 2  b 2  c 2  ab  bc  ca

(c) a 3  b 3  c 3  ab  bc  ca (d) None of these
a b c
Solution: (a, b) Three lines are concurrent if b c a  0 or, 3abc  a 3  b 3  c 3  0  a 3  b 3  c 3  3abc
c a b

Also, a 3  b 3  c 3  3abc  0  (a  b  c)(a 2  b 2  c 2  ab  bc  ca)  0

 (a  b  c)  0 or a 2  b 2  c 2  ab  bc  ca .

1.11 Some Special Determinants.

(1) Symmetric determinant : A determinant is called symmetric determinant if for its every element
a h g
aij  a ji  i, j e.g., h b f
g f c

(2) Skew-symmetric determinant : A determinant is called skew symmetric determinant if for its every
0 3 1
element a ij   a ji  i, j e.g.,  3 0 5
1 5 0

Note :  Every diagonal element of a skew symmetric determinant is always zero.

 The value of a skew symmetric determinant of even order is always a perfect square and that
of odd order is always zero.
0 c b
For example (i)  c 0 a  c(0  ab)  b(ac  0)  abc  abc  0
b a 0
0 ab e f
0 a 2 2
(ii)  0  a  a (Perfect square) (iii) b  a 0 l m  0
a 0
f e ml 0
(3) Cyclic order : If elements of the rows (or columns) are in cyclic order.
1 a a2
i.e. (i) 1 b b 2  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)
1 c c2
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Determinants & Matrices

a b c 1 1 1
(ii) a2 b2 c  a2
2
b2 c 2  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)(ab  bc  ca)
bc ca ab a3 b3 c3
a bc abc a a2 a3
(iii) b ca abc  b b 2 b 3  abc(a  b)(b  c)(c  a)
c ab abc c c2 c3
1 1 1 a b c
(iv) a b c  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)(a  b  c) (v) b c a  (a 3  b 3  c 3  3abc)
a3 b3 c3 c a b

Note :  These results direct applicable in lengthy questions (As behavior of standard results)
0 i  100 i  500
Example: 30   100  i 0 1000  i is equal to
500  i i  1000 0
(a) 100 (b) 500 (c) 1000 (d) 0
Solution: (d) This determinant of skew symmetric of odd order, hence is equal to 0.
1 a a2
Example: 31 1 b b2 
1 c c2

(a) a2  b2  c2 (b) (a  b)(b  c)(c  a) (c) (a  b)(b  c)(c  a) (d) None of these

1 a a2
Solution: (c)   1 b b2
1 c c2
Applying R1  R1  R 2 & R 2  R 2  R 3
0 a  b a2  b2 0 1 ab
 0 b  c b 2  c 2  (a  b)(b  c) 0 1 b  c ;
1 c c2 1 c c2

Applying R1  R1  R 2
0 0 (a  c) 0 0 1
 (a  b)(b  c) 0 1 bc  (a  b)(b  c)(a  c) 0 1 b  c  (a  b)(b  c)(a  c)(1)  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)
1 c c2 1 c c2

1 1 1
Example: 32 If a b c  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)(a  b  c) Where a, b, c are all different, then the determinant
a3 b3 c3
1 1 1
2 2
(x  a) (x  b) ( x  c) 2 vanishes when
(x  b)(x  c) (x  c)(x  a) (x  a)(x  b)
1 1
(a) abc 0 (b) x (a  b  c) (c) x (a  b  c) (d) x abc
3 2
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Determinants & Matrices

1 1 1
Solution: (b)  a b c  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)(a  b  c) …… (i)
a3 b3 c3
1 1 1
2 2
Now, ( x  a) ( x  b) ( x  c) 2 0
( x  b)(x  c) ( x  c)(x  a) ( x  a)(x  b)
( x  a) ( x  b) ( x  c)
1 3 3
 ( x  a) ( x  b) ( x  c) 3 0
( x  a)( x  b)( x  c)
( x  a)( x  b)( x  c) ( x  a)( x  b)( x  c) ( x  a)( x  b)( x  c)

Applying C1  C1 ( x  a), C 2  C 2 ( x  b), C 3  C 3 ( x  c )

( x  a) ( x  b) ( x  c)
( x  a)3 ( x  b)3 ( x  c)3  0
1 1 1
[(x  a)  (x  b)][(x  b)  (x  c)][(x  c)  (x  a)](x  a  x  b  x  c)  0
1
(b  a)(c  b)(a  c)[3 x  (a  b  c)]  0 or x  (a  b  c) [ a  b  c ]
3
  
3
Example: 33 If ,  and  are the roots of the equations x  px  q  0 then value of the determinant    is
  
(a) p (b) q (c) p 2  2q (d) 0

Solution: (d) Since  ,  ,  are the roots of x 3  px  q  0 ,        0

  
   
  
            0 0 0
Applying R1  R1  R 2  R 3 , We get,    =    0
     

x 1 x2  2 x( x  1)
Example: 34 If   x( x  1) x  1 x( x 2  2)  p 0 x 6  p 1 x 5  p 2 x 4  p 3 x 3  p 4 x 2  p 5 x  p 6 ,then ( p 5 , p 6 ) 
x 2  2 x( x  1) x 1
(a) (–3, –9) (b) (–5, –9) (c) (–3, –5) (d) (3, –9)

1 2 0
Solution: (b) Putting x  0 in both sides, we get, 0 1 0  p 6  p 6  9 by expansion.
2 0 1
p 5 is the coefficient of x or constant term in the differentiation of determinant.
Differentiate both sides,
1 2x 2x  1 x  1 x 2  2 x( x  1) x  1 x 2  2 x( x  1)
2
x( x  1) x  1 x( x  2)  2 x  1 1 3 x  2  x( x  1) x  1 x( x 2  2)
2

x 2  2 x( x  1) x 1 x 2  2 x( x  1) x 1 2x 2x  1 1

 6 p 0 x 5  5 p1 x 4  4 p 2 x 3  3 p 3 x 2  2 p 4 x  p 5

Putting x  0 both sides, we get p 5  5 ;  ( p 5 , p 6 )  (5, 9) .

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Matrix.
2.1 Definition .
A rectangular arrangement of numbers (which may be real or complex numbers) in rows and columns, is
called a matrix. This arrangement is enclosed by small ( ) or big [ ] brackets. The numbers are called the
elements of the matrix or entries in the matrix. A matrix is represented by capital letters A, B, C etc. and its
elements by small letters a,b,c,x,y etc. The following are some examples of matrices:
a 
1 4  2  i 3 2  
A
2 3 , B 1  3  i  5  , C  [1, 4, 9] , D   g , E  [l]
     h
.2.2 Order of a Matrix.
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m×n or simply m×n matrix (read as 'an
m by n matrix). A matrix A of order m×n is usually written in the following manner
 a11 a12 a13 ...a1 j ...a1n 
a 
 21 a 22 a 23 ...a 2 j ...a 2n 
 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....  i  1, 2,.....m
A  or A  [a ij ]mn , where
 a i1 a i 2 a i 3 ...a ij ...a in  j  1, 2,.....n
 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 
 
a m1 a m 2 a m3 ...a mj ...a mn 
3  1 5 
Here aij denotes the element of ith row and jth column. Example : order of matrix   is 2×3
6 2  7 
Note :  A matrix of order m×n contains mn elements. Every row of such a matrix contains n elements
and every column contains m elements.
2.3 Equality of Matrices .
Two matrix A and B are said to be equal matrix if they are of same order and their corresponding
1 6 3  a a 2 a 3 
elements are equal Example: If A    and B   1  are equal matrices.
5 2 1  b1 b 2 b 3 
Then a 1  1, a 2  6, a 3  3, b1  5, b 2  2, b 3  1

2.4 Types of Matrices.

(1) Row matrix : A matrix is said to be a row matrix or row vector if it has only one row and any number
of columns. Example : [5 0 3] is a row matrix of order 1× 3 and [2] is a row matrix of order 1×1.
(2) Column matrix : A matrix is said to be a column matrix or column vector if it has only one column
 2
and any number of rows. Example :  3  is a column matrix of order 3×1 and [2] is a column matrix of order
 6
1×1. Observe that [2] is both a row matrix as well as a column matrix.
(3) Singleton matrix : If in a matrix there is only one element then it is called singleton matrix.
Thus, A  [aij ] mn is a singleton matrix if m  n  1 Example : [2], [3], [a], [–3] are singleton matrices.
(4) Null or zero matrix : If in a matrix all the elements are zero then it is called a zero matrix and it is
generally denoted by O. Thus A  [aij ]mn is a zero matrix if aij  0 for all i and j.
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Determinants & Matrices

