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Fundamental of Remote Sensing

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Fundamental of Remote Sensing

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Pisut Nakmuenwai
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Neue? FUNDAMENTAL OF REMOTE SENSING AND DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING DR, SUWIT ONGSOMWANG SCHOOL OF REMOTE SENSING INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, ‘SSURANAREE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY 2007 Page i Preface Digital image analysis and interpretation (106 602) is one of three main core subjects for Graduate students at School of Remote Sensing, Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology. This course provides general knowledge on digital image processing techniques to assist the interpretation and analysis of remotely-sensed data. Emphasis will be given on image enhancing technique using various standard image enhancing programs and the analysis of data from multispectral sensors. The main reference textbook used in the course based on John R. Jensen (2005) with entitled Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective. However, since the technology of remote sensing and techniques in digital image processing are rapidly change, the review and updating the knowledge in science of remote sensing and digital image processing are necessary. Therefore, the textbook with entitle “Fundamental of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing” are prepared based for the course (Digital image analysis and interpretation: 106 602). Major source of this textbooks were extracted from relevant remote sensing and digital image processing book included: * Foody, G. M. 2004. Sub-Pixe! Methods in Remote Sensing in In Remote Sensing Image Analysis: Including the Spatial Domain. De Jong, S.M., van der Meer, F.D. (eds.) Kluwer ‘Academic Publishers, the Netherlands. pp: 37-49. ‘+ Schowengerdt, R. A. 1997, Remote Sensing: Models and Methods for Image Processing. ‘Academic Press, Inc. New York. 522 p. J Jensen, J. R. 2005. Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective. 3rd Edition. Practice Hall. 526 p. * Lillesand, T. M. and R. W. Kiefer, and J. W. Chipman. 2004. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 763 pp. © McCloy, K. R. (2006). Resources Management Information Systems: Remote Sensing, GIS and Modeling. 2Nd Edition. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group, Fl, 575. ‘The main objectives of this textbook are as follows: 1. To provide concept and principle of remote sensing and sensors technology, 2. To review basic knowledge of aerial photographs and visual interpretation, 3. To provide fundamental and advance knowledge in digital image processing with digital change detection. ‘The content of the textbook that consists of nine chapters can be summarized in each chapter as following. Page i Chapter 1: Concepts and Fundamentals of Remote Sensing. This chapter is firstly reviewed definition of remote and the development of remote sensing. Then principle of remote sensing system is explained include (a) an ideal and real remote sensing systems, (b) electromagnetic remote sensing system, (c) electromagnetic radiation principle, (d) energy interactions in the atmosphere, (f) atmospheric windows, (h) interactions with the earth surface feature, and (i) radiometric concepts, terminology and units Chapter 2: Sensor in Remote Sensing. This chapter provides the important information about aircraft and satellite remote sensing system include framing and scanning systems. In addition characteristics of selected remote sensor systems used for multispectral and hyperspectral data collection are summarized based on spectral, spatial, radiometric, and temporal resolutions. Chapter 3: Aerial Photography and Visual Interpretation. Characteristics of aerial Photographs consist of resolution, photographic scale and relief displacement are firstly summarized. The fundamentals of visual interpretation is then demonstrated in detail include (a) image interpretation task, (b) element of image interpretation, (c) image interpretation strategies, and (d) method of search. Chapter 4: Satellite Data and Digital Image Processing. In this chapter, framework of digital image processing is introduced includes (a) characteristics of satellite data, (b) digital image resolution, (c) digital image processing, and (d) an ideal step of digital image processing. In addition, digital image processing systems are also summarized with summary of commercial and public software. Chapter 5: Preprocessing in Digital Image Processing. Three main preprocessing operations include (1) image quality assessment and statistical evaluation, (2) radiometric correction and (3) geometric correction are demonstrated in detail in this chapter. Basic operations of image quality assessment and statistical evaluation are summarized include (a) histogram characteristics of remote sensor data (b) image metadata (c) viewing individual pixel brightness value (d) univariate descriptive image statistics,(e) multivariate descriptive image statistics and (f) feature space plots. While, principle of radiometric and geometric error in remote sensing system are explained in detail and basic and advance techniques for radiometric and geometric correction are discussed and demonstrated. Chapter 6: Image Enhancement in Digital Image Processing. Selected image ‘enhancement operations that have proven of value for visual analysis and/or subsequent digital image processing are reviewed and discussed in this chapter. They are three categories including (1) radiometric enhancement, (2) spatial enhancement and (3) spectral enhancement. Radiometric enhancement deals with the individual values of the pixels in the image consist of (a) linear Page iv contrast enhancement and (b) nonlinear contrast stretch. While spatial enhancement modified pixel values based on the values of surrounding pixels include (a) spatial convolution filtering (b) Fourier transformation (c) CRISP (d) resolution merge (e) adaptive filter and (f) texture transform. Also, spectral enhancement modified more than one band of data spectral consist of (a) band ratioing (b) Principal Component Analysis (c) indices and (d) RGB to THS transformation and back again. Chapter 7: Image Classification in Digital Image Processing. Fundamental of image classification concept, logic and algorithm are here reviewed and discussed in this chapter. Selected common image classification algorithms that are applied for multispectral classification will be here separately explained in three groups: (1) parametric, (2) non-parametric and (3) nonmetric classification. Parametric classification includes (a) maximum likelihood classifiers and (b) clustering. While, nonparametric classification consists of (a) level-slice classifier (b) parallelepiped classifier (c) minimum distance to means classifier (d) nearest-neighbor classifiers (e) sub-pixel classification (f) artificial neural network (ANN) classifier. Also nonmetric classification consists of ‘expert system. Chapter 8: Accuracy Assessment. Review of source of error in remote sensing-derived thematic products is firstly reviewed and discussed. Then the fundamental of error matrix, sample size, sampling design and evaluation of error matrices explained. Three type of evaluation of error matrices include (a) descriptive evaluation of error matrices (b) discrete multivariate analytical technique: Kappa Analysis and (c) fuzzification of the error matrix. Chapter 9: igital Change Detection. In this chapter, principle of digital change detection is firstly described and then change detection algorithm are reviewed and explained. The digital change detection algorithm are here include (a) Write Function Memory Insertion (b) Multi- date Composite Image (¢) Image Algebra (d) Post-classification Comparison (e) Binary Change Mask Applied to Date 2 (f) Ancillary Data Source as Date 1 (9) Spectral Change Vector Analysis (h) ‘chi-square Transformation (i) Cross-correlation and (j) Knowledge-based Vision Systems. Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang School of Remote Sensing Institute of Science Suranaree University of Technology December 2007 Preface Chapter 1. Concepts and Fundamentals of Remote Sensing ce 1.2 13 224 22.2 2.2.3 224 Table of Contents Definition of Remote Sensing .. ‘The Development of Remote Sensing. ‘An ideal and real remote sensing systems Electromagnetic Remote Sensing System . The Particular Model. Stefan-Boltzmann’ Law Kirchhof's Law. Wien's Displacement Law. Planck's Law. Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere ‘Atmospheric Windows Interactions with the Earth Surface Feature.. ‘The interactions of electromagnetic radiation with vegetation .. ‘The interactions of electromagnetic radiation with water ‘The interactions of electromagnetic radiation with soil Radiometric Concepts, Terminology and Units. Radiometric Characteristics of Radiation Measurement... Radiometric Terminology and Units... Sensor in Remote Sensing Framing system ‘Scanning system (Cross-Track Scanning System. Gircular Scanning System Along-Track Scanning System Side Scanning System. Chapter 3 Aerial Photography and Visual Interpretation Characteristics of Aerial Photographs Resolution .. Photographic Scale. Relief Displacement... Visual Interpretation.. Image Interpretation Task Element of image interpretation Image Interpretation Strategies.. Method of Search Satellite Data and Digital Image Processing, Characteristics of Satellite Data .. Digital Image Resolution... Digital Image Processing.. ‘An Ideal Step of Digital Image Processing Preprocessing in Digital Image Processing... Image Quality Assessment and Statistical Evaluation .. Histogram Characteristics of Remote Sensor Data Image Metadata. Viewing Individual Pixel Brightness Value .. Univariate Descriptive Image Statistics.. Multivariate Descriptive Image Statistics. 113 114 114 115 17 118 121 Feature Space Plots.. Radiometric Correction .... 124 Source of image radiometry error. 124 ‘Type of Radiometric Correction . 1125 Sensor Calibration 125 Atmospheric Correction. 129 Solar and Topographic Correction .. 143 Geometric Correction, ‘Source of Image Geometry Error. 146 147 153 155 Image to Map Rectification... Image to Image Registration. Hybrid Approach to Image Rectification/Registratio Image to Map Geometric Rectification Logic . Spatial Interpolation .. Intensity Interpolation. Image Enhancement in Digital Image Processing Radiometric Enhancement... Linear Contrast Enhancement.. Nonlinear Contrast Stretch. Spatial Enhancement. Spatial Convolution Filtering Low-frequency Filtering in the Spatial Domain .. High-frequency Filtering in the Spatial Domain. Edge Enhancement in the Spatial Domain Fourier Transformation. ‘Spatial Filter in Frequency Domair CRISP. Resolution Merge .. Principal Components Merge. Multiplicative Algorithm. 198 ‘Spectral Enhancement. Band Ratioing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Indices. RGB to IHS Transformation and Back Again.. Land Use and Land Cover Classification Scheme. Training Site Selection and Feature selection . TAL 742 TA2A 74.2.2 7S 754 TSAL 75.1.2 75.2 75.21 75.2.2 75.2.3 75.2.4 75.25 75.26 753 753.1 Chapter 8 8.1 82 Training Site Selection... Feature selection Graphic Methods of Feature Selection Statistical Measures of Feature Selection Image Classification Algorithm.. Parametric Classification Maximum Likelihood Classifiers. Clustering. Nonparametric Classification Level-Slice Classifier . Parallelepiped Classifier Minimum Distance to Means Classifier. Nearest-Neighbor Classifiers. Sub-Pixel Classification .. ‘Atificial Neural Network (ANN) Classifier Nonmetric Classification Expert Systems... Accuracy Assessment... Source of Error in Remote Sensing-derived Thematic Products, General Steps to Assess the Accuracy of Thematic Information Derived from Remotely Sensed Data The Error Matrix. ‘Sample Size ‘Sample Size Based on Binomial Probability Theory Sample Size Based on Multinomial Distribution. ‘Sampling Design Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Stratifiad Random Sampling Stratified Systematic Unaligned Sampling. ‘Clustering Sampling, Evaluation of Error Matrices Descriptive Evaluation of Error Matrices.. Discrete Multivariate Analytical Technique: Kappa Analysis Chapter 1 Table 1-1 Table 1-2 Table 1-3 Table 1-4 Chapter 2 Table 2-1 Table 2-2 Table 2-3 Table 2-4 Table 2-5 Table 2-6 Table 2-7 Table 2-8 Table 2-9 Table 2-10 Fuzzification of the Error Matri Digital Change Detection ... ‘Step Required to Perform Change Detection. Remote sensor system considerations. Environmental Characteristics Considerations. Selection of a Change Detection Algorithm ... Change Detection Using Write Function Memory Insertion Multidate Composite Image Change Detection... Image Algebra Change Detection ... Post-classification Comparison Change Detection Change Detection Using a Binary Change Mask Applied to Date 2. Ancillary Data Source as Date ‘Spectral Change Vector Analysis. Chi-square Transformation Change Detection ‘Cross-correlation Change Detection Knowledge-based Vision Systems for Detecting Change. Visual On-screen Detection and Digitization. List of Tables Concepts and Fundamentals of Remote Sensing, Comparison of the two major time periods in remote sensing development. Milestones in the history of remote sensing .. List of spectral regions in descending usefulness for monitoring green vegetation... Radiometric Term, Symbol, Measure, Units. Sensor in remote sensing. Landsat MSS Landsat TM and Landsat ETM+ sensor system characteristics. NOAA AVHRR sensor system characteristics. Characteristics of the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS). ‘System characteristics of the AMS and ATLAS.. SPOT FIRV, SPOT HRVIR and SPOT Vegetation sensor system characteristics Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite characteristics. NASA ASTER sensor system characteristics. Sensor characteristics of IKONOS, OrbView-3, and, QuickBird satellites. ‘THEOS sensor system characteristics... Leica Geostsystems Airborne Digital Sensors 40 (ADS-40) characteristics... Table 2-11 Table 2-12 Table 2-13 Table 2-14 Chapter 3 Table 3-1 Table 3-2 Table 3-3 Chapter 4 Table 4-1 