CHAPTER 1

FOOD PRESERVATION/PACKAGING
Food packaging is a packaging system specifically designed for food and represents one of the most important
aspects among the processes involved in the food industry, as it provides protection from chemical, biological
and physical alterations. The main goal of food packaging is to provide a practical means of protecting and
delivering food goods at a reasonable cost while meeting the needs and expectations of both consumers and
industries.]Additionally, current trends like sustainability, environmental impact reduction, and shelf-
life extension have gradually become among the most important aspects in designing a packaging system.
Packaging of food products has seen a vast transformation in technology usage and application from the stone
age to the industrial revolution:
7000 BC: The adoption of pottery and glass which saw industrialization around 1500 BC. 
1700s: The first manufacturing production of tinplate was introduced in England (1699) and in France (1720).
Afterwards, the Dutch navy start to use such packaging to prolong the preservation of food products.
1804: Nicolas Appert, in response to inquiries into extending the shelf life of food for the French Army,
employed glass bottles along with thermal food treatment. Glass has been replaced by metal cans in this
application. However, there is still an ongoing debate about who first introduced the use of tinplates as food
packaging.
1870: The use of paper board was launched and corrugated materials patented.
1880s: First cereal packaged in a folding box by Quaker Oats.
1890s: The crown cap for glass bottles was patented by William Painter. 
1960s: Development of the two-piece drawn and wall-ironed [further explanation needed] metal cans in the US, along with
the ring-pull opener and the Tetra Brik Aseptic carton package.
1970s: The barcode system was introduced in the retail and manufacturing industry. PET plastic blow-mold
bottle technology, which is widely used in the beverage industry, was introduced.
1990s: The application of digital printing on food packages became widely adopted.
Plastic packaging saw its inaugural use during World War II, even though materials employed in its
manufacturing (such as cellulose nitrate, styrene and vinyl chloride) were discovered in the 1800s.

Packaging and package's labeling have several objectives:

 Physical protection - The food enclosed in the package may require protection from shock, vibration,
compression, temperature, bacteria, etc.
 Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a
critical factor in design. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary
function. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages.
Some packages contain desiccants, oxygen absorbers, or ethylene absorbers to help extend shelf life.
 Containment or agglomeration - Small items are typically grouped together in one package to allow
efficient handling. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment.

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 Information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of
the package or product. Some types of information are required by governments.
 Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase
the product. Aesthetically pleasing and eye-appealing food presentations can encourage people to
consider the contents. Package design has been an important and constantly evolving phenomenon for
several decades. Marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package
and (in many cases) also to the point of sale display. The colour of the package plays a significant role in
evoking emotions that persuade the consumer to make the purchase.[14]
 Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment. Packages can be
made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering, and can also have tamper-evident features to
help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage; some
package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer-indicating seals. Packages may
include authentication seals to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit. Packages
also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance tags, that
can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using
packaging in this way is a means of retail loss prevention.
 Convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking,
display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse.
 Portion control - Single-serving packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage. Bulk
commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual
households. It also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, rather than having
people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.

Packaging design may vary largely depending on the function that are fashioned into different types of
packages and containers, and depending on the food products and their function, such as:

Packaging Type Foods Materials

Aseptic Polymers, multi-layer
Primary Liquid whole eggs or dairy products
packaging packaging

Portion of fish, meat, fruits, vegetable, sweets Polymers, cardboards, biopo

Trays Primary
and convenience foods lymers

Bags Primary Potato chips, apples, dried fruits, rice, snacks Metallized

polymers, polymers, multi-

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 layer packaging

Can of tomato soup, beans, mais, salmon, tuna, Aluminum, tin, stainless-

Cans Primary
and prawns steel

Multi-layer
Cartons Primary Carton of eggs, milk, and fruit juice
packaging, coated paper

Flexible
Primary Bagged salad, potato chips, sweets and candies Polymer, biopolymer
packaging

Boxes Secondary box of cereal cartons, frozen pizzas Cardboards

A series of boxes on a single pallet used to

Corrugated
Pallets Tertiary transport from the manufacturing plant to
cardboard, wooden pallet
a distribution center

Polymer, multi-layer
Wrappers Tertiary Used to wrap the boxes on the pallet for transport
packaging

Since almost all food products is packed in some fashion, food packaging is both fundamental and pervasive.
[16]
 Additionally, by enabling the creation and standardization of brands, it provides the opportunity to realized
significant advertising, extensive distribution, and mass merchandising.[16] Therefore, a distinction between the
various type (or level) of packaging needs to be made.
Primary packaging
Primary packaging is directly in contact with the food products, creating the ideal headspace for them while
providing protection from external alteration. Additionally, primary packaging, also known as retail packaging
or consumer units, is responsible for the marketing aspects of food packaging.[4] Typically, the packaging
materials used in the primary level include cardboard cartons, plastic trays, glass bottle and multi-layerrd
structure.
Secondary packaging
Secondary packaging contains a number of primary packages into one box being made usually out
of corrugated cardboard. Thus, the secondary level is a physical distribution carrier for the primary packages,

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making more easy to handle during the transportation. Occasionally it can be used as an aid in retail outlets
or super market for the display of basic goods.
Tertiary packaging
The outermost package, known as tertiary packaging, makes it easier to handle, store, and distribute both
primary and secondary packages in bulk safely, providing further protection of the product while creating an
easy way to transport large quantities of materials. The most familiar type of tertiary packaging comprises a
wrapped pallet of corrugated case.