0 0  0 0 0 
Example : [0],  ,  , [0 0] are all zero matrices, but of different orders.
0 0  0 0 0 
(5) Square matrix : If number of rows and number of columns in a matrix are equal, then it is called a square
 a11 a12 a13 
matrix. Thus A  [aij ]mn is a square matrix if m  n . Example : a 21 a 22 a 23  is a square matrix of order 3×3
a 31 a 32 a 33 
(i) If m  n then matrix is called a rectangular matrix.
(ii) The elements of a square matrix A for which i  j, i.e. a11 , a 22 , a 33 ,.... a nn are called diagonal elements
and the line joining these elements is called the principal diagonal or leading diagonal of matrix A.
(iii) Trace of a matrix : The sum of diagonal elements of a square matrix. A is called the trace of matrix
n
A , which is denoted by tr A. tr A  a
i 1
ii  a11  a 22  ...a nn

Properties of trace of a matrix : Let A  [a ii ]nn and B  [bij ]nn and  be a scalar
(i) tr (A)   tr ( A) (ii) tr ( A  B)  tr ( A)  tr ( B) (iii) tr( AB)  tr(BA)
(iv) tr ( A)  tr ( A' ) or tr ( A T ) (v) tr (I n )  n (vi) tr (0)= 0
(vii) tr ( AB )  tr A . tr B
(6) Diagonal matrix : If all elements except the principal diagonal in a square matrix are zero, it is called
a diagonal matrix. Thus a square matrix A  [aij ] is a diagonal matrix if aij  0, when i  j .
2 0 0 
Example : 0 3 0  is a diagonal matrix of order 3×3, which can be denoted by diag [2, 3, 4]
0 0 4 

Note :  No element of principal diagonal in a diagonal matrix is zero.

 Number of zeros in a diagonal matrix is given by n 2  n where n is the order of the matrix.
 A diagonal matrix of order n  n having d1 , d 2 ,....., d n as diagonal elements is denoted by
diag [d 1 , d 2 ,..., d n ] .
(7) Identity matrix : A square matrix in which elements in the main diagonal are all '1' and rest are all
zero is called an identity matrix or unit matrix. Thus, the square matrix A  [aij ] is an identity matrix, if
1, if i  j
a ij  
0, if i  j
We denote the identity matrix of order n by I n .
 1 0 0
1 0   
Example : [1],   ,  0 1 0  are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
 0 1   0 0 1
 
(8) Scalar matrix : A square matrix whose all non diagonal elements are zero and diagonal elements are
 , if i  j
equal is called a scalar matrix. Thus, if A  [aij ] is a square matrix and aij   , then A is a scalar matrix.
0, if i  j
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Determinants & Matrices

5 0 0 
1 0  
Example : [2],  , 0 5 0 are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
0 1  0 0 5 
 
Note :  Unit matrix and null square matrices are also scalar matrices.

(9) Triangular Matrix : A square matrix [aij ] is said to be triangular matrix if each element above or below
the principal diagonal is zero. It is of two types
(i) Upper Triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij ] is called the upper triangular matrix, if aij  0 when
i j.
3 1 2
Example : 0 4 3 is an upper triangular matrix of order 3×3.
0 0 6 

(ii) Lower Triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij ] is called the lower triangular matrix, if aij  0 when
i< j.
1 0 0
Example :  2 3 0  is a lower triangular matrix of order 3×3.
4 5 2
n(n  1)
Note :  Minimum number of zeros in a triangular matrix is given by where n is order of matrix.
2
 Diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular.
 A triangular matrix a  [aij ]nn is called strictly triangular if aij  0 for 1  i  n

Example: 1 A square matrix A  [a ij ] in which a ij  0 for i  j and a ij  k (constant) for i  j is called a

(a) Unit matrix (b) Scalar matrix (c) Null matrix (d) Diagonal matrix
Solution: (b) When a ij  0 for i  j and aij is constant for i  j then the matrix [aij ]nn is called a scalar matrix
Example: 2 If A, B are square matrix of order 3, A is non singular and AB  0, then B is a
(a) Null matrix (b) Singular matrix (c) Unit matrix (d) Non singular matrix
Solution: (a) AB = 0 when B is null matrix.

2 5  7
 
Example: 3 The matrix 0 3 11  is known as
0 0 9 
(a) Symmetric matrix (b) Diagonal matrix (c) Upper triangular matrix (d) Skew symmetric matrix

Solution: (c) We know that if all the elements below the diagonal in a matrix are zero, then it is an upper triangular matrix.
Example: 4 In an upper triangular matrix n×n, minimum number of zeros is
n(n  1) n(n  1) 2n(n  1)
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
2 2 2
Solution: (a) As we know a square matrix A  [a ij ] is called an upper triangular matrix if a ij  0 for all i>j
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Determinants & Matrices

a11 a12 a13 a14 .... a1(n 2) a1(n1) a1n 

 
 0 a22 a23 a24 .... a2(n 2) a2(n1) a 2n 
0 0 a33 a34 .... a3(n 2) a3(n1) a3 n 
 
0 0 0 a44 .... a4(n 2) a4(n1) a4 n  (n  1)n
A   . Number of zeros = (n  1)  (n  2)  .....  2  1 
         2
 
        
0 0 0 0 .... 0 a(n1)(n1) a(n1)n 

 0 0 0 0 .... 0 0 ann 

Example: 5 If A  [a ij ] is a scalar matrix then trace of A is

(a)  a
i j
ij (b) a
i
ij (c) a
j
ij (d) a
i
ii

n
Solution: (d) The trace of A  a
i 1
ii  Sum of diagonal elements.

2.5 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices.

If A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]mn are two matrices of the same order then their sum A+B is a matrix whose
each element is the sum of corresponding elements. i.e. A  B  [aij  bij ]mn
 5 2 1 5   5  1 2  5  6 7 
Example : If A   1 3 and B   2 2 , then A  B 
 
 1  2 3  2  3 5 
   
4 1   3 3 4  3 1  3  7 4 

Similarly, their subtraction A  B is defined as A  B  [aij  bij ]mn

 5  1 2  5   4  3
i.e. in above example A  B   1  2 3  2    1 1 
4  3 1  3   1  2
Note :  Matrix addition and subtraction can be possible only when matrices are of the same order.
Properties of matrix addition : If A, B and C are matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B  B  A (Commutative law)
(ii) ( A  B)  C  A  (B  C) (Associative law)
(iii) A  O  O  A  A, where O is zero matrix which is additive identity of the matrix.
(iv) A  ( A)  0  ( A)  A , where ( A) is obtained by changing the sign of every element of A, which is
additive inverse of the matrix.
A  B  A  C
(v)   B  C (Cancellation law)
B  A  C  A
2.6 Scalar Multiplication of Matrices.
Let A  [aij ]mn be a matrix and k be a number, then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying every
element of A by k is called scalar multiplication of A by k and it is denoted by kA.
2 4 10 20 
Thus, if A  [aij ]mn , then kA  Ak  [kaij ]mn . Example : If A   3 1  , then 5 A  15 5 
 
 4 6   20 30 
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Determinants & Matrices

Properties of scalar multiplication:

If A, B are matrices of the same order and ,  are any two scalars then
(i)  ( A  B)  A  B (ii) (   ) A  A  A
(iii)  (A)  ( A)   (A) (iv) ( A)  (A)   ( A)

Note :  All the laws of ordinary algebra hold for the addition or subtraction of matrices and their
multiplication by scalars.
2.7 Multiplication of Matrices.
Two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB if the number of columns in A (pre-multiplier) is
same as the number of rows in B (post multiplier).Thus, if A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]n p are two matrices of order
n
m×n and n  p respectively, then their product AB is of order m  p and is defined as ( AB)ij   a ir brj
r 1

b1 j 
b 
 [ai1ai 2 ...ain ] 2 j  = (ith row of A)(jth column of B) .....(i), where i=1, 2, ..., m and j=1, 2, ...p
 
bnj 
Now we define the product of a row matrix and a column matrix.
 b1 
 
Let A  a 1 a 2 ....a n  be a row matrix and B  b 2  be a column matrix.
  
b n 
Then AB  a1b1  a 2 b 2  ....  a n bn  …(ii). Thus, from (i),
( AB)ij  Sum of the product of elements of ith row of A with the corresponding elements of jth column of B.
Properties of matrix multiplication
If A,B and C are three matrices such that their product is defined, then
(i) AB  BA (Generally not commutative)
(ii) ( AB)C  A(BC) (Associative Law)
(iii) IA  A  AI , where I is identity matrix for matrix multiplication
(iv) A(B  C)  AB  AC (Distributive law)
(v) If AB  AC   BC (Cancellation law is not applicable)
(vi) If AB= 0 It does not mean that A= 0 or B = 0, again product of two non zero
matrix may be a zero matrix.
Note :  If A and B are two matrices such that AB exists, then BA may or may not exist.
 The multiplication of two triangular matrices is a triangular matrix.
 The multiplication of two diagonal matrices is also a diagonal matrix and
diag (a 1 , a 2 ,.... a n )  diag (b1 , b 2 ,.... b n )  diag (a 1 b1 , a 2 b 2 ,.... a n b n )
 The multiplication of two scalar matrices is also a scalar matrix.
 If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then
(i) ( A  B) 2  A 2  B 2  AB  BA (ii) ( A  B 2 )  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
(iii) ( A  B)( A  B)  A 2  B 2  AB  BA (iv) ( A  B)( A  B)  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
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(v) A( B)  ( A)B  ( AB)

2.8 Positive Integral Powers of A Matrix.

The positive integral powers of a matrix A are defined only when A is a square matrix. Also then
A  A. A , A 3  A. A. A  A 2 A . Also for any positive integers m ,n.
2

(i) A m A n  A m n (ii) ( A m )n  A mn  ( A n )m
(iii) I n  I , I m  I (iv) A0  I n where A is a square matrix of order n.