Table 4-2 Table 4-3, Table 4-4 Chapter 5 Table 5-1 Table 5-2 Table 5-3 Table 5-4 Table 5-5 Table 5-6 Table 5-7 Table 5-8 Table 5-9 Chapter 6 Table 6-1 Table 6-2 Table 6-3, Table 6-4 Table 6-5 Table 6-6 Page x Characteristics of AVIRIS and CASI hyperspectral remote sensing system: Characteristics of TERRA satellite: MODIS .. Leica Geosystems Emerge Digital Sensor System (DSS) characteristics Selected remote sensing systems and their characteristics... Aerial Photography and Visual Interpretation . Minimum ground separation on typical aerial photographs. Element of image interpretation Multidisciplinary scientist brings their unique training to the image interpretation process. Satellite Data and Digital Image Processing Relationship between digitizer scanning spot size (IFOV) and the pixel ground resolution at various scales of aerial photography or image. Image processing functions in quality digital image processing systems. Major Functions of Selected Commercial Digital Image Processing Systems. Major Functions of Selected Public Digital Image Processing Systems Preprocessing in Digital Image Processing... Hypothetical Dataset of Brightness Values... Variance-covariance matrix of the sample data .. Correlation Matrix of the Sample Data, Pre-launch measurement of the TM calibration gain and offset coefficient. Value of LMin and LMax for the Landsat MSS sensor system... Example of atmospheric calibration techniques. Radiometric Variables used in remote sensing. Bilinear interpolation. Cubic convolution interpolatior Image Enhancement in Digital Image Processing . Various kemels for Low-Frequency Filtering, Various kernels for High-Frequency Filtering .. Various kemels for Linear Edge Enhancement... Various kemels for Line Detection. Catalog of local convolution filtering Chapter 7 Table 7-1 Table 7-2 Table 7-3 Table 7-4 Table 7-5 Table 7-6 Table 7-7 Table 7-8 Table 7-9 Table 7-10 Table 7-11 Table 7-12 Table 7-13 Chapter 8 Table 8-1 Table8-2 Table 8-3 Table 8-4 Table 8-5 Chapter 9 Table 9-1 Chapter 4 Figure 1-1 Figure 1-2 Figure 1-3 Figure 1-4 Figure 1-5 Figure 1-6 Figure 1-7 Figure 1-8 Figure 1-9 Page xi Image Classification in Digital Image Processing, USGS Land-Use/Land-Cover Classification System for Use with Remote Sensor Data Various distance measure methods for separability analysi ‘Advantage and disadvantage of maximum likelihood decision rule. ‘Advantage and disadvantage of ISODATA decision rule... Advantage and disadvantage of RGB clustering. ‘Advantage and disadvantage of parallelepiped decision rule.. ‘Advantage and disadvantage of minimum distance decision rule... The input values, activation and output value for simple two-channel ANN. ‘Advantage and disadvantage of ANN algorithm. Examples of the use of expert system in remotely sensed data classification . Hierarchical levels, classes and criteria. A hypothesis (class), variables and conditions necessary to extract white fir... ‘Advantages and disadvantage of expert system 232 239 252 262 287 289 292 296 Error matrix and their accuracy assessment by simple descriptive statistics .......302 Error matrix and their accuracy assessment by Kappa Analysis. Error matrix and their accuracy assessment with Fuzzy Logic Rule. Error matrix and their accuracy assessment without Fuzzy Logic Rule. Digital Change Detection .. Sector code definitions for change vector analysis using three bands.. List of Figures Concepts and Fundamentals of Remote Sensing. Components of an ideal remote sensing system.. Electromagnetic remote sensing system of earth resource. ‘A-conceptual view of an Earth observational system. Remote sensing process ‘Types of energy transfer: conduction, convection and radiation .. An electromagnetic wave Electromagnetic spectrum diagrams. Spectral distribution of energy radiated from blackbody of various temperatures .. Interrelationship between temperature, wavelength, frequency radiant energy, radiant exitance and the point of maximum spectral radiant exitance. Figure 1-10 Atmospheric scattering Figure 1-11 Atmospheric absorption by various gases. Figure 1-12 Atmospheric refraction. Figure 1-13 Spectral characteristics of energy sources, atmospheric effects, ‘and sensing system. Figure 1-14 Basic interactions between electromagnetic energy and the earth surface feature. Figure 1-15 Typical spectral reflectance curve for vegetation, soil and water Figure 1-16 ‘The nature of specular and diffuse reflectance. Figure 1-17. Hemispherical, directional and bi-directional reflectance Figure 1-18 The bi-directional reflectance function (BRDF) of a recent ploughed bare field at 25° solar elevation for 662 nm wavelength. Figure 1-19 The bi-directional refiectance function (BRDF) of a sand shinnery oak rangelands community at 31° solar zenith angle at = 662 nm. Figure 1-20 The bi-directional reflectance function (BRDF) of a sand shinnery oak rangelands community at 31° solar zenith angle at = 862 nm... Figure 1-21 The bi-directional reflectance effects.. Figure 1-22 Atmospheric effects influencing the measurement of reflected solar energy Figure 1-23. Effects of seasonal change on solar elevation angle .. Figure 1-24 Significant spectral responses characteristics of green vegetation Figure 1-25 Water bodies receive irradiance from the Sun and atmosphere... Figure 1-26 Figure 1-27 Figure 1-28 Soils and rocks receive irradiance from the Sun and atmosphere. Figure 1-29 Representative spectra for the reflectance of soil Figure 1-30 Reflectance of a typical soil with changes in moisture content. Figure 1-31 Measurement of incoming and outgoing radiatio Figure 1-32. Projected area cosine in a viewing direction other than normal Figure 1-33. Definirig angle used in radiation measurement. Figure 1-34 Relationship among the various terms in hemispherical and directional radiation measurement. Figure 1-35 Characteristics of radiant flux density. Figure 1-36 Concept of radiance Chapter 2 Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3, Figure 2-4 Figure 2-5 Figure 2-6 Chapter 3 Figure 3-1 Figure 3-2 Figure 3-3 Figure 3-4 Figure 3-5 Figure 3-6 Figure 3-7 Figure 3-8 Figure 3-9 Figure 3-10 Figure 3-11 Chapter 4 Figure 4-1 Figure 4-2 Figure 4-3 Figure 4-4 Figure 4-5 Figure 4-6 Figure 4-7 Figure 4-8 Figure 4-9 Figure 4-10 Figure 4-11 Figure 4-12 Figure 4-13 Figure 4-14 Sensor in remote sensing.. Framing system to acquiring remote sensing images.. (Cross-Track Scanner... Gircular Scanner... ‘Along-Track Scanner Side Scanning System. ‘Six types of remote sensor systems... Aerial Photography and Visual Interpretatior Resolution and detection targets with high contrast ratio. Resolution and detection targets with low contrast ratio Ground resolution and minimum ground resolution on aerial photographs. Geometry of relief displacement on a vertical aerial photograph... Element of Image Interpretation ~ Tone... Element of Image Interpretation - Texture.. Element of Image Interpretation ~ Shadow. Element of Image Interpretation ~ Texture.. Element of Image Interpretation ~ Site, Situation and Association .. Element of Image Interpretation ~ Shape. Element of Image Interpretation — Size. Satellite Data and Digital Image Processing. Digital remote sensor data Multispectral concept and data representation ‘Analog-to-digital conversion process ‘Schematic of flatbed densitometer. ‘Schematic of drum densitometer .. Video densitometer Video densitometer Characteristics of spectral resolution Characteristics of spatial resolution. Characteristics of radiometric resolution. Characteristics of temporal resolution based on Landsat~ Four types of resolution of Landsat TM-Band 2... ‘Spatial and temporal resolution considerations for selected application ‘Atypical digital image processing laboratory. 