Gallery

Bagged cake mix

 
Biscuit components: plastic bottles, paper bag
 

Container for bulk vegetable oil

 

 Frozen processed food freezer in supermarket

 Bag in box; box wine

 Glass milk bottle and paperboard milk carton

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Silk tea bag

 Coffee beans in burlap bags, gunny sacks

 Bushel baskets of fruit

 Tea tin, can with removable cover

 

 Folding cartons of cereal

 Drink boxes
 Packaged Apples
 Fresh fish in plastic shrink-wrapped tray
 A pair of Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) field rations packaged in retort pouches
 Condiments and spices
 Aluminum can with an easy-open, full pull-out end
 A Dip & Squeeze ketchup container
A choice of packaging machinery requires consideration of technical capabilities, labor requirements, worker
safety, maintainability, serviceability, reliability, ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost,
floorspace, flexibility (change-over, materials, etc.), energy usage, quality of outgoing packages, qualifications
(for food, pharmaceuticals, etc.), throughput, efficiency, productivity, and ergonomics, at a minimum.[18]
Packaging machines may be of the following general types:

 Autocoding label and date verification

 Blister, skin and vacuum packaging machines
 Capping, over-capping, lidding, closing, seaming and sealing machines
 Cartoning machines

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  Case and tray forming, packing, unpacking, closing and sealing Machines
 Check weighing machines
 Cleaning, sterilizing, cooling and drying machines
 Conveying and accumulating machines
 Feeding, orienting, and placing machines
 Filling machines for liquid and powdered products
 Package filling and closing Machines
 Form, fill and seal machines
 Inspecting, detecting and checkweighing machines
 Palletizing, depalletizing, and pallet unitizing machines
 Labeling, marking, and other product identification machines
 Wrapping machines
 Converting machines

Automated palletizer of bread with industrial KUKA robots

 Shrink-wrapping trays of bakery good
Pumping slurry ice onto fresh fish
 
Filling machinery for bag-in-box

Reduction of food packaging[

Reduced packaging and sustainable packaging are becoming more frequent. The motivations can be
government regulations, consumer pressure, retailer pressure, and cost control. Reduced packaging often
saves packaging costs. In the UK, a Local Government Association survey produced by the British Market
Research Bureau compared a range of outlets to buy 29 common food items, and found that small local
retailers and market traders "produced less packaging and more that could be recycled than the
larger supermarkets."[19]

Optimum packaging design chart

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In the last decades, the growing demand from the consumers and governments for more sustainable and eco-
friendly packaging design has driven the food industry to re-design and propose alternative packaging
solutions.[20] However, in designing a brand new packaging system, several variables need to be taken in
consideration. An ideal packaging design should only use the right amount of the appropriate materials to
provide the desired performance for a specific product. As shown in the optimum packaging design chart, the
variety of situations in which product losses occur increases as the material weight or volume is decreased.
Such trend will eventually reach a situation in which the loss outweighs the cost savings from using less
packing material. Beyond that point, any packing reduction increases the overall quantity of waste in the
system, rendering it a false benefit. The goal of the optimal packaging design is to identify a weight below
which the package can no longer be sold since it does not satisfy the specifications, while considering the
environmental impact connected to the materials selection.

Recycling of food packaging

Main article: Recycling § Rinsing
Food packaging is created through the use of a wide variety of plastics and metals, papers, and glass materials.
Recycling these products differs from the act of literally reusing them because the recycling process has its
own algorithm which includes collecting, sourcing, processing, manufacturing and marketing these products.
According to the Environmental Protection Agency of the United States, the recycling rate has been steadily
on the rise, with data reporting that in 2005 40% of the food packaging and containers that were created were
recycled.[citation needed]
The product's quality and safety are the package's most important responsibility. However, there have been
growing demands for packaging to be designed, manufactured, consumed, and recycled in a more sustainable
fashion due to the increasing pollution connected with packaging and food wastes. It has been estimated that
only 10.33% of all municipal solid waste (MSW), which makes up to 30.3% of the total waste, is recycled into
new products globally.
However, depending on the level of packaging and the materials that are being used during their
manufacturing, the end-of-life of a package may differ completely. Despite the fact that a recycling process is
usually the desired path, lots of complications may lead to less sustainable destines.
End-of-use

 Plastic: Landfilling, burning, and recycling are all alternatives for plastic packaging at the end of their shelf-
life. However, improper disposal and handling lead to higher percentage of plastic waste, which can
pollute the environment in a wide spectrum of scenarios. The packaging sector accounts for 40.5% of all
plastic produced in Europe, which represents the largest sector in food industry.[24] However, the recycling
of such wastege is at a critical low level of roughly 35%. Moreover, it has been estimated that over 20% of
the plastic packaging does not reach any recycling process.
 Bioplastic: also known as biodegradable polymer or biopolymer, are usually made from renewable
feedstock resources like corn and sugar cane, as well as from microorganism of different kind. Typical end-
of-life options include the composting or the environmental degradation of bioplastics, which result in
resource loss and CO2 production. Complete degradation is also only achievable under rigorous conditions
that are infrequently offered by the company. Additionally, some bioplastics are processed similarly to
their traditional, fossil-based counterparts, which, if improperly sorted, might cause harmful interferences
in other materials' recycling processes.