2.9 Matrix Polynomial .

Let f (x)  a 0 x n  a1 x n1  a 2 x n 2  ...  an1 x  an be a polynomial and let A be a square matrix of order n.
Then f ( A)  a 0 A n  a1 A n1  a 2 A n 2  ...  an1 A  an I n is called a matrix polynomial.
Example : If f (x)  x 2  3 x  2 is a polynomial and A is a square matrix, then A 2  3 A  2 I is a matrix
polynomial.
 cos  sin   2
Example: 6 If A   , then A 
 sin  cos  

cos  sin   cos   sin    cos  sin    cos  sin  

(a)   (b)   (c)   (d)  
 sin  cos    sin  cos    sin  cos     sin   cos  

 cos  sin    cos  sin    cos 2 sin 2 

Solution: (c) Since A 2  A. A      
 sin  cos    sin  cos    sin 2 cos 2 

a b  2  
Example: 7 If A    and A    then
b a   
(a)   a 2  b 2 ,   ab (b)   a 2  b 2 ,   2ab (c)   a 2  b2,   a 2  b2 (d)   2ab,   a 2  b 2

   a b  a b  a 2  b 2 2ab 
Solution: (b) A2       2 2
 . On comparing, we get,   a  b ,   2ab
   b a  b a  a  b 2 
2
 2ab

 i 0 4n
Example: 8 If A   , n  N , then A equals
 0 i 
1 0   i 0 0 i  0 0 
(a)   (b)   (c)   (d)  
0 1  0 i   i 0 0 0 

 i 0   i 0  1 0  1 0  1 0  1 0  1 0 

Solution: (a) A2     , A4  A2. A2    
4 n n
  I ; (A )  I  I   
0 i  0 i   0  1  0  1  0  1 0 1  0 1 

1 1  a 1  2 2 2
Example: 9 If A   , B    and ( A  B)  A  B then value of a and b are
 2  1 b  1
(a) a  4 , b  1 (b) a  1, b  4 (c) a  0, b  4 (d) a  2 , b  4

Solution: (b) We have ( A  B) 2  A 2  B 2  A.B  BA

 a  b 2  a  2  a  1 
∵ AB  BA  0     0
 2a  b 3 b  2  b  1
 2a  2  b a  1
   0 . On comparing, we get, a  1  0  a  1 and 4  b  0  b  4
 2a  2 4 b
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a h g   x 
  
Example: 10 The order of [ x y z]  h b f   y  is
 g f c   z 
(a) 3×1 (b) 1×1 (c) 1×3 (d) 3×3

Solution: (b) Order will be (1  3)(3  3)(3  1)  (1  1)

cos   sin  0
 
Example: 11 Let F ( )   sin  cos  0  . Then F ( ). F ( ' ) is equal to
 0 0 1 
(a) F ( ' ) (b) F ( /  ' ) (c) F (   ' ) (d) F (   ' )

cos   sin  0 cos    sin   0 

   
Solution: (c) We have F ( )   sin  cos  0 , F ( )   sin   cos   0 
 0 0 1  0 0 1 

cos   sin  0  cos    sin   0  cos(   )  sin(   ) 0 

    
F ( ).F ( )   sin  cos  0   sin   cos   0    sin(   ) cos(   ) 0   F (   )
 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 

1 1 0 
 
Example: 12 For the matrix A  1 2 1  , which of the following is correct
 2 1 0 

(a) A3  3 A 2  I  0 (b) A3  3A2  I  0 (c) A3  2 A 2  I  0 (d) A3  A2  I  0

1 1 0  1 1 0   2 3 1   2 3 1  1 1 0   7 9 3 
           
Solution: (b) A 2  A. A  1 2 1 1 2 1  5 6 2 , A 3  A. 2 A  5 6 2 1 2 1   15 19 6 
 2 1 0  2 1 0 3 4 1 3 4 1   2 1 0   9 12 4 

 7 9 3   6 9 3  1 0 0 
     
A 3  3. A 2  15 19 6   15 18 6   0 1 0   I  A3  3 A 2  I  0
 9 12 4   9 12 3 0 0 1 

 0  1 0  2
Example: 13 If A   , B    , then the value of  for which A  B is
 1 1   5 1 
(a) 1 (b) –1 (c) 4 (d) No real values
 0   0   02
 ∵ A  B (given)
2
Solution: (d) A2    
1 1  1 1    1 1 

 2 0  1 0  2
Then       1 and   1  5 . Clearly no real value of 
  1 1  5 1 

2.10 Transpose of a Matrix.

The matrix obtained from a given matrix A by changing its rows into columns or columns into rows is
called transpose of Matrix A and is denoted by A T or A .
From the definition it is obvious that if order of A is m×n, then order of AT is n×m
 a1 b1 
a a2 a3 
Example : Transpose of matrix  1 is a 2 b 2 
b1 b2 b 3  23
a 3 b 3  32
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Properties of transpose : Let A and B be two matrices then

(i) ( A T )T  A
(ii) ( A  B)T  A T  B T , A and B being of the same order
(iii) (kA)T  kA T , k be any scalar (real or complex)
(iv) ( AB)T  B T A T , A and B being conformable for the product AB
T T T T T
(v) ( A1 A2 A3 ..... An1 An )T  An An1 .......A3 A2 A1
(vi) I T  I
2.11 Determinant of a Matrix .
 a11 a12 a13 
If A  a 21 a 22 a 23  be a square matrix, then its determinant, denoted by |A| or Det (A) is defined as
a 31 a 32 a 33 
a11 a12 a13
| A | a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
Properties of determinant of a matrix
(i) | A | exists  A is square matrix (ii) | AB || A || B |
(iii) | AT || A | (iv) | kA | k n | A |, if A is a square matrix of order n
(v) If A and B are square matrices of same order then |AB|=|BA|
(vi) If A is a skew symmetric matrix of odd order then | A | 0
(vii) If A  diag (a 1 , a 2 ,..... a n ) then | A | a 1 a 2 ...a n (viii)| A |n | An |, n  N.
Example: 14 If A and B are square matrices of same order then

(a) ( AB)  AB (b) ( AB)  BA

(c) AB  0, if | A | 0 or | B | 0 (d) AB  0, if | A | I or B  I
Solution: (b) A  [a ij ]nn , B  [b jk ]nn , AB  [aij ]nn [b jk ]nn  [cik ]nn , where c ik  a ij b jk
( AB)  [cik ]nn  [cki ]nn  [b kj ]nn [a ji ]nn = B A
1 2  1 3  1 11 
Alternatively, Let A    ,B    ; AB   
 3 4  2 2 0 4  2 2  3 25 
1 3   1 0  1 3   1 3 
( AB)'    …..(i) and B' A'      …..(ii)
11 25  3 4   2 4  11 25 
From (i) and (ii), ( AB)  BA

Example: 15 If A,B are 3×2 order matrices and C is a 2×3 order matrix, then which of the following matrices not defined

(a) At  B (b) B  Ct (c) At  C (d) At  Bt

Solution: (a) Order of A is 3 × 2 and order of B is 3 × 2 and order of At is 2 × 3 then

 A t  B  [ A t ]2 3 + [ B]3 2 is not possible because order are not same.