100 Figure 4-15 Figure 4-16 Chapter 5 Figure 5-1 Figure 5-2 Figure 5-3 Figure 5-4 Figure 5-5 Figure 5-6 Figure 5-7 Figure 5-8 Figure 5-9 Figure 5-10 Figure 5-11 Figure 5-12 Figure 5-13 Figure 5-14 Figure 5-15 Figure 5-16 Figure 5-17 Figure 5-18 Figure 5-19 Figure 5-20 Figure 5-21 Figure 5-22 Figure 5-23 Figure 5-24 Figure 5-25 Idealized sequence for digital image analysis. Analog (visual) and digital image processing image processing of remotely sensed data use the fundamental elements of image processing Preprocessing in Digital Image Processing... Histograms of symmetric and skewed distribution Histogram of a single band of Landsat Thematic Mapper data. Cursor evaluation of individual pixel brightness values... ‘The areas under the normal curve for various standard deviations ... Feature Space Plot of Landsat-TM band 3 and 4... Data flow for calibration of remote sensing images to physical units Radiometric response function for an individual TM channel. Inverse of radiometric response function for an individual TM channel, Various paths of radiance received by a remote sensing system... ‘An example absolute atmospheric correction using ATCOR Absolute Atmospheric Correction Using Empirical Line Calibration. Single-image Normalization Using Histogram Adjustment... Multiple-date Image Normalization Using Regression.. Representation of the Sun's angle of the incidence and solar zenith angi ‘Image offset (Deskew) caused by earth rotation effect. ‘The geometrically configuration of scanning system-induced variation in ‘ground resolution cell size. One-dimensional relief displacement and tangential scale distortion in scanning system. Geometric modification of remotely sensed data caused by change in platform altitude and attitude. Example of image-to-map rectification .. Example of image-to-image hybrid registration Concept of how different-order transformations fit a hypothetical surface . The logic of filing a rectified output matrix with values from an unrectified input image matrix. Linear transformation Non-inear transformation Spatial interpolation algorithm, 150 152 161 161 Chapter 6 Figure 6-1 Figure 6-2 Figure 6-3: Figure 6-4 Figure 6-5 Figure 6-6 Figure 6-7 Figure 6-8 Figure 6-9 Figure 6-10 Figure 6-11 Figure 6-12 Figure 6-13 Figure 6-14 Figure 6-15 Figure 6-16 Figure 6-17 Figure 6-18 Figure 6-19 Figure 6-20 Figure 6-21 Figure 6-22 Figure 6-23 Figure 6-24 Figure 6-25 Figure 6-26 Figure 6-27 Figure 6-28 Figure 6-29 Figure 6-30 Image Enhancement in Digital Image Processing ... Histograms of radiometrically enhanced dat Graph of a Lookup Table. Enhancement with Lookup Tables. Minimum-Maximum Contrast Stretchin Percentage Linear and Standard Deviation Contrast Stretching. Piecewise Linear Contrast Stretch .. Nonlinear radiometric enhancement. Histogram Equalization ... Original Histogram Data.. Equalized Histogram Data.. Comparison of radiometric enhancement. Example of Brightness Inversion. Spatial Frequencies Applying a Convolution Kernel. ‘Application of various linear enhancement to Landsat TM ‘Application of various non linear enhancement to Landsat TM. One-Dimensional Fourier Analysis. Application of Fourier transform to the three different sub-images.. ‘Two examples of stationary periodic noise and their Fourier transforms. A filtering algorithm that uses the Fourier transform to compute a spatial domain convolution. Spatial Filter in Frequency Domain using a Fourier transform .. Application of Fourier transform to a portion of Landsat TM ‘Application of Crisp Filtering to Landsat TM Resolution merge between SPOT and Landsat TM.. ‘Application of Adaptive Filtering to Landsat TM. ‘The eight nearest neighbors of pixel X according to angle ¢ used in the creator of spatial-dependency matrices for the measurement of image texture. 5X5 window of pixels and their image values... The ratio of various Landsat TM bands. Principal Component Analysis. Distribution of total image variance across the original spectral bands and across the principal components... Figure 6-31 Scene dependence in the percentage of total TM image variance captured by each eigenvalue. The TIR band is excluded .. Figure 6-32. Six principal component images of Landsat-TM Figure 6-33. Various vegetation indices of Landsat T™M .. Figure 6-34 Intensity-hue-saturation (HIS) color coordinate system .. Page xvi 216 216 220 222 Figure 6-35. Relationship between intensity-hue-saturation (HIS) color coordinate system and RGB coordinate system... Figure 6-36 Resolution merge between SPOT and Landsat TM data based on modified IHS resolution merge ... Chapter 7 Image Classification in Digital Image Processing.. Figure 7-1 The data flow in a classification process... Figure 7-2. Comparison between a traditional hard and soft classification logic. Figure 7-3 Relationship between the level of detail required and the spatial resolution of representative remote sensing system for vegetation inventories... Figure 7-4 Coincident spectral plots for training data obtained in five bands for six cover type .. Figure 7-5 Cospectral mean vector plot of 49 clusters Figure 7-6 Ellipse Evaluation of Signatures... Figure 7-7 Simple parallelepiped displayed in pseudo three-dimensional space. Figure 7-8 How the maximum likelihood decision rule function. Figure 7-9 Land use and land cover classification using maximum likelihood decision rule... Figure 7-10 An idealized data distribution during three iterations of the K-means clustering algorithms with the nearest-mean decision criterion... Figure 7-11 Typical behavior of the net mean migration from one iteration to the next in the K-mean algorithm .. Figure 7-12 An idealized data distribution during initial stage up to n iterations of the ISODATA clustering algorithms. Figure 7-13. Land use and land cover classification using ISODATA clustering algorithms. Figure 7-14 RGB clustering algorithm. Figure 7-15. Land use and land cover classification using RGB clustering algorithms. Figure 7-16 Level-slice decision boundaries for three classes in two dimensions Figure 7-17 Parallelepiped classification using + two Standard deviations as limits Figure 7-18 Land use and land cover classification using parallelepiped decision rule. Figure 7-19. Calculation of spectral distance to means, 222 223 224 226 230 233 Figure 7-20 Figure 7-21 Figure 7-22 Figure 7-23 Figure 7-24 Figure 7-25 Figure 7-26 Figure 7-27 Figure 7-28 Figure 7-29 Figure 7-30 Figure 7-31 Figure 7-32 Figure 7-33 Figure 7-34 Figure 7-35 Figure 7-36 Figure 7-37 Figure 7-38 Chapter 8 Figure 8-1 Figure 8-2 Figure 8-3 Chapter 9 Figure 9-1 Figure 9-2 Figure 9-3 Figure 9-4 Page xvi Distance use in a minimum distance to means classification algorithm... Land use and land cover classification by using Minimum distance decision rule ...263 Hypothetical example of nearest-neighbor classification. 