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 Paper and cardboard: are composed of cellulosic fibers bonded together to form a flexible structure.
These packaging materials have a long tradition as the ideal solutions for storing dry foods (such as flour,
rice, and pasta) as well as being used as secondary or tertiary packaging. Paper and cardboard are often
collected separately for recycling; however, some difficulties are faced in the case of the presence of a
coating (e.g., plastic or aluminum) or contamination due to food residues. Alternative end-of-life options
include incineration and landfill. In theory, paper and board packaging is compostable, but persistent
chemicals (like PFAS) may be dispersed in the environment through this practice, thus limiting the
potential benefits.
 Metal-based packaging can endure high temperatures and can provides outstanding gas, light, and aromas
barriers, leading to a very competitive solutions in a broad range of application. Direct food preservation
in the packaging was made possible with the development of the canning method.[27] Coatings, whether
organic or inorganic, may lessen the interactions between metal and food. However, it was discovered
that many of the chemicals in these coatings migrated into food. The end-of-life alternatives for metal
food packaging differ depending on its usage: for example cans and lids can be broken down and recycled
multiple times.
 Glass: is an inorganic packaging that has been used for storing food and beverages. Nowadays, soda-lime
glass is the commonly used variation manufactured from raw materials such as soda ash, limestone, and
metal. Due to the structural characteristics of glass, the risk of migration into the food is very limited.
Glass is incredibly chemically stable and durable when handled carefully (due to its fragile nature).
[29]
 Therefore, this packaging material is an ideal candidate for repeated use, due to these characteristics.
Glass can also be recycled multiple times without losing any quality properties.
 Multi-layer packaging: in the food and beverage business, packaging composed of numerous layers of
various materials is commonly referred to as multi-layer or multi-material packaging. In many countries,
multi-material food packaging is frequently burned or disposed of landfills.[citation needed] Nevertheless, some
areas are actively developing separate collections and efficient sorting processes for fiber-based multi-
material packaging, such as beverage cartons. On the other hand, multi-layer packaging composed of
aluminum and plastic barrier, cannot currently be recycled in an efficient way, and must undergo chemical
treatment to be disposed of correctly. In light of these considerations, it is clear how, despite being the
state-of-the-art in food packaging application, multi-layer packaging poses a great challenge when
considering its end-of-life.[31] An exception is the case of multi-layer packaging consisting of several layers
of the same material (or being part of the same category): such solutions in many cases allow for
outstanding performance and, at the same time, allow for an easier recycling.

Trends in food packaging

Main article: Active packaging

 Numerous reports made by industry associations agree that use of smart indicators will increase. There
are a number of different indicators with different benefits for food producers, consumers and retailers.
 Temperature recorders are used to monitor products shipped in a cold chain and to help validate the cold
chain. Digital temperature data loggers measure and record the temperature history of food shipments.
They sometimes have temperatures displayed on the indicator or have other outputs (lights, etc.): the
data from a shipment can be downloaded (cable, RFID, etc.) to a computer for further analysis. These help
identify if there has been temperature abuse of products and can help determine the remaining shelf life.
[33]
 They can also help determine the time of temperature extremes during shipment, so that corrective
measures can be taken.

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 Time temperature indicators integrate the time and temperature experienced by the indicator and
adjacent foods. Some use chemical reactions that result in a color change, while others use the migration
of a dye through a filter media. To the degree that these physical changes in the indicator match the
degradation rate of the food, the indicator can help indicate probable food degradation.[34]
 Radio frequency identification is applied to food packages for supply chain control. It has shown a
significant benefit in allowing food producers and retailers to have full real time visibility of their supply
chain.
 Plastic packaging being used is usually non-biodegradable due to possible interactions with the food. Also,
biodegradable polymers often require special composting conditions to properly degrade. Normal
sealed landfill conditions do not promote biodegradation. Biodegradable plastics include biodegradable
films and coatings synthesized from organic materials and microbial polymers. Some package materials
are edible. For example, pharmaceuticals are sometimes in capsules made of gelatin, starch, potato or
other materials. Newer bioplastics, films and products are being developed.[35]
 There is an increasing development and production of food packaging materials containing substances and
realizing systems intended to extend shelf life: carbon dioxide (CO2) emitters; antioxidants (e.g. butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), tocopherols, hinokitiol); antimicrobial enzymes
(e.g. lysozyme), polymers (e.g. ε-polylysine, chitosan)
and nanoparticles (e.g. silver, copper, gold, platinum, titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, magnesium oxide,
organically modified nanoclays); bacteriocins (e.g. nisin, natamycin); and essential oils.[36][37]
 In the last decades, the use of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and other variation of this
technology has shown growing interest and application in the food packaging industry. The use of a
specific gas mixture inside the packaging headspace has proven to be ideal to slow down the metabolic
process of food product, thus prolonging the shelf-life of meat, fish, fruits and vegetables.[38]
 The design of multi-layer packaging system has been recognized as the state-of-the-art in food packaging
application for its versatility, processability and efficacy. Each layer can be made of different materials and
provides a key functionality for the whole structure, such as improved mechanical properties, chemical
stability, barrier properties and anti-microbial properties. However, the use of such complex structure
significantly reduces its recyclability (except for a few cases).[39]
 Recently, the application of protective coating on commercially available packaging materials (such as PET,
PP, PLA cardboard or biopolymer) represents a potential solution to deal with the increasing
environmental impact due to both food and packaging waste.[40]
 Barcodes have been used for decades in packaging many products. 2D barcodes used in autocoding are
increasingly applied to food packaging to ensure that products are correctly packaged and date coded.
 The ability of a package to fully empty or dispense a viscous food is somewhat dependent on the surface
energy of the inner walls of the container. The use of superhydrophobic surfaces is useful but can be
further improved by using new lubricant-impregnated surfaces.