2.12 Special Types of Matrices.

(1) Symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix
(i) Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A  [aij ] is called symmetric matrix if aij  a ji for all i, j or AT  A
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a h g 
Example :  h b f 
 g f c 
Note :  Every unit matrix and square zero matrix are symmetric matrices.
n(n  1)
 Maximum number of different elements in a symmetric matrix is
2
(ii) Skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix A  [aij ] is called skew- symmetric matrix if aij  a ji for all
i, j
 0 h g
or A   A . Example :   h 0 f 
T 
 g  f 0 
Note :  All principal diagonal elements of a skew- symmetric matrix are always zero because for any
diagonal element. aij  aij  aij  0
 Trace of a skew symmetric matrix is always 0.
Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices:
(i) If A is a square matrix, then A  A T , AA T , A T A are symmetric matrices, while A  A T is skew- symmetric
matrix.
(ii) If A is a symmetric matrix, then  A, KA, A T , A n , A 1 , B T AB are also symmetric matrices, where n  N ,
K  R and B is a square matrix of order that of A
(iii) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix, then
(a) A 2n is a symmetric matrix for n  N ,
(b) A 2n1 is a skew-symmetric matrix for n  N ,
(c) kA is also skew-symmetric matrix, where k  R ,
(d) B T AB is also skew- symmetric matrix where B is a square matrix of order that of A.
(iv) If A, B are two symmetric matrices, then
(a) A  B, AB  BA are also symmetric matrices,
(b) AB  BA is a skew- symmetric matrix,
(c) AB is a symmetric matrix, when AB  BA .
(v) If A,B are two skew-symmetric matrices, then
(a) A  B, AB  BA are skew-symmetric matrices,
(b) AB  BA is a symmetric matrix.
(vi) If A a skew-symmetric matrix and C is a column matrix, then C T AC is a zero matrix.
(vii) Every square matrix A can uniquelly be expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix
i.e.
1  1 
A   ( A  A T )   ( A  A T ) .
 2   2 
(2) Singular and Non-singular matrix : Any square matrix A is said to be non-singular if | A | 0, and a
square matrix A is said to be singular if | A | 0 . Here | A | (or det(A) or simply det |A| means corresponding
determinant of square matrix A.
 2 3 2 3
Example : A    then| A |  10  12  2  A is a non singular matrix.
4 5  4 5
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(3) Hermitian and skew-Hermitian matrix : A square matrix A  [aij ] is said to be hermitian matrix if
 3 3  4 i 5  2i 
 a b  ic  

a ij  a ji i. j i.e. A  A . Example :   , 3  4i 5  2  i are Hermitian matrices.
b  ic d   5  2i  2  i
 2 
Note :  If A is a Hermitian matrix then a ii  a ii  a ii is real i, thus every diagonal element of a
Hermitian matrix must be real.
 A Hermitian matrix over the set of real numbers is actually a real symmetric matrix and a
square matrix, A=|aij| is said to be a skew-Hermitian if a ij  a ji . i, j i.e. A   A .
 3i  3  2i  1  i 
 0  2 i 
Example :   , 3  2i  2i  2  4 i are skew-Hermitian matrices.
2  i 0 
 1  i 2  4i 0 
 If A is a skew-Hermitian matrix, then aii  aii  aii  aii  0 i.e. aii must be purely imaginary or
zero.
 A skew-Hermitian matrix over the set of real numbers is actually a real skew-symmetric matrix.
(4) Orthogonal matrix : A square matrix A is called orthogonal if AA T  I  A T A i.e. if A 1  A T
 cos   sin    cos  sin  
Example : A    is orthogonal because A 1     AT
 sin  cos    sin  cos  
In fact every unit matrix is orthogonal.
(5) Idempotent matrix : A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix if A 2  A .
1 / 2 1 / 2 1 / 4  1 / 4 1 / 4  1 / 4  1 / 2 1 / 2
Example :   is an idempotent matrix, because A  1 / 4  1 / 4 1 / 4  1 / 4   1 / 2 1 / 2  A .
2

1 / 2 1 / 2     
1 0  0 0  2 2
Also, A    and B    are idempotent matrices because A  A and B  B .
 0 0   0 1 
In fact every unit matrix is indempotent.

(6) Involutory matrix : A square matrix A is called an involutory matrix if A 2  I or A 1  A

1 0  1 0 
Example : A    is an involutory matrix because A 2   I
0 1  0 1 
In fact every unit matrix is involutory.
(7) Nilpotent matrix : A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if there exists a p  N such the
Ap  0
0 0  0 0 
Example : A    is a nilpotent matrix because A 2   0 (Here P = 2)
1 0  0 0 
(8) Unitary matrix : A square matrix is said to be unitary, if A' A  I since | A  || A |and
| A ' A || A '|| A |therefore if A  A=I, we have | A '|| A| 1
Thus the determinant of unitary matrix is of unit modulus. For a matrix to be unitary it must be non-
singular.
Hence A  A  I  A A   I
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(9) Periodic matrix : A matrix A will be called a periodic matrix if A k 1  A where k is a positive integer.
If, however k is the least positive integer for which Ak 1  A, then k is said to be the period of A.

 f ( x) g( x) dA  f (x) g(x)

(10) Differentiation of a matrix : If A    then  is a differentiation of matrix A.
h( x) l( x)  dx h(x) l (x) 
 x 2 sin x  dA  2 x cos x 
Example : If A    then 
2x 2  dx  2 0 

(11) Submatrix : Let A be m×n matrix, then a matrix obtained by leaving some rows or columns or both,
2 1 0
of A is called a sub matrix of A. Example : If A'  3 2 2 and 
 2 2
 are sub matrices of matrix
5 3 
 2 5 3
 2 1 0  1
A  3 2 2 4 
 2 5 3 1 

(12) Conjugate of a matrix : The matrix obtained from any given matrix A containing complex number
as its elements, on replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called conjugate of
1  2i 2  3i 3  4 i  1  2i 2  3i 3  4 i
A and is denoted by A . Example : A  4  5i 5  6i 6  7i  then A  4  5i 5  6i 6  7i 
 
 8 7  8i 7   8 7  8i 7 
Properties of conjugates :
 
(i) A  A (ii)  A  B  A  B
(iii) (A)   A ,  being any number (iv) ( AB)  A B, A and B being conformable for multiplication.

(13) Transpose conjugate of a matrix : The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called
transposed conjugate of A and is denoted by A  . The conjugate of the transpose of A is the same as the
transpose of the conjugate of A i.e. ( A)  ( A)  A .
If A  [aij ]mn then A  [b ji ]nm where b ji  a ij i.e. the ( j, i)th element of A  the conjugate of (i, j)th
element of A.
1  2i 2  3i 3  4 i  1  2i 4  5i 8 
Example : If A  4  5i 5  6i 6  7i  , then A   2  3i 5  6i 7  8i
   
 8 7  8i 7  3  4 i 6  7i 7 

Properties of transpose conjugate

(i) ( A  )  A (ii) ( A  B)  A   B  (iii) (kA)  K A , K being any number (iv) ( AB)  B A
0 5  7
 
Example: 16 The matrix  5 0 11  is known as
 7  11 0 
(a) Upper triangular matrix (b) Skew-symmetric matrix (c) Symmetric matrix (d) Diagonal matrix
Solution: (b) In a skew-symmetric matrix, a ij  a ji  i, j  1,2,3 and j  i , a ii   a ii  each aii =0
Hence the given matrix is skew-symmetric matrix [ A T   A] .
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Determinants & Matrices

2   4
 
Example: 17 The matrix  1 3 4  is non singular if
 1  2  3 
(a)   2 (b)   2 (c)  3 (d)   3

2   4
 
Solution: (a) The given matrix A   1 3 4  is non singular If |A|  0
 1  2  3 
2  4 1 3 0
 | A |  1 3 4  0  1 3 4  0 [ R1  R1  R 2 ]
1 2 3 1 2 3
1   3 0 
   R  R2  R3 
 | A |  0 1 1 0 ,  2 
0    5  3  R3  R3  R1 

 1(3    5)  0    2  0    2

1 2 2
1 
Example: 18 The matrix A  2 1  2 is
3
 2 2  1
(a) Orthogonal (b) Involutary (c) Idempotent (d) Nilpotent

1 2 2
1
Solution: (a) Since for given A  2 1  2 . For orthogonal matrix AA T  A T A  I(3 3)
3
 2 2 1
 1 2 2  1 2  2 9 0 0 
1   1 
T
 AA   2 1  2  2 1 2   0 9 0   3 I . Similarly A T A  3 I . Hence A is orthogonal
3 3
 2 2  1  2  2  1 0 0 9 

 4 x  2
Example: 19 If A    is symmetric, then x =
 2 x  3 x  1
(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 2 (d) 4
 4 2 x  3  4 x  2
Solution: (b) For symmetric matrix, A  AT      2x  3  x  2  x  5
 x  2 x  1  2 x  3 x  1
Example: 20 If A and B are square matrices of order n×n, then ( A  B)2 is equal to