265 ‘Some common origins of mixed pixel problems... The linear mixing model for a single GIFOV... Three possible choices for endmembers for three classes .. ‘An example of a typical sub-pixel analysis ‘The logic of fuzzy classification... Basic structure of a three layer Artificial Neural Network. ‘The components of a processing element. The sigmoid activation function Mathematic mode! of neuron.. ‘Two thresholding functions used to transform the activation to output values at a synapse. The data space and the decision surface for a simple two channel, ‘The Components of a Typical Rule-based Expert System . Example of a Decision Tree Branch... Split Rule Decision Tree Branch. ‘A human-derived decision-tree expert system with a rule and conditions Land use and land cover classification using expert classification. Accuracy Assessment, Source of Error in Remote Sensing-derived Thematic Products. General steps to assess the accuracy of thematic information derived from remotely sensed data. Geographic Sampling methods .. Digital Change Detection .. General data processing element for a remote sensing change detection application project or scientific study 309 ‘Sequential steps outlining the project formulation process for remote sensing change detection project.. ‘The general steps used to perform digital change detection of remotely sensed data Phenological cycle of Cattails and Water 267 .267 275 276 276 in Par Pond in SC.... Figure 9-5 Figure 9-6 Figure 9-7 Figure 9-8 Figure 9-9 Figure 9-10 Figure 9-11 Figure 9-12 Figure 9-13 Figure 9-14 Figure 9-15 Figure 9-16 Figure 9-17 Figure 9-18 Figure 9-19 Figure 9-20 Page xl Algorithm, advantage and disadvantage of write function memory insertion change detection ‘An example of change detection using write function memory insertion Algorithm, advantage and disadvantage of multiple-date composite image change detection Principal components derived from a multiple-date dataset of Landsat TM in 1999 and 2004 317 317 318 319 320 Algorithm, advantage and disadvantage of image algebra change detection. Image differencing change detection Scaling alternatives and placement of Image differencing change detection .. Vegetation cover change detection based on differencing NDVI. Algorithm, advantage and disadvantage of ‘A\gorithm, advantage and di using a binary change mask applied to date 2 .. Algorithm, advantage and disadvantage of change detection using an ancillary as date 1 327 ‘Schematic diagram of the spectral change detection method 329 Possible change sector codes for a pixel measured in three bands on two dates....330 Algorithm, advantage and disadvantage of cross-correlation change detection .....332 Visual on-screen change detection in Tsunami’s effect. 333 326 Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Page 1 Chapter 1: Concepts and Fundamentals of Remote Sensing 1.1 Definition of Remote Sensing Linz and Simonett (1976) defined remote sensing as the acquisition data of an object without touch or contact. Lillesand and Kiefer (1979) defined remote sensing as the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not contact with the object, area, or phenomenon under investigation. Barrett and Curtis (1982) defined remote sensing as the observation of a target by a device some distance away from it. Colwell (1983) defined remote sensing as the measurement or acquisition of information of ‘some property of an object or phenomena, by a recording device that is not in physical or intimate contact with the objective or phenomenon under study. Curran (1985) defined remote sensing as the use of electromagnetic radiation sensors to record images of the environment which can be interpreted to yield useful information. Sabins (1987) broadly defined remote sensing as collecting and interpreting information about target without being in physical contact with object. Campbell (1987) defined remote sensing as the science of deriving information about the earth's land water areas from images acquired at a distance. Colwell (1997) defined remote sensing as the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment, through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting imagery and digital representations of energy patterns derived from non-contact sensor system. In conclusion, remote sensing can be defined as the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about object, area, and phenomenon of earth’s resources and environment, through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting imagery and digital representations of energy patterns derived from non-contact sensor system. 1.2 The Development of Remote Sensing ‘Simonet (1983) reported that Colwell (1979) divided the development of remote sensing into two general areas. Prior about 1960, aerial photograph was the sole system used in remote sensing. With the advent of space program in the early 1960's and the first photographs from the Mercury, the pace of technological development for remote sensing accelerated. Table 1-1 shows a Comparison of the two time periods. 'y Or. Suwit Ongsomwang, Schodl of Remote Sensing, Suranaree University af Technology, 2007. 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[IA!D/AJeqNLU Jood Ajsaneioy “O “Bujsues ‘Bowes 0} jpadsau YIM SUOAE|a! [WA}P/AleyNW POO APeAREIEY “C “shay uopeyaudiaquy OJOYd JO BSN jeUIIUIW “D "she uoneyaudienul ojoyd Jo Bsn aAlsuEy “2 “quawsoueyua pue sisAjeue auryrew 2ip UO aoueIEN ANH “a “saGeull aoueyuaun Jo sisAjeue uewny ty UO aoUeIas AAROH *@ “ejep 6ulsuas ayouau yo sayep pue spupj AueW "Y AydesBoxoyd Jo axep pue Pury aU0 AUD "¥ "0967 SUIS, (0961-0987) abe aoeds au 04 JOLld (626t ‘yemjog) quauidojanap Buisues Zabed ayowel ul spoyad aw sofew omy auf Jo UosHedWOD FT-F BIEL ‘uissaooiy a6eu en6ia pu Busuas siouioy Jo sewewiepung Fundomental of Remete Sensing and Dita! Image Processing Page 3 Elachi (1987) had also confined the development of remote sensing and summarized as following: The early development of remote sensing as a scientific field was clearly tied to developments in photography. The first photographs were reportedly taken by Daguerre and Niepce in 1839. The following year, Arago, Director of the Paris Observatory, advocated the use of photography for topographic purposes. In 1849 Colonel Aime’ Laussedat, an officer in the French Corps. of Engineerings, embarked on an exhaustive program to use photography in topographic mapping. In 1858 balloons were being used to acquire photography of large areas. This was followed by the use of kites in the 1880s and pigeons in the early 1900s to carry cameras to many hundreds meters of altitude. The advent of the airplane made aerial photography a very useful tool because acquisition of data specific areas and under controlled conditions became possible. The first recorded photographs were taken from an airplane piloted by Wilbur Wright in 1890 over Centocelli, Italy. olor photography became available in the mid 1930s. At the same time