Food packaging barriers

Main article: Permeation
Physical processes involved in the permeability of a gas molecule across a packaging material
A critical requirement in food packaging is represented by the barrier properties against the permeation of
gases, water vapor, and aroma compounds of the packaging system. In fact, the chemical interactions
between the products and the environment are the principal reasons for improper shelf-life and spoilage

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phenomena. Therefore, the evaluation of the gas exchange by means of the permeation of gas molecules is a
crucial aspect in designing a product.
The permeation of a gas molecule through a packaging system is a physical process made up of three
independent phenomena: the adsorption of the molecule to the packaging's outer surface; the diffusion of the
molecule through the packaging’s section; and the desorption in the internal headspace.[43] Under the
assumption of steady state condition, the physical processes involved in the permeation can be modeled by
simple equations.[44] Particularly, the diffusion of a permeant's molecule is dependent to the concentration
difference between the two sides of the packaging system, which acts as a driving force, thus creating a
diffusive flux following the first Fick's law of diffusion.
Furthermore, other assumptions are needed, such as the absence of chemical interaction between the
penetrant and the packaging material and the fact that the diffusion flow must follow only one direction.
[45]
 The adsorption/desorption processes of a permeant's molecule normally exhibit a linear dependency with
the partial pressure gradient across the barrier layer while keeping the assumption of steady-state transport
condition and exhibiting a concentration lower than the penetrant's maximum solubility, thereby adhering
to Henry's law of solubility.
The type of permeant, the barrier layer's thickness, the specific permeabilities of the packaging films against
gases or vapors, the packaging's permeable area, the temperature, and the pressure or concentration gradient
between the barrier's interior and external sides can all have an impact on a system's permeability.[47]
The gas exchange occurring between the packaging system and the external environment has a significant
impact on the quality and safety of food products. Uncontrolled physico-chemical and biological processes
such as oxidation of vitamins, excessive microbial growth, and spoilage of the packed food may lead to
improper conditions inside the packaging headspace, hence reducing their shelf-life.[16] Therefore, the
packaging system should be designed to create the ideal conditions for the selected product, avoiding
excessive gas exchange.
Among the permeants that could affect the organoleptic properties of food, oxygen and water vapor
represent the most important ones. These permeants affect several bio-chemical processes in food products,
such as ripening, degradation, hydration/dehydration, microbial growth, vitamins oxidation; they also have an
impact on the organoleptic properties, hence causing off-flavours, excessive weight loss, textural changing and
generally shortening the shelf life.
To quantify the barrier properties of a packaging system, both oxygen and water vapor permeation are
commonly assessed by measuring the oxygen transmission rate (OTR) and water vapor transmission
rate (WVTR), respectively.

Oxygen barrier
Main article: Oxygen transmission rate

Permeation cell setup for the measurement of the oxygen transmission rate.
The oxygen transmission rate of a gas through the packaging is defined as the amount of oxygen permeating
per unit of permeable area and unit of time in a packaging system considering standardized test conditions (23
°C and 1 atm partial pressure difference). It is an effective tool to estimate the barrier properties of a certain
material. The determination of the OTR is usually carried out by means of a steady-state and isostatic method,

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reported by the ASTM D 3985 or ASTM F 1307, containing respectively standardized protocol for the
measurements of the OTR of several kind of packaging.
The typical instrumentation consists in a permeation cell composed by two distinct chambers separated by
the tested material; one of the chambers is then filled with a carrier gas (e.g., nitrogen), while the other one
with oxygen, hence creating the necessary driving force to let the oxygen permeate across the barrier’s
material.
Water vapor barrier
Main article: Moisture vapor transmission rate

Water vapor transmission rate measurement setup, consisting in a stainless-steel cups filled with water or a
dessicant
useful. Verification and validation involves collecting documentary evidence of all aspects of compliance.
Quality assurance extends beyond the packaging operations through distribution and cold chain management.

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 CHAPTER –2
Digitized Money Transaction

Before, visiting Ashram, we made an attempt to understand facilitating digitized money transactions, later
educated people in Ashram and employees of Ashram.
 
Digital payments are transactions that take place via digital or online modes, with no
physical exchange of money involved. This means that both parties, the payer and the
payee, use electronic mediums to exchange money.

The Government of India has been undertaking several measures to promote and encourage digital payments
in the country. As part of the ‘Digital India’ campaign, the government has an aim to create a ‘digitally
empowered’ economy that is ‘Faceless, Paperless, Cashless’. There are various types and methods of digital

payments.