(a) A2  B2 (b) A 2  2 AB  B 2 (c) A 2  2 AB  B 2 (d) A 2  AB  BA  B 2

Solution: (d) Given A and B are square matrices of order n×n we know that ( A  B)2  ( A  B)( A  B)  A 2  AB  BA  B 2

cos   sin  
Example: 21 If A   , then which of the following statement is not correct
 sin  cos  

(a) A is orthogonal matrix (b) AT is orthogonal matrix (c) Determinant A  1 (d) A is not invertible

Solution: (d) | A |  1  0, therefore A is invertible. Thus (d) is not correct

Example: 22 Matrix A is such that A2  2 A  I where I is the identity matrix. Then for n  2, A n 

(a) nA  (n  1)I (b) nA  I (c) 2n 1 A  (n  1)I (d) 2 n1 A  I

Solution: (a) We have, A2  2 A  I  A 2 . A  (2 A  I ) A ; A3  2 A 2  IA  2 [2 A  I ]  IA  A3  3 A  2 I

Similarly A4  4 A  3 I and hence An  nA  (n  1)I

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 0 0  1
 
Example: 23 Let A   0  1 0  , the only correct statement about the matrix A is
 1 0 0 

(a) A2  I (b) A  (1)I , where I is unit matrix

(c) A1 does not exist (d) A is zero matrix

 0 0  1  0 0  1  1 0 0
    
Solution: (a) A 2  A. A   0  1 0   0  1 0    0 1 0   I . Also, A1 exists as | A | 1
 1 0 0   1 0 0   0 0 1 

2.13 Adjoint of a Square Matrix.

Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n and let Cij be cofactor of aij in A. Then the transpose of the
matrix of cofactors of elements of A is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj A
Thus, adj A  [Cij ]T  (adj A)ij  C ji  cofactor of a ji in A.
T
 a11 a12 a13   C11 C12 C13  C11 C 21 C 31 
If A  a 21
C C 23   C12
 C 32 ;
a 22 a 23 , then adj A   21 C 22 C 22
a 31 a 32 a 33  C 31 C 32 C 33  C13 C 23 C 33 
Where Cij denotes the cofactor of aij in A.

 p q
Example : A   , C11  s, C12  r, C 21  q, C 22  p
r s
T
 s  r  s  q
 adj A     
 q p   r p 

Note :  The adjoint of a square matrix of order 2 can be easily obtained by interchanging the diagonal
elements and changing signs of off diagonal elements.
Properties of adjoint matrix : If A, B are square matrices of order n and I n is corresponding unit
matrix, then
(i) A(adj A) | A | I n  (adj A) A (Thus A (adj A) is always a scalar matrix)

(ii) | adj A || A |n1 (iii) adj (adj A) | A |n 2 A

2
(iv) | adj (adj A)|| A |(n1) (v) adj ( A T )  (adj A)T

(vi) adj ( AB )  (adj B)(adj A) (vii) adj( A m )  (adj A)m , m  N

(viii) adj(kA)  k n1 (adj A), k  R (ix) adj ( I n )  I n

(x) adj (O)  O (xi) A is symmetric  adj A is also symmetric.
(xii) A is diagonal  adj A is also diagonal. (xiii) A is triangular  adj A is also triangular.
(xiv) A is singular  |adj A|= 0
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2.14 Inverse of a Matrix.

A non-singular square matrix of order n is invertible if there exists a square matrix B of the same order
such that AB  I n  BA .
In such a case, we say that the inverse of A is B and we write A 1  B
1
The inverse of A is given by A 1  .adj A
| A|
The necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of the inverse of a square matrix A is that | A | 0
Properties of inverse matrix:
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then
(i) ( A 1 ) 1  A (ii) ( A T ) 1  ( A 1 ) T
(iii) ( AB) 1  B 1 A 1 (iv) (Ak )1  (A1 )k , k  N [In particular (A2)1  (A1)2]
1
(v) adj( A 1 )  (adj A)1 (vi) | A 1 | | A |1
| A|
(vii) A = diag (a 1 a 2 ...a n )  A 1  diag (a11a 21 ...an1 ) (viii) A is symmetric  A 1 is also symmetric.
(ix) A is diagonal, | A | 0  A 1 is also diagonal. (x) A is scalar matrix  A 1 is also scalar matrix.
(xi) A is triangular, | A | 0  A 1 is also triangular. (xii) Every invertible matrix possesses a unique inverse.

Note :  (Cancellation law with respect to multiplication)

If A is a non singular matrix i.e., if | A | 0 ,then A 1 exists and AB  AC  A 1 ( AB)  A 1 ( AC )

 ( A 1 A)B  ( A 1 A)C  IB  IC  B  C  AB  AC  B  C | A | 0

4 2
Example: 24 If A    , then | adj A | is equal to
3 4 
(a) 16 (b) 10 (c) 6 (d) None of these
 4 2 
Solution: (b) adj A   
 3 4 
4 2
| adj A |  16  6  10
3 4
Example: 25 If 3, – 2 are the Eigen values of non-singular matrix A and |A| = 4 . Then Eigen values of adj (A) are

(a) 3/4, –1/2 (b) 4/3, –2 (c) 12, –8 (d) –12, 8

adj A
Solution: (b) Since A 1  and if  is Eigen value of A then 1 is Eigen value of A 1 , thus for adj ( A) x  ( A 1 x )| A |
| A|
| A | .1 I
adj(A) corresponding to Eigen value
  3 is = 4/3 and for   2 is = 4 /  2 = –2
3 2 4
  1
Example: 26 If matrix A  1 2  1  and A1  adj ( A) , then K is
K
0 1 1 
(a) 7 (b) –7 (c) 1/7 (d) 11
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Determinants & Matrices

adj( A) 1
Solution: (d) We know that A 1  . We have A1  adj( A) i.e. K | A |
| A| K
3 2 4
and K  1 2 1  3(3)  2(1)  4(1)  9  2  4  11
0 1 1

a b 
Example: 27 The inverse of matrix A    is
c d 
d b  1  d b  1 1 0  b a 
(a)   (b)   (c)   (d)  
 c a ad  bc  c a  | A | 0 1  d  c 

a b  d b  1 1  d b 
Solution: (b) Here | A |  ad  bc , adj ( A)    . Hence A   
c d  c a  ad  bc  c a 

1  1 1  4 2 2
   
Example: 28 Let A   2 1  3 and 10.B   5 0   . If B is the inverse of matrix A, then  is
1 1 1   1  2 3 
(a) 5 (b) –1 (c) 2 (d) –2

 1 1 1  4 2 2
   
Solution: (a) We have, A   2 1  3 ,  | A |  1(4)  1(5)  1(1)  10 and adj (A)    5 0 5
 1 1 1   1  2 3

4 2 2
1  
Then A1   5 0 5
10 
 1  2 3
According to question, B is the inverse of matrix A. Hence   5

 1 0  K
 
Example: 29 Matrix A   2 1 3  is invertible for
 K 0 1 
(a) K 1 (b) K  1 (c) K0 (d) All real K

1 0 K
Solution: (d) For invertible, | A | 0 i.e., 2 1 3 0
K 0 1
 1(1)  K ( K )  0 | A |  K 2  1  0 , which is true for all real K .

Example: 30 Let p be a non-singular matrix,

1  p  p 2  .......  pn  0 (0 denotes the null matrix), then p1 =
(a) pn (b)  pn (c)  (1  p  .....  pn ) (d) None of these
2 n
Solution: (a) We have, 1  p  p      p  0
Multiplying both sides by p1 , p 1  I  Ip  .....  pn 1 I  0. p 1
p 1  I (1  p  ....  pn 1 )  0  p 1   I (1  p  p 2  ....  pn 1 )   ( p n )  p n .

cos   sin  0
 
Example: 31 Let f ( )   sin  cos  0 , where   R ,then [ f ( )]1 is equal to
 0 0 1
(a) f ( ) (b) f ( 1 ) (c) f (2 ) (d) None
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Determinants & Matrices

cos   sin  0 cos  sin  0

Solution: (a) | f ( )| sin  cos  0  1 , adj of f ( )   sin  cos  0
0 0 1 0 0 1
cos  sin  0 cos  sin  0
1
[ f ( )]   sin  cos  0 ......(i) and f ( )   sin  cos  0 ......(ii)
0 0 1 0 0 1
From (i) and (ii),  f ( )1  f [ ]

Example: 32 If I is a unit matrix of order 10, then the determinant of I is equal to

(a) 10 (b) 1 (c) 1/10 (d) 9
Solution: (b) Determinant of unit matrix of any order =1.