work was continuing on the development of films that were sensitive to near-infrared radiation. Near-infrared photography was particularly useful for haze penetration. During World War II research was conducted on the spectral reflectance properties of natural terrain and the availability of photographic emulsions for aerial color infrared photography. The main incentive was to develop techniques for camouftage detection, In 1956, Colwell performed some of the early experiments on the use of special purpose aerial photography for the classification and recognition of vegetation types and the detection of diseased and damage vegetation. Beginning in the mid-1969s, a large and multispectral Photography were unidertaken under the sponsorships of NASA, leading to the launch of ‘muttispectral imageries on the Landsat satellites in the 1970s. ‘As the long wavelength end of the spectrum, active microwave systems have been used since early this century and particularly after World War II to detect and track moving objects such as ships and later, planes. More recently, active microwave sensors have been developed providing ‘two-dimensional images that look very similar to regular photography, except the image brightness 1s a reflection of the scattering properties of the surface in the microwave region. Passive microwave sensors were also developed to provide photographs of the microwave emission of natural objects. The tracking and ranging capabilities of radio systems were known as early as 1889, when Helrich Hertz showed that solid objects reflected radio waves. In the first quarter of this century, a number of investigations were conducted in the of radar systems for the detection and tracking of 'y Dr. Suvit Ongsonwang, School of Remote Sensing, Surenaree University of Technology, 2007. Fundametalsof Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Page 4 ships and planes and for the study of the ionosphere, Radar work expanded dramatically during World War II. Today, the diversity of applications for radar is truly starting. It is being used to study ocean surfaces, lower and upper atmospheric phenomena, subsurface and surface land structures, and surface cover. Radar sensors exist in many different configurations. These include altimeters to provide topographic measurement, scatterometers to measure surface roughness, and imageries. In the mid-1950s extensive work took place in the development of real aperture airborne imaging radars. At about the same time, work was on going in developing synthetic aperture imaging radar (SAR), which use coherent signals to achieve to the scientific community in the mid- 1960s. Since then, work has continued at a number of institutions to develop the capacity of radar sensors to study natural surface. This work fed to the orbital flight around the Earth of the SEASAT SAR (1987) and The Shuttle Imaging Radar (1981, 1984). The most recently introduced remote sensing instrument Is the laser, which was first developed in 1960. It is mainly being used for atmospheric studies, topographic mapping, and surface studies by fluorescence, In addition, de Jong et al. (2004) reviewed the historic development of remote sensing in each decade as follows: In 1859 Gaspard Tournachon took an oblique photograph of a small village near Paris from a balloon. With this picture the era of earth observation and remote sensing had started. Other people all over the world soon followed his example. During the Civil War in the United States aerial photography from balloons played an important role to reveal the defence positions in Virginia. Likewise other scientific and technical developments this Civil War time in the United States speeded up the development of photography, lenses and applied airborne use of this technology. Although the space era of remote sensing was still far away after the Civil war, already in 1891 patents were granted in Germany to successful designs of rockets with imaging systems under the title: ‘new or improved apparatus for obtaining bird’s eye photographic views of the earth’. The design comprised a rocket propelled camera system that was recovered by a parachute. ‘The next period of fast developments in earth observation took place in Europe and not in the United States."It was during World War I that airplanes were used on a large scale for photoreconnaissance. Aircrafts proved to be more reliable and more stable platforms for earth observations than balloons. In the period between World War I and World War II a start was made with the civilian use of aerial photos. Application fields of airborne photos included at that time geology, forestry, agriculture and cartography. These developments lead to improved cameras, films and interpretation equipment. The most important developments of aerial photography and ‘By Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Swanaree Universiy of Technology, 2007, Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Page 5 photo interpretation took place during World War II. During this time span the development of ‘other imaging systems such as near-infrared photography, thermal sensing and radar took place, Near-infrared photography and thermal infrared proved very valuable to separate real vegetation from camouflage. The first successful airborne imaging radar was not used for civilian purposes but proved valuable for nighttime bombing. As such the system was called by the military: "plan position indicator’ and was developed in Great Britain in 1941. ‘After the wars In the 1950s remote sensing systems continued to evolve from the systems developed for war efforts. Color infrared photography (CIR) was found to be of great use for the plant sciences. In 1956 Colwell conducted experiments on the use of CIR for the classification and recognition of vegetation types and the detection of diseased and damaged or stressed vegetation. Tt was also in the 1950s that significant progress in radar technology was achieved. Two types of radar were developed at that time: SLAR: side-looking airborne radar and SAR: Synthetic Aperture Radar. Either development aimed at the acquisition of images at the highest possible resolution. Crucial to the SAR development was the ability to finely resolve the Doppler frequencies using a frequency analyses algorithm on the returning radar signal by the US Air Force research centre. In the early 1960s the US started placing remote sensors In space for weather observation and later for land observations. TIROS (Television Infrared Observation Satellite) was the first meteorological satellite. A long series of meteorological satellites followed this one. 1960 was also the beginning of a famous US military space imaging reconnaissance program called Corona. Unfortunately, much of this program remained classified until 1995. In 1970 the TIROS program was renamed into NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Until today the NOAA ‘Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) is orbiting the globe and collecting information on weather patterns in visible, near infrared and thermal wavelengths. NOAA-17 was launched on June 24, 2002. The 1950s and 1960s were