Benefits of digital payments

Mobile Wallets UPI AEPS Internet Banking

In a country like India, where disparities are sometimes poles apart, ensuring financial equality becomes an
issue of prime importance. One of the reasons why our government started vocalizing Cashless Economy and
Digital India was to improve access to financial resources. There are multiple benefits that digital payments
bring to the table.
1.Ease and convenience
One of the most significant advantages of digital payment is the seamless experience they provide to
customers. Reduced dependency on cash, fast transfer speed, and the ease of transacting make online
payments a preferred option. Traditional payment methods like cash and cheques add to factors like risk,
steps, and physical presence. With digital payment, you can send and receive funds from anywhere in the
world at the click of a button.
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2.Economic progress
Customers transact more online when they see the ease, convenience, and security of online payments. This
means that more and more people feel comfortable buying online, investing digitally, and transferring funds
via electronic mediums. The increase in money movement and online business contributes to the progress of
the economy. This is why online ventures are being launched every day and even more are making profits
daily.
3.Safety and efficient tracking 
Handling and dealing in cash is a cumbersome and tedious task. Along with the risk of losing money, there is
the hassle of carrying cash everywhere you go and keeping it safe. With digital payments, one can keep their
funds secured in online format effortlessly. Nowadays, your mobile phone alone is enough to make and
receive payments – thanks to UPI, netbanking, and mobile wallets. Additionally, most digital payment
channels provide regular updates, notifications, and statements for a customer to track his funds.
4.Razorpay Payment Gateway: Your digital payment partner
Carrying forward the mission of Cashless and Digital India, Razorpay is India’s first full-stack financial solutions
provider. We aim to enable all businesses, enterprises, entrepreneurs, and freelancers to adopt digital
payment methods to grow their businesses. Razorpay Payment Gateway is our flagship product, providing
holistic payment solutions to enterprises, big and small.
5.A payment gateway is like a portal connecting your bank account to the platform where your transactions
occur. This third-party addition is the simplest way for a business to collect online payments via their website.
If your venture has a website or an app, then Razorpay Payment Gateway should be your go-to option. 
With Razorpay Payment Gateway, you can accept end-to-end payments easily and seamlessly. Some of the
key features and benefits include:
 Accept all payment modes: A strong supporter of digital payments, options like Domestic and
International Credit & Debit cards, EMIs, PayLater, Netbanking, UPI, and mobile wallets
 Flash Checkout: Thanks to the option of saving cards, your customer no longer needs to type in the card
details every time – saving time and increasing sales
 Powerful Razorpay Dashboard: Dashboard provides efficient monitoring by way of reports, detailed
statistics on refunds and settlements, and much more
 Protected and Secured: PCI DSS Level 1 compliant along with frequent third-party audits and a
dedicated internal security team to make sure your data is always safe

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  Run Offers Easily: Razorpay dashboard allows you to run any and every promotional offer at the click of
a button

Ways to Make Digital Payment Methods More Effective

According to Statista , the number of digital payment users is forecasted to grow by 5.4% year-over-year in
2020. While this continued upward trend is good news for those in the digital payments space, there’s still
room for improvement in how digital payments are processed.

Before digital payment options become ubiquitous, the platforms and payment processes must be as
seamless as possible for consumers. Below, Forbes Technology Council members share their
recommendations for making digital payment methods more effective.

1. Standardize Browser And Device Support

As with password management, different browsers and devices use different mechanisms for storing credit
card information and automatically supplying that information when prompted by apps and Web pages. Some
standardization would help. - Manuel Vellon, Level 11

2. Educate Consumers

Many consumers are still wary about using digital payments, but if companies can educate their customers on
the security advantages of digital payments, more consumers will be comfortable with the new form of
payment. Consider displaying signage in business or using email marketing to explain to employees in Ashram
how digital payments are much more secure than traditional transactions. - Thomas Griffin, OptinMonster

Forbes Technology Council is an invitation-only community for world-class CIOs, CTOs and technology
executives. 

3. Integrate More Banks

One way to make digital payment methods more effective is to integrate as many banks as possible so that it
becomes more convenient to transfer money from person to person. Clearly explained the security benefits of
using said digital payment method, such as tokenization and/or multi-factor authentication. - Archie
Agarwal, ThreatModeler Software, Inc.
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4. Synergize With Credit Card Companies

Right now we literally have e-commerce at our fingertips. But what happens next? We select a payment
method, enter a credit card number, etc. We can improve the flow and work with credit card companies on
secure synergy with an even more efficient method to pay. The future is now, from fingerprints to facial
recognition. We should be able to make payments instantaneous and without bounds. - WaiJe
Coler, InfoTracer

5. Avoid Redirects

Nowadays, all payment credentials must work in a safe, convenient and fast environment across any channel
the customer wants to use and without the need for an account. Users dislike being redirected and providing
more personal information than needed. - Elaine Montilla, CUNY Graduate Center

6. Leverage Blockchain

Blockchain enables secure worldwide payments. Blockchain-based systems have even more advanced
features such as faster transactions, increased anonymity and custom behavior through smart contracts. The
pros of blockchain payments over traditional centralized systems is the absence of a single point of failure.
The network is distributed so it is nearly impossible to shut down an active blockchain. - Dennis
Turpitka, Apriorit

7. Build Bank and FinTech Partnerships

Banks and fintech companies are likely to initiate more partnerships in 2020 to build financial ecosystems —
i.e., gathering multiple services, including payments, under one roof. It will improve customer experience;
facilitate in-store, online and person-to-person payments; and help the digital payment industry grow.
- Alexey Makarov, Qulix Systems

8. Instantly Reward Consumers

More consumers are willing to switch their primary cards if it means that they can receive higher return
values, which is why a built-in rewards system can be so enticing. However, when it comes to earning and
redeeming rewards, consumers desire simplicity. To make digital payments more effective, allow consumers

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to redeem rewards at the point of sale terminal so that they can benefit even faster. - Christopher
Yang, Corporate Travel Management

9. Integrate SMS Messaging

Digital payments have an interesting capacity to significantly inform the amount transferred, so once
transavtion is completed need to see SMS

10. Make Digital Payment Easier

As an end-user, if I had to substitute traditional payments with new-age digital wallets, one must-have feature
would be the ease of usage or ease of doing the transaction. While a lot of mobile wallets have wide
acceptance, if the user has to go through multiple levels of authorization asign-ups, the chances are they may
never use it again. - Srinivas Arasada, Evolutyz Corp.