 2  3
Example: 33 If A    and | A |  125 then  =
2  
(a)  3 (b)  2 (c) 5 (d) 0
3 3 2 2
Solution: (a) 125 | A | | A |  | A |  5 and | A |   4  5    9     3
Example: 34 If |A| denotes the value of the determinant of the square matrix A of order 3, then | 2 A |
(a) 8 | A | (b) 8 | A | (c) 2 | A | (d) None of these
n
Solution: (a) We know that, det. ( A)  (1) det A , where n is order of square matrix
If A is square matrix of order 3, Then n  3 . Hence | 2 A | (2)3 | A | 8 | A | .

 3 1 x 2 
 
Example: 35 For how many value (s) of x in the closed interval [–4, –1] is the matrix  3 1 x  2 singular
 x  3 1 2 
(a) 2 (b) 0 (c) 3 (d) 1

3 x 1 2
Solution: (d) 3 1 x2 0
x3 1 2
0 x x 0 x x
3 1 x2 0 [ R1  R1  R2 ] , x 0 x 0 [ R 2  R 2  R3 ]
x3 1 2 x3 1 2
0 0 x
x x x 0 [C2  C2  C3 ]
x3 1 2
 x[( x )  x( x  3)]  0  x( x 2  4 x )  0  x  0,  4
Hence only one value of x in closed interval [–4,–1] i.e. x  4

Example: 36 Inverse of diagonal matrix (if it exists) is a

(a) Skew-symmetric matrix(b)Diagonal matrix (c)Non invertible matrix(d)None of these
Solution: (b) Let A  diag (d1 , d 2 , d3 ......, dn )
As A is invertible, therefore det( A)  0  d1 , d2 , d3 ......., dn  0  d i  0 for i = 1, 2, 3…..n
Here, cofactor of each non diagonal entry is 0 and cofactor of aii
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Determinants & Matrices

 (1)i 1 det [diag (d1 , d 2 , d 3 ....., di 1 , di 1 ....., dn )]  d1 , d 2 , d 3 ..... di 1 .di 1 ,......, dn

1 | A|
 [d1, d2 , d3 ....., di 1, di , di 1....., dn ] 
di di
1 1 1 1 
A1  (adj A)  diag  , .......,  , which is a diagonal matrix
| A| d d
 1 2 dn 

2.15 Elementary Transformations or Elementary Operations of a Matrix.

The following three operations applied on the rows (columns) of a matrix are called elementary row
(column) transformations
(1) Interchange of any two rows (columns)
If ith row (column) of a matrix is interchanged with the ith row (column), it will be denoted by
Ri  R j (Ci  C j )
 2 1 3  2 1 3
Example : A   1 2 1  , then by applying R2  R3 , we get B   3 2 4
 
 3 2 4   1 2 1 

(2) Multiplying all elements of a row (column) of a matrix by a non-zero scalar

If the elements of ith row (column) are multiplied by a non-zero scalar k, it will be denoted by Ri  Ri (k ) ,
[Ci  Ci (k )] or Ri  kRi , [Ci  kC i ]
 3 2  1  3 2  1
If A   0 1 2  , then by applying R 2  3R 2 we obtain B  0 3
 6 
 1 2  3  1 2  3

(3) Adding to the elements of a row (column), the corresponding elements of any other row (column)
multiplied by any scalar k. If k times the elements of jth row (column) are added to the corresponding elements of
the ith row (column), it will be denoted by Ri  Ri  kR j Ci  Ci  kC j  
 2 1 3 1
If A   1  1 0 2, then the application of elementary operation R 3  R 3  2R1 gives the matrix
 0 1 3 1
2 1 3 1

B   1  1 0 2, If a matrix B is obtained from a matrix A by one or more elementary transformations,
 4 3 9 3
then A and B are equivalent matrices and we write A ~ B
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Let A   2 1 4 3 , then A ~  1  1 1  1, applying R 2  R 2  (1)R1
 
 3 1 2 4   3 1 2 4 

1 2 3 1
~  1  1 1  2 , applying C 4  C 4  (1)C 3

 1 1 2 2 
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Determinants & Matrices

An elementary transformation is called a row transformation or a column transformation according as it

is applied to rows or columns.

2.16 Elementary Martix.

A matrix obtained from an identity matrix by a single elementary operation (transformation) is called an
1 3 0  0 0 1  1 0 0
elementary matrix. Example : 0 1 0  0 1 0 , 0 0 1  are elementary matrices obtained from I 3 by
0 0 1  1 0 0  0 1 0 
subjecting it to the elementary transformations R1  R1  3 R2 , C1  C3 and R2  R3 respectively.
Theorem 1 : Every elementary row (column) transformation of an m×n matrix (not identity matrix) can
be obtained by pre-multiplication (post- multiplication) with the corresponding elementary matrix obtained from
the identity matrix I m ( I n ) by subjecting it to the same elementary row (column) transformation.
Theorem 2 : Let C  AB be a product of two matrices. Any elementary row (column) transformation of
AB can be obtained by subjecting the pre-factor A (post factor B) to the same elementary row (column)
transformation.
Method of finding the inverse of a matrix by elementary transformations : Let A be a non
singular matrix of order n. Then A can be reduced to the identity matrix I n by a finite sequence of elementary
transformation only. As we have discussed every elementary row transformation of a matrix is equivalent to pre-
multiplication by the corresponding elementary matrix. Therefore there exist elementary matrices E 1 , E 2 ..... E k
such that
( E k E k 1... E 2 E1 ) A  I n
 (Ek Ek 1 ...E 2 E1 ) AA 1  I n A 1 (post multiplying by A 1 )
 (Ek Ek 1 ...E 2 E1 ) I n  A 1 ( I n A 1  A 1and AA 1  I n )  A 1  (Ek Ek 1 ...E 2 E1 ) I n
Algorithm for finding the inverse of a non singular matrix by elementary row transformations
Let A be non- singular matrix of order n
Step I : Write A  I n A
Step II : Perform a sequence of elementary row operations successively on A on the LHS and
the pre factor I n on the RHS till we obtain the result I n  BA
Step III : Write A 1  B
Note :  The following steps will be helpful to find the inverse of a square matrix of order 3 by using
elementary row transformations.
Step I : Introduce unity at the intersection of first row and first column either by interchanging two rows or
by adding a constant multiple of elements of some other row to first row.
Step II : After introducing unity at (1,1) place introduce zeros at all other places in first column.
Step III: Introduce unity at the intersection of 2nd row and 2nd column with the help of 2nd and 3rd row.
Step IV : Introduce zeros at all other places in the second column except at the intersection of 2 nd row
and 2nd column.
Step V : Introduce unity at the intersection of 3rd row and third column.
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Determinants & Matrices

Step VI : Finally introduce zeros at all other places in the third column except at the intersection of third
row and third column.
3  1  2
 
Example: 37 Using elementary row transformation find the inverse of the matrix A   2 0  1
3  5 0

 5 / 8 5/4 1/ 8 5 5 1 5 5 1
  1  1 
(a)  3 / 8 3/4  1 / 8  (b) 3
8
3 1 (c)
8
3 6 1 (d) None of these
 5 / 4 3/2 1 / 4  0 3 1 10  12 2

 3  1  2  1 0 0
   
Solution: (a) We have A=IA   2 0  1   0 1 0 A
3  5 0  0 0 1 

1  1  1  1 1 0
   
Applying (R1  R1  R2 )  2 0  1   0 1 0 A
3  5 0  0 0 1 

1  1  1   1 1 0
   
Applying R2  R2  2R1 and R3  R3  3R1 , 0 2  1   2 3 0 A
0  2 3  3 3 1 

1  1  1   1 1 0
   
Applying R2  R2 / 2, 0 1 1 / 2    1 3/2 0 A
0  2 3   3 3 1

1 0  1 / 2  0 1/ 2 0
   
Applying R1  R1  R2 and R3  R3  2R2 , 0 1 1 / 2    1 3/2 0 A
0 0 4   5 6 1 

1 0  1 / 2  0 1/ 2 0 
   
Applying R3  R3 / 4 , 0 1 1 / 2    1 3/2 0 A
0 0 1  5 / 4 6/4 1 / 4 

1 0 0   5 / 8 5/4 1/ 8
1 1    
Applying R1  R1  R 3 and R 2  R 2  R 3 , 0 1 0    3 / 8 3/4  1 / 8 A
2 2
0 0 1  5 / 4 3/2 1 / 4 