also important for the organizational evelopment of remote sensing. Various civil research organizations and universities became highly interested in these new technologies. This resulted in the start of various professional organizations and the publishing of remote sensing journals such as the IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, International Journal of Remote Sensing, Remote Sensing of Environment and Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing. Today remote sensing is not only taught at the university level but also at high schools. In the early 70s the first satellite specifically designed to collect data of the earth’s surface and its resources was developed and launched: ERTS-1 Earth Resources Technology Satellite. Later, in 1975, this program was renamed into Landsat. This first earth resources satellite was in fact a modified Nimbus weather satellite carrying two types of sensors: a four waveband multi- y Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree University of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Dial Image Processing Page 6 spectral scanner (MSS) and three retum beam vidicon television cameras (RBV). The sensors aboard this satellite proved to be able to collect high quality images at a reasonable spatial resolution. These images gave remote sensing a worldwide recognition as a valuable technology. ‘The main advantages recognized at that time were: ready availability of images for most of the world, lack of political, security and copyright restrictions, low cost, repetitive multi-spectral coverage and minimal image distortion, Landsat 2 and 3 were launched in 1975 and 1978, respectively, and carried the same payload as the first satellite of this series. The payload was changed in 1982 with Landsat 4. The technically more advanced Thematic Mapper (TM) sensor replaced the RBV. An improved design of the TM, the ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) was ‘mounted aboard Landsat 7 and launched in 1999. The Landsat series is a very successful program, various MSS and TM sensors exceeded by far its design life time and its imagery is probably the most widely used data in the Earth sciences. One black spot on its history record is the “failure upon launch’ of Landsat 6 in 1993. Various other successful earth observation missions carried out by other countries followed the Landsat program. In 1978 the French government decided to develop their own earth observation program. This program resulted in the launch of the first SPOT satellite in 1986. To the original SPOT design of three spectral bands a new sensor called Vegetation was added aboard SPOT-4 in 1998. Other earth observation missions are the Indian Remote Sensing Program (IRS) started in 1988, the Russian Resurs series first launched in 1985 and the Japanese ADEOS (Advanced Earth Observing Satellite) put in orbit in 1996. The European Space Agency (ESA) launched its first remote sensing satellite, ERS-1, in the year 1991. ERS carries various types of sensors aboard among which the AMI, a C-band (5 cm radar) active microwave instrument. The main focus of the ERS program is oceanographic applications although it is also widely used for monitoring tropical forests. In 1995 ERS-2 was successfully launched. In March 2002 ESA launched Envisat-1, an earth observation satellite with an impressive payload of 13 instruments such as a synthetic aperture radar (ASAR) and a Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS). An important recent development is the launch of high-resolution earth observation systems such as IKONOS and QuickBird. These systems have multi-spectral systems collecting information in 4 bands (blue, green, red and near-infrared) at a spatial resolution of 4 meters or better. IKONOS has also a panchromatic mode (0.45-0.90 um) with a spatial resolution of 1m. With IKONOS, QuickBird and similar systems, space bore remote sensing approaches the quality of airborne photography. Table 1-2 shows a few important dates in the development of remote sensing. ‘By Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sonaing, Surenaree Unversity of Technology, 2007. undamentals of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing ‘Table 1-2: Milestones in the history of remote sensing Page 7 {1800 | Discovery of Infrared by Sir W. Herschel 839 | Beginning of Practice of Photography [4847 | Infrared Spectrum Shown by J.B.L. Foucault 1859 _| Photography from balloons 1873 _| Theory of Electromagnetic Spectrum by J.C. Maxwell 1909 | Photography from Airplanes 1916 | World War I: Aerial Reconnaissance 1935 _| Development of Radar in Germany 1940 | WWII: Applications of Non-Visible Part of EMS 1950 _| Military Research and Development 1959 _| First Space Photograph of the Earth (Explorer-6) 1960 | First TIROS Meteorological Satellite Launched 1970 | Skylab Remote Sensing Observations from Space 1971 | Launch of Landsat-1 (ERTS-1): MSS sensor | 1972 | Rapid Advances in digital image processing 1978 | Launch of Seasat (first spaceborne L-band radar) 1982 | Launch of Landsat-4: new Generation of Landsat sensors TM 1986 | French Commercial Earth Observation Satellite SPOT 1986 | Development Hyperspectral Sensors 1990 | Development High Resolution Spacebome Systems 1990 | First Commercial Developments in Remote Sensing 1991 | Launch of the first European Remote Sensing Satellite ERS1 (active radar) 1998 | Towards Cheap One-Goal Satellite Missions 1999 | Launch of EOS-TERRA: NASA Earth Observing Mission 1999 | Launch of IKONOS, very high spatial resolution sensor system 2001 | Launch of Landsat-7 with new ETM+ sensor 2001 | Launch of QuickBird, very high spatial resolution sensor system 2002 | Launch of ESA’s Envisat with 10 advanced instruments From: de Jong et al, 2004 ‘By Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree University of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Pages) 1.3 An ideal and real remote sensing systems Lillesand and Kiefer (1979) introduced the basic components of an ideal remote sensing ‘system (Figure 1-1) and explained the real remote sensing system. The ideal remote sensing system included: 1. A Uniform Energy Source. This source would provide energy over all wavelength, at a constant, known, high level of output, irrespective of time and place. 2. A Noninterfering Atmosphere. This would be an atmosphere that would not modify the energy from the source in any manner, whether that energy were on its way to the earth's ‘surface or coming from it. Again ideally, this would hold irrespective of wavelength, time, place, and sensing altitude involved. 3. A Series of Unique Energy/Matter Interactions at the Earth's Surface. These interactions would generate reflected and/or emitted signals that are not only selective with respect to wavelength, but also are known, invariant, and unique to each and every earth surface feature type and subtype of interest. 4. A Super Sensor. This would be a sensor highly sensitive to all wavelengths, yielding spatially detailed data on the absolute brightness (or radiance) from a scene as a function of wavelength, throughout the spectrum. This super sensor would be simple, reliable, require virtually No power or space, be accurate, and economical to operate. 