11. Personalize the Digital Payment Journey

Capitalize on the richness of data across the ecosystem to gain greater context awareness and combine it with
the power of cognitive computing to dynamically optimize the payment methods used. Maximize value to the
customer in every transaction—all in milliseconds and behind the scenes (app and device-agnostic)—and
make the digital payment journey truly personalized, yet incredibly simple. - Nitin Rakesh, Mphasis Limited

12. Enable Conversational Payments

Brands can go well beyond simply integrating digital payment methods with their apps and websites. To keep
up with consumer expectations for “always-on” access, brands can integrate payments directly into
conversational experiences, especially with the increasing capabilities of secure, transactional, conversational
AI. This can be done with encryption, sensitive data redaction and PCI compliance. - Evan Kohn, Pypestream

References
1.https://razorpay.com/learn/digital-payments-india-definition-methods-importance/
2.https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2020/01/02/16-ways-to-make-digital-payment-methods-
more-effective/?sh=24a9349b6a70
3. https://www.billdesk.com/web/online_payment

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4. http://cashlessindia.gov.in/internet_banking.html

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 CHAPTER – 3
BASICS OF COMPUTERS
Definition of a Computer:
Computer is an electronic device which is capable of receiving data and produce a result in the form
of information. This is achieved by performing a sequence of operations in accordance with a set of
procedural instructions called program.
Data : Data is a collection of raw facts.
Information : Information is the processed data in an orderly form.
Unlike a calculator, computers can store a program and retrieve information from its memory.

Characteristics of Computers:
Computers have the following characteristics:
a) Speed: The speed of operation of the computers are very high. Processing speed increases day
by day with new inventions of Technology. In general, no human being can compete to solve
the complex computations, faster than computer.
b) Accuracy: Since Computer is a machine, it gives the results with high accurately.
c) Storage: Computer can store a large amount of data, Pictures, Movies with appropriate format.
The data can be retrieved whenever required using proper programs.
d) Diligence: Computer can work for hours without any break and creating error.
e) Versatility : We can use computers to perform completely different type of work at the same
time.
f) No IQ : Computer does not work without instructions. Whatever the way we programme the
same way it will function. It doesn’t have its own intelligence. However, the present day
computers are programmed to have artificial intelligence.
g) No feeling : Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience, feeling. It is just a
machine.

1.2.2 Principle of a Computer

The Computer works on the principle of ON and OFF states. These states are represented by
different physical parameters as shown below.
ON STATE OFF STATE
Flow of current in some part of the computer may be No flow of current
represented
as ON state
High Voltage at some part of the circuit Low Voltage
Magnetic Field at a point in floppy disk No magnetic field
Reflection of light in compact disk No reflection of light

ON state is represented by 1 and OFF state is represented by 0. All that happens inside the computer
is based on these two states only. We use binary number system to represent the states in the
Computer. 0,1 are called as Binary digits ( BITS )

8 bits = 1 byte

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 1024 byte = 1 Kilo Byte ( KB) 1024
KB = 1 Mege Byte (MB) 1024 MB
= 1 Giga Byte ( GB)
1024 GB = 1 Tera Byte ( TB )

Digitization : It is possible to convert basic entities like voice, text, Pictures, motion pictures etc. into
electronic form (say Zeros and Ones). This is called digitization. Once basic data is converted into
digital form it can be processed in the Computers.

Applications of Computers
Computers are used in each and every part of our daily life and made our life easier. Computers have
taken industries and businesses to a whole new level. They are used at Home for work and
entertainment purposes, at Office, in hospitals, in government organizations. The following are some
of the uses of computers in various fields.

Uses of Computers in home

a. Working from Home : People can manage the office work at home. The owner of a company
can check the work of the employees from home and control his office while sitting at home.
b. Entertainment: People can find entertainment on the internet. They can play games, watch
movies, listen to songs, and watch videos download different stuff. They can also watch live
matches on the internet.
c. Information: People can find any type of information on the internet. Educational and
informative websites are available to download books, tutorials etc. to improve their knowledge
and learn new things.
d. Chatting & Social Media: People can chat with friends and family on the internet using different
software like Skype etc. One can interact with friends over social media websites like Facebook,
Twitter & Google Plus.
Uses of Computers in Education :
Computer-based training (CBT) is any course of instruction whose primary means of delivery is a
computer. CBT are different programs that are supplied on CD-ROM. These programs include text,
graphics and sound. Audio and Video lectures are recorded on the CDs. CBT is a low cost solution for
educating people. You can train a large number of people easily. The following are some of the
benefits of CBT:
a. The students can learn new skills at their own pace. They can easily acquire knowledge in
any available time of their own choice. For example The courses offered by AP State Skill
Development Corporation (APSSDC) can be accessed through YouTube through the search
word ‘ESC APSSDC’
b. It is very cost effective way to train a large number of students.
c. Training materials are interactive and easy to learn. It encourages students to learn the topic.
d. Training videos and audios are available at affordable prices.
e. Computer Aided Learning (CAL) : Computer aided learning is the process of using
information technology to help teaching and enhance the learning process.