 5 / 8 5/4 1/ 8
 
A 1    3 / 8 3/4  1 / 8
 5 / 4 3/2 1 / 4 

2.17 Rank of Matrix .

Definition : Let A be a m×n matrix. If we retain any r rows and r columns of A we shall have a square
sub-matrix of order r. The determinant of the square sub-matrix of order r is called a minor of A order r.
1 3 4 5
Consider any matrix A which is of the order of 3×4 say, A  1 2 6 7 . It is 3×4 matrix so we can have
1 5 0 1
minors of order 3, 2 or 1. Taking any three rows and three columns minor of order three. Hence minor of order
1 3 4
3 1 2 6 0
1 5 0
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Making two zeros and expanding above minor is zero. Similarly we can consider any other minor of order
3 and it can be shown to be zero. Minor of order 2 is obtained by taking any two rows and any two columns.
1 3
Minor of order 2   2  3  1  0 . Minor of order 1 is every element of the matrix.
1 2
Rank of a matrix: The rank of a given matrix A is said to be r if
(1) Every minor of A of order r+1 is zero
(2) There is at least one minor of A of order r which does not vanish
Note :  If a minor of A is zero the corresponding submatrix is singular and if a minor of A is not zero then
corresponding submatrix is non-singular.
Here we can also say that the rank of a matrix A is said to be r if
(i) Every square submatrix of order r+1 is singular.
(ii) There is at least one square submatrix of order r which is non-singular.
The rank r of matrix A is written as  ( A)  r
Working rule : Calculate the minors of highest possible order of a given matrix A. If it is not zero, then the
order of the minor is the rank. If it is zero and all other minors of the same order be also zero, then calculate
minor of next lower order and if at least one of them is not zero then this next lower order will be the rank. If,
however, all the minors of next lower orders are zero, then calculate minors of still next lower order and so on.
Note :  The rank of the null matrix is not defined and the rank of every non-null matrix is greater than or
equal to 1.
 The rank of a singular square matrix of order n cannot be n.

2.18 Echelon form of a Matrix.

A matrix A is said to be in Echelon form if either A is the null matrix or A satisfies the following conditions:
(1) Every non- zero row in A precedes every zero row.
(2) The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less than the number of such zeros in
the next row.
It can be easily proved that the rank of a matrix in Echelon form is equal to the number of non-zero row of
0 3 2 1 
the matrix. Example : The rank of the matrix A  0 0 2 5  is 2 because it is in Echelon form and it has
0 0 0 0 
0 2 5

two non-zero rows. The matrix A  0 0 1  is not in Echelon form, because the number of zeros in second
0 0  4 
row is not less than the number of zeros in the third row. To reduce A in the echelon form, we apply some
0 2 5 
elementary row transformations on it. Applying R 3  R 3  4 R 2 , we obtain A ~ 0 0 1 , which is in Echelon
0 0 0
form and contains 2 non zero rows. Hence, r( A)  2
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Rank of a matrix in Echelon form : The rank of a matrix in Echelon form is equal to. the number of
non-zero rows in that matrix.
Algorithm for finding the rank of a matrix : Let A  [aij ] be an m×n matrix.
Step I : Using elementary row transformations make a11  1
Step II : Make a 21 , a 31 ,...., a m1 all zeros by using elementary transformations,
R 2  R 2  a 21 R1 , R 3  R 3  a 31 R1 ,..... R m  R m  a m1 R1
Step III : Make a 22  1 by using elementary row transformations.
Step IV : Make a 32 , a 42 ,...., a m 2 all zeros by using
R 3  R 3  a 32 R 2 , R 4  R 4  a 42 R 2 ,... R m  R m  a m 2 R 2

The process used in steps III and IV is repeated upto (m  1)th row. Finally we obtain a matrix in Echelon
form, which is equivalent to the matrix A. The rank of A will be equal to the number of non-zeros rows in it.
2 3 1 4
 
Example: 38 The rank of the matrix A  0 1 2  1 is
0  2  4 2 
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) Indeterminate

2 3 1 4 2 3 1
   
Solution: (a) We have A  0 1 2  1 , Considering 3×3 minor 0 1 2  its determinant is 0.
0  2  4 2  0  2  4 
3 4 3 3

2 3 4 2 1 4  3 1 4
     
Similarly considering , 0 1 1  ,  0 2  1 &  1 2  1 , their determinant is 0 each rank can’t be 3
0  2 2  0  4 2   2  4 2 
2 3
Then again considering a 2×2 minor,   , which is non zero. Thus, rank =2
 0  2

 1 2 5 
 
Example: 39 The rank of the matrix  2 4 a  4 is
 1 2 a  1 
(a) 1 if a = 6 (b) 2 if a =1 (c) 3 if a = 2 (d) 1 if a = – 6

 1 2 5 0 0 a6 0 0 0
 
Solution: (b,d) Let A   2 4 a  4  0 0 a6  0 0 a6
 1 2 a  1  1 2 a 1 1 2 a 1
0 0 0
When a  6 , A 0 0 0 ,  r( A)  1
1 2 5
0 0 0 0 0 0
When a  1 , A  0 0 7  r ( A)  2 , When a  6 , A  0 0  12 ,  r( A)  2
1 2 2 1 2 7
0 0 0
When a  2 , A  0 0 8 ,  r( A)  2
1 2 3
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Determinants & Matrices

x  a b c 
 
Example: 40 The value of x so that the matrix  a xb c  has rank 3 is
 a b x  c 
(a) x  0 (b) x  a  b  c
(c) x  0 and x  (a  b  c) (d) x  0, x  a  b  c
xa b c
Solution: (c) Since rank is 3, | A |3 3  0 , a xb c 0
a b xc 3 3

xabc b c
xabc xb c 0 , Applying (C1  C1  C2  C3 )
xabc b xc
1 b c 1 b c
(x  a  b  c ) 1 x  b c  0  x  a  b  c  0, 1 x  b c 0
1 b xc 1 b xc
0 x c
x  (a  b  c) , 0 x x 0  x0
1 b xc

2.19 System of Simultaneous Linear Equations .

Consider the following system of m linear equations in n unknowns
a 11 x 1  a 12 x 2  ...  a 1n x n  b1
a 21 x 1  a 22 x 2  ...  a 2n x n  b 2
... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...
a m1 x 1  a m 2 x 2  ...  a mn x n  b m
 a11 a12 ... a1n   x 1  b1 
    
The system of equations can be written in matrix form as  a 21 a 22 ... a 2n   x 2   b 2  or AX  B,
        
a m1 am2 ... a mn   x n  bn 
 a11 a12 ... a1n   x1   b1 
     
Where A   a21 a22 ... a2n  , X   x 2  and B   b2 
         
am1 am 2 ... amn  mn  x n  n1 bm  m1
The m×n matrix A is called the coefficient matrix of the system of linear equations.
(1) Solution : A set of values of the variables x 1 , x 2 ...... x n which simultaneously satisfy all the equations is
called a solution of the system of equations. Example : x  2, y  3 is a solution of the system of linear
equations 3 x  y  3, 2 x  y  1 , because 3(2) +(–3)=3 and 2(2)+(–3)=1

(2) Consistent system : If the system of equations has one or more solutions, then it is said to be a
consistent system of equations, otherwise it is an inconsistent system of equations. Example : the system of linear
equation 2 x  3 y  5, 4 x  6 y  10 is consistent, because x=1, y =1 and x  2, y  1 / 3 are solutions of it.
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Determinants & Matrices

However, the system of linear equations 2 x  3 y  5, 4 x  6 y  10 is inconsistent, because there is no set

of values of x, y which satisfy the two equations simultaneously.
(3) Homogeneous and non-homogeneous system of linear equations: A system of equations
AX=B is called a homogeneous system if B  0 . Otherwise, it is called a non-homogeneous system of
equations.
Example : The system of equations, 2 x  3y  0, 3 x  y  5 is a homogeneous system of linear equations
whereas the system of equations given by 2 x  3y  1, 3 x  y  5 is a non homogeneous system of linear
equations.

2.20 Solution of a Non Homogeneous System of Linear Equations.

There are three methods of solving a non homogeneous system of simultaneous linear equations.
(1) Determinant Method (Cramer's Rule) (2) Matrix method (3) Rank method
We have already discussed the determinant method (Cramer's rule) in chapter determinants.
(1) Matrix method : Let AX  B be a system of n linear equations with n unknowns. If A is non-singular,
then A 1 exists.  AX  B  A 1 ( AX )  A 1 B , [pre-multiplying by A 1 ]
 ( A 1 A)X  A 1 B , [by associativity]
 I n X  A 1 B  X  A 1 B . Thus, the system of equations AX  B has a solution given by X  A 1 B
Now, let X 1 and X 2 be two solutions of AX  B . then, AX 1  B and AX 2  B
 AX1  AX2  A1( AX1)  A1( AX2 )  ( A 1 A)X1  ( A 1 A)X 2  I n X 1  I n X 2  X 1  X 2 .
Hence, the given system has a unique solution.
Thus, if A is a non-singular matrix, then the system of equations given by AX  B has a unique solution
given by X  A 1 B .
If A is a singular matrix, then the system of equations given by AX=B may be consistent with infinitely
many solutions or it may be inconsistent also.