5. Real-Time Data Handling System. In this system, the instant the radiance versus wavelength response over a terrain element were generated, it would be processed into an interpretable format and recognized as being unique to the particular terrain element from where it ‘came. This process would be performed nearly instantaneous (real time), providing timely information. 6. Multiple Data Users, These people would have knowledge of great depth, both their respective disciplines and of remote sensing data acquisition and analysis techniques. The same set of data would become various forms of information for different users, because of their wealth of knowledge about the particular earth resource being sensed. With this information, the various users would make profound, wise decisions about how best to manage the earth resource under scrutiny and these management decisions would be implemented. ‘By Dr. Sut Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree Unversity of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Dita! Image Processing Page 9 {1) Uniform energy souree (4) Super sensor | ance length Wavel ‘Unique response for each feature {2) Noninterfering ‘atmosphere ‘Reflected and ‘emitted energy choy {3) Unique energy interactions at earth surface features re OY er Figure 1-1: Components of an ideal remote sensing system (From Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979) Unfortunately, an ideal remote sensing system as described above does not exist (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979). Regarding the elements of the ideal system that has been suggested, the following general shortcomings of real systems should be recognized: 1. The Energy Source. All passive remote sensing systems rely on energy that is either Teflected and/or emitted from earth surface features. Solar energy levels obviously vary with respect to time and location, and different earth surface materials emit energy to varying degrees Of efficiency. While we have some control over the nature of sources of energy for active systems, the sources of energy used in all real systems are generally non-uniform with respect to wavelength and their properties vary with time and locations. Consequently, we normally must calibrate for source characteristics on a mission-by-mission basis, or deal with relative energy units ‘sensed at any given time and location. 2. The Atmosphere. The atmosphere normally compounds the problems introduced by energy source variation. To some extent, the atmosphere always modifies the strength and ‘Spectral distribution of the energy received by a sensor. It restricts "where we can look” spectrally and its effects vary with wavelength, time and place. Elimination of, or compensation for, ‘atmospheric effects via some form of calibration is particularly important in these applications Where repetitive observations of the same geographical area are involved. PY Or. Suit Ongsonwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree University of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digtal Image Processing Page 10 3. The Energy/Matter Interactions at the Earth's Surface. Remote sensing would be simple if each and every material reflected and/or emitted energy in a unique known way, Although spectral signatures play a central role in detecting, identifying, and analyzing earth surface materials, the spectral world is full of ambiguity. Radically different material types can have great spectral similarity, making differentiation difficult. Furthermore, the general understanding of the energy/matter interactions for earth surfaces is at an elementary level for some materials and virtually nonexistent for others. 4. The Sensor. No single sensor is sensitive to all wavelengths. All real sensors have fixed limits of spectral sensitivity. They also have a limit on how small an object on the earth's surface can be and still be seen by a sensor as being separate from its surrounding. This limit, called the spatial resolution of a sensor, is an indication of how well a sensor can record spatial detail. 5. The Data Handling System. The capability of current remote sensors to generate data for exceeds the current capacity to handle these data. This is generally true whether we consider ‘manval image interpretation procedures or computer assisted analyses, Processing sensor data into an interpretable format can be an effort entailing considerable thought, instrumentation, time, experience, and reference data. 6. The Multiple Data Users. Central to the successful application of any remote sensing is the person (or persons) using the remote sensor data from that system. The "data" generated by remote sensing procedures become “information” only if and when someone understands theirs generation, knows how to interpret them, and knows how best to use them. A through understanding of the problem at hand is paramount to the productive application of any remote sensing methodology. Also, no single combination of data acquisition and analysis procedures will satisfy the needs of all data users. 1.4 Electromagnetic Remote Sensing System Remote sensing system can be thought as many respects, but the one that is currently being operated to assist in inventorying, mapping, and monitoring earth resources is electromagnetic rémote sensing. Lillesand and Kiefer (1979) schematically illustrated the generalized process and elements involved in electromagnetic remote sensing of earth resource (Figure 1-2). ‘The two basic processes involved are data acquisition and data analysis. The elements of the data acquisition process are: (@) Source of energy; ‘By. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree Univery of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Rernote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Page 11 (b) Propagation of energy through the atmosphere; (©) Energy interactions with earth surface features; (d) Airborne and/or spaceborne sensors; (€) Data Product. It is the generation of sensor data in pictorial and/or numerical form. In short, we use sensors to record variations in the way earth surface features reflect and emit electromagnetic energy. The elements of the data analysis process are: (A) Interpretation; (g) Information products; (h) Users. ‘The data analysis process involves examining the data using various viewing and interpretation devices to analyze pictorial data, and/or a computer to analyze numerical sensor data, Reference data about the resources being studied (such as soils maps, crop statistics, or field-check data) are used when and where available to assist in the data analysis. With the aid of the reference data, the analyst extracts information (f) about the type, extent, location, and condition of the various resources over which the sensor data were collected. This information is then presented (g) generally in the form of maps, tables, and a written discussion or report. ‘Typical information products are such things as land use maps and crop area statistics. Finally, the information is presented to users (h) who