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 f. Distance Learning: Distance learning is a new learning methodology and Computer plays the
key role in this kind of learning. The student does not need to come to the institute. The
institute provides the reading material and the student attends virtual classroom. In virtual
classroom, the teacher delivers lecture at his own workplace. The student can attend the
lecture at home by connecting to a network. The student can also ask questions to the
teacher.
g. Online Examination: Different examination like GRE, GMAT and SAT are conducted online all
over the world. The questions are marked by computer. It minimizes the chance of
mistakes. It also enables to announce the result in time.
Uses of Computers in Business
Businessmen are using computers to interact with their customers anywhere in the world. Many
business tasks are performed more quickly and efficiently. Computers also help them to reduce the
overall cost of their business.
Uses of computers in Medical Field
a. Specialized hospital management softwares are used to automate the day to day
procedures and operations at hospitals.
b. Monitoring systems are installed in medical wards and Intensive care units to monitoring
patients continuously. These systems can monitor pulse, blood pressure and body
temperature and can alert medical staff about any serious situations.
c. Specialised devices are used to help impaired patients like hearing aids.
d. A variety of software are used to investigate symptoms and prescribed medication
accordingly. Sophisticated systems are used for tests like CT Scan, ECG, and other medical
tests.
Block Diagram of a Digital Computer
A computer system consists of mainly three basic units; namely input unit, central processing unit
and output unit. Central Processing unit further includes Arithmetic logic unit, Memory Unit and
control unit, as shown in block diagram

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 a. Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the user .
b. Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the computer after
processing

c. Central Processing Unit (CPU) : The task of performing arithmetic and logical operations is done by
CPU. The major parts of CPU are : Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Memory Unit (MU) and Control Unit
(CU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) : All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions provided,
are carried out within the ALU. It performs arithmetic functions like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and also logical operations like greater than, less than and equal to.

Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control
unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.

Memory Unit : Computer’s memory can be classified into two types; primary memory and
secondary memory. Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.
Random Access Memory (RAM) is the place in a computer where the programs and data are kept
temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since
its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on.
Read Only Memory (ROM) is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of which
are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically contains manufacturer’s
instructions. ROM also stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to
start the operation of computer system once the power is turned on.
Secondary Memory
Secondary/auxiliary memory is storage other than the RAM. These include devices that are
peripheral and are connected and controlled by the computer to enable permanent storage of
programs and data. Some of the secondary storage devices are hard disks, CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip
drive etc.
Hard Disk : Hard disks are made up of a stack of metal disks sealed in a box. The hard disk and the
hard disk drive exist together as a unit and is a permanent part of the computer where data and
programs are saved. Hard disks are rewritable.
Compact Disk : Compact Disk (CD) is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650-700
MB. It can hold large amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text etc. CDs can
be either read only or read write type.
Digital Video Disk : Digital Video Disk (DVD) is similar to a CD but has larger storage capacity. DVDs
are primarily used to store music or movies and can be played back on your television or the
computer too.

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 Input / Output Devices:
These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or
processing and to deliver the processed data to a user. Input/Output devices are required for users
to communicate with the computer. These devices are also known as peripherals since they
surround the CPU and memory of a computer system.
Input Devices
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many input devices, but
the two most common ones are a keyboard and mouse. Every key you press on the keyboard and
every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input signal to the computer.
Keyboard: The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter keyboard with a few additional
keys. The basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to make it easy to use the system. There
are also Functional Keys, used to perform certain special functions.
Mouse: A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A mouse is
a small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface. Its name is derived from its shape, which
looks a bit like a mouse. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the
same direction.
Trackball: A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or other electronic
devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a moveable ball on the top,
which can be rolled in any direction.
Touchpad: A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input positioning) on a computer display
screen. It is an alternative to the mouse. Originally incorporated in laptop computers, touch pads are
also being made for use with desktop computers. A touch pad works by sensing the user’s finger
movement and downward pressure.
Touch Screen: It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display screen. A
display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Widely used on ATM machines,
retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical monitors and industrial control panels.
Light Pen: Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a
display screen.
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): MICR can identify character printed with a special ink that
contains particles of magnetic material. This device particularly finds applications in banking
industry.
Optical mark recognition (OMR): Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense reader is a
technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil mark.
OMR is widely used in tests such as aptitude test.
Bar code reader: Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or vertical
zebra strips marks, printed on product containers. These devices are generally used in super
markets, bookshops etc.
Scanner : Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustration printed on paper and
translates the information into a form that the computer can use. A scanner works by digitizing an
image.

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Output Devices
Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired from. The
processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit, which then
converts it into a form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually produced in one of
the two ways – on the display device, or on paper (hard copy).
Monitor: is often used synonymously with “computer screen” or “display.” Monitor is an output
device that resembles the television screen. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual
input of characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or
application output.
Printer: Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hard copy) output. They use
chemical, heat or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal
printers fall under this category of printers.
Sound cards and Speaker(s): An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output
sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become commonplace on
modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output sound through speakers
connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the computer, and
manipulate sound stored on a disk.
Classification of Computers
Computers are available in different sizes and with different capabilities. On the basis of
capacity of speed processing information computers are classified into: Super computer, Mainframe
computer, Mini computer and Micro computer.

Super computer:

They are most powerful and expensive computers. They have externally large storage capacities and
processing speed is at least 10 times faster than other computers. Some of the super computers are
NEC , CRAY ,CYBER 205,CDC STAR 100 etc.

Mainframe computer:

They are medium or large machine, made of several units connected together. It's generally used in
big organizations.

Mini computer:

They are like small mainframes. They consist of a few separate units connected together. They are
not powerful as mainframe computers.

Micro computer:

Micro Computers are the smallest general purpose computers. They are used in different
applications like business, engineering, schools, colleges, entertainment etc. Micro computers are
further classified into Desk tops, Laptops, Palmtops and so on depending on their relative size.
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 In recent years the mobile phones too have computing facilities. The trend is that the
communication features and computing features are integrated in such devices.

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CHAPTER – 4
BASICS OF INTERNET

Basics of Internet

• Internet: It is a global network of computer networks. It comprises of millions of computing

devices that carry and transfer volumes of information from one device to the other.

WWW

• History of World Wide Web (WWW):

→ Invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.

→ By the end of 1990, the first Web page was served.

→ In April 1993, the World Wide Web technology was available for anyone to use on a royalty-free
basis.

• Definition of WWW: The World Wide Web (WWW) is an internet based service, which uses
common set of rules known as Protocols, to distribute documents across the Internet in a
standard way.

Difference between Internet and WWW

• The Internet is a massive network of networks. It connects millions of computers together

globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate with any other computer as
long as they are both connected to the Internet. Information that travels over the Internet does
so via a variety of languages known as protocols.

• The World Wide Web or simply Web is a massive collection of digital pages to access
information over the Internet. The Web uses the HTTP protocol, to transmit data and allows
applications to communicate in order to exchange business logic. The Web also uses browsers, such
as Internet Explorer, Google Chrome etc. to access Web pages that are linked to each other via
hyperlinks.

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Search Engines

• Definition: Search engines are the programs which are needed to extract the information from
the internet.

• Working of Search Engines:

→ Web crawling: Web search engines work by storing information about many web pages. These
pages are retrieved by the program known as Web crawler - which follows every link on the site. Web
crawler may also be called a Web spider.
→ Indexing: Indexing also known as web indexing, it stores data to facilitate fast and accurate
information retrieval. It is done by program called Indexer.

→ Searching: A web search query fetches the result from the web search engine entered by the
user to meet his information needs.

• Examples: Google, Yahoo, Bing, Ask

Web Server

• Definition: A server is a computer that provides data to other computers. The entire structure
of the Internet is based upon a client-server model.

• Uses:
→ The most common use of web servers is to host websites.

→ The web server also deliver web pages to clients.

• The communication between the client node and server node takes place using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

Server Software

• A web server commonly known as HTTP server or application server is a program that
serves content using the HTTP protocol.

• The server content served by the web server can be static content or dynamic content.
• Different Server Software:

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→ Apache web server - the HTTP web server: This is free and open source web server and can be
installed
and made to work on almost all operating systems

including Linux, Unix, Windows, FreeBSD, Mac OS X and more. Almost, 60% of the web server
machines run the Apache web server.

→ Apache Tomcat: This is free and open source web server that can run on different operating systems
like Linux, Unix, Windows, Mac OS X, Free BSD. It was developed to support servlets and JSP scripts. It
can serve as a standalone server.

→ Lighttpd: It is a free and open source web server distributed with the FreeBSD operating
system. This is fast, secure and consumes much less CPU power. Lighttpd can also run on
Windows,

Mac OS X, Linux and Solaris operating systems.

→ Jigsaw: Jigsaw (W3C’s Server) is introduced by the World Wide Web Consortium. It is open
source and free and can run on various platforms like Linux, Unix, Windows, Mac OS X Free BSD
etc. Jigsaw is written in Java thus can run CGI scripts and PHP programs.

Services Provided by the Servers

• Many of the servers are based on Cloud computing which is popular amongst the researchers,
scientists & entrepreneurs.

• Cloud Computing is distributed computing over a network, and has the ability to run a
program or application on many connected computers at the same time.

• Various services provided by the Web server are:

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→ Cost Efficient: Web server is the most cost efficient method to use, maintain and upgrade. Also,
one-time-payment, pay-as-you-go and other scalable options available, which makes it very
reasonable for the company.

→ Resource Sharing: Web Server has the capability to store unlimited information such as Google
Drives, Cloud computing etc. The space where the data can be stored is shared by the other users
at the same time like hard disk can be shared on physical network as LAN.

→ Data Sharing: With the help of web servers one can easily access the information from
anywhere, where there is an Internet connection using Google docs such as Documents, Excel
sheets, Drawings,
Powerpoint presentations etc.

→ Backup and Recovery: The entire process of backup and recovery much simpler than other
traditional methods of data storage.

Types of Server

• Mail Server: Mail Servers provides a centrally-located pool of disk space for network users to
store and share various documents in the form of emails.

• Application Server: An application server acts as a set of components accessible to the

software developer through an API defined by the platform itself.

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Server: FTP uses separate control and data connections between
the client and the server. FTP users may authenticate themselves in the form of a username
and password, but can connect

anonymously if the server is configured to allow it.

• Database Server: A database server is a computer program that provides database services
to other computer programs or computers using client- server model.

• Domain Name System (DNS) Server: A name server is a computer server that hosts a network
service for providing responses to queries.

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→ Function fo DNS Server:

• Primary function is to translate human- memorable domain names and hostnames into the
corresponding numeric Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.

• The secondary function of DNS is to recognize a name space of the Internet, used to identify
and locate computer systems and resources on the Internet.

Web Site

• Definition: The collection of web pages on the World Wide Web that is accessed by its
own Internet address is called a Web site.

• Difference between Website and Portal

→ Web portal is a medium by which users access the resources, while a website is a destination in
itself.

→ Portals and websites are distinct entities which are linked together, but they should not replace
each other.

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 Conclusion

I here by conclude that I have successfully carried out the activity on promotion on
appropriate technologies, food preservation/packaging and digitized money transaction for
the people of Humanitarian homes, where I was able to individually conduct the activity on
the above said activity programs. It was really an event to train and teach them in all the
above said areas of activity.
I conclude by thanking the AIR Humanitarian homes for providing an opportunity to conduct
the activity successfully for humanitarian homes people.

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