Criterion of consistency : Let AX  B be a system of n-linear equations in n unknowns.

(i) If | A | 0, then the system is consistent and has a unique solution given by X  A 1 B
(ii) If | A | 0 and (adj A) B  0 , then the system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.
(iii) If | A | 0 and (adj A) B  0 , then the system is inconsistent

Algorithm for solving a non-homogeneous system of linear equations : We shall give the
algorithm for three equations in three unknowns. But it can be generalized to any number of equations.
Let AX  B be a non-homogenous system of 3 linear equations in 3 unknowns. To solve this system of
equations we proceed as follows
Step I : Write the given system of equations in matrix form, AX  B and obtain A, B.
Step II : Find | A |
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Determinants & Matrices

Step III : If | A | 0 , then write "the system is consistent with unique solution". obtain the unique solution
1
by the following procedure. Find A 1 by using A 1  adj A obtain the unique solution given by X  A 1 B
| A|
Step IV : If | A | 0, then write "the system is either consistent with infinitely many solutions or it is
inconsistent. To distinguish these two, proceed as follows: Find (adj A) B.
If (adj A)B  0 , then write "the system is inconsistent”.
If (adj A)B  0 , then the system is consistent with infinitely many solution. To find these solutions proceed
as follows. Put z  k (any real number) and take any two equations out of three equations. Solve these
equations for x and y. Let the values of x and y be  and  respectively. Then x   , y   z  k is the
required solution, where any two of  ,  , k are functions of the third.
(2) Rank method : Consider a system of m simultaneous linear equations in n unknowns x1 , x 2 ...., x n ,
given by a 11 x 1  a 12 x 2  a 13 x 3  .......  a 1n x  b1
a 21 x 1  a 22 x 2  a 23 x 3  .......  a 2n x n  b 2
    
a m1 x 1  a m 2 x 2  a m 3 x 3  ....  a mn x n  b m
This system of equations can be written in matrix form as
 a11 a12 a13 .... a1n   x 1   b1 
     
 a 21 a 22 a 23 .... a 2n   x 2    b2 
           
a m1 am2 a m3 .... a mn   x n  bm 
 a11 a12 a13 .... a1n   x1   b1 
     
or AX  B ,where  a 21 a 22 a 23 .... a 2n  , X   x 2  and B   b2 
           
a m1 a m 2 a m 3 .... a mn  mn  x n  n1 am  m1
The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix and the matrix
 a11 a12 a13 .... a1n b1 
 
[ A : B]   a 21 a 22 a 23 .... a 2n b 2  is called the augmented matrix of the given system of
     
a m1 a m 2 a m3 .... a mn bm 
equations. This matrix is obtained by adding (n  1) column to A. The elements of this column are
b1 , b2 ...., bm

For example, the augmented matrix of the system of equation

2x  y  3z  1
x  y  2z  5
x  y  z  1 is
2  1 3 1
1 1  2 5 

1 1 1  1
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Determinants & Matrices

A non-homogeneous system of linear equations may have a unique solution, or many solutions or no solution at
all. If it has a solution (whether unique or not) the system is said to be consistent. Otherwise it is called an
inconsistent system. The following theorems tell us about the condition for consistency of a system of linear
equations
Theorem 1 : The system of linear equations AX  B is consistent iff the rank of the augmented matrix
[ A : B] is equal to the rank of the coefficient matrix A.
Theorem 2 : Let AX  B be a system of m simultaneous linear equations in n unknowns.
Case I : If m  n , then
(i) if r ( A)  r ( A : B)  n, then system of linear equations has a unique solution.
(ii) if r ( A)  r ( A : B)  r  n, then system of linear equations is consistent and has infinite number of
solutions. In fact, in this case (n  r ) variables can be assigned arbitrary values.
(iii) if r ( A)  r ( A : B), then the system of linear equations is inconsistent i.e. it has no solution.
Case II : If m  n and r ( A)  r ( A : B)  r , then r  m  n and so from (ii) in case I, there are infinite
number of solutions.
Thus, when the number of equations is less than the number of unknowns and the system is consistent,
then the system of equations will always have an infinite number of solutions.
Algorithm for solving a non-homogeneous system AX=B of linear equations by rank method
Step I : Obtain A, B.
Step II : Write the Augmented matrix [A : B].
Step III : Reduce the augmented matrix to Echelon form by applying a sequence of elementary row-
operations.
Step IV : Determine the number of non-zero rows in A and [A : B] to determine the ranks of A and [A :B]
respectively.
Step V : If r ( A)  r ( A : B) then write "the system is inconsistent" STOP else write "the system is consistent", go
to Step VI
Step VI : If r ( A)  r ( A : B) = number of unknowns, then the system has a unique solution which can be
obtained by back substitution.
If r ( A)  r ( A : B) < number of unknowns, then the system has an infinite number of solutions which can
also be obtained by back substitution.
 x  y 2 x  z  4 7 
Example: 41 If    then values of x, y, z, w are
 x  y 2z  w  0 10

 x  y 2 x  z  4 7 
Solution: (a) We have   
 x  y 2z  w  0 10
x  y  4, 2 x  z  7 , x  y  0 and 2 z    10  x  2 and y  2, z  3, w  4

Example: 42 The system of linear equation x  y  z  2 , 2 x  y  z  3, 3 x  2y  kz  4 has unique solution if

(a) K0 (b) 1  K  1 (c) 2  K  2 (d) K0

1 1 1
Solution: (a) The given system of equation has a unique solution if 2 1  1  0  K  0
3 2 k

2.21 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem .

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Every matrix satisfies its characteristic equation e.g. let A be a square matrix then | A  xI | 0 is the
characteristics equation of A. If x 3  4 x 2  5 x  7  0 is the characteristic equation for A, then
A3  4 A2  5 A  7 I  0
Roots of characteristic equation for A are called Eigen values of A or characteristic roots of A or latent roots of
A.
If  is characteristic root of A, then  1 is characteristic root of A 1 .
2.22 Geometrical Transformations .
(1) Reflexion in the x-axis: If P ' ( x ' , y ' ) is the reflexion of the point P ( x, y) on the x-axis, then the matrix
1 0 
0  1 describes the reflexion of a point P ( x, y) in the x-axis.
 
 1 0
(2) Reflexion in the y-axis : Here the matrix is  
 0 1
 1 0 
(3) Reflexion through the origin : Here the matrix is  
 0  1
0 1 
(4) Reflexion in the line y = x : Here the matrix is  
1 0 
 0  1
(5) Reflexion in the line y = – x : Here the matrix is  
 1 0 
cos 2 sin 2 
(6) Reflexion in y = x tan  : Here matrix is 
 sin 2  cos 2 

cos   sin  
(7) Rotation through an angle  : Here matrix is 
 sin  cos  

2.23 Matrices of Rotation of Axes .

We know that if x and y axis are rotated through an angle  about the origin the new coordinates are
given by x  X cos   Y sin  and y  X sin   Y cos 

 x  cos   sin    X  cos   sin  

   is the matrix of rotation through an angle  .
 y   sin  cos    Y   sin 
 cos  

1 1 3 
Example: 43 Characteristic equation of the matrix A   1 3  3

 2  4  4 

(a) A3  20 A  8 I (b) A3  20 A  8 I (c) A3  80 A  20 I (d) None of these

Solution: (a) The characteristic equation is | A  I | 0 .

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Determinants & Matrices

1  1 3
So, 1 3 3 0 i.e. 3  20   8  0
2 4 4

By cayley-Hamilton theorem , A3  20 A  8 I  0

Example: 44 The transformation due to the reflection of (x, y) through the origin is described by the matrix
0 0   1 0 0 1 1 0 
(a)   (b)   (c)   (d)  
0 1   0  1  1 0  0 1 

Solution: (b) If x, y is the new position

x  (1)x  0.y, y  0.x  (1)yd

 x  1 0  x
    
 y   0  1  y 
 1 0
 Transformation matrix is  
 0  1

Example: 45 The rotation through 1800 is identical to

(a) The reflection in x -axis (b)The reflection in y-axis
(c)A point reflection (d)Identity transformation

Solution: (c) Rotation through 1800 gives x   x

y   y . Hence this a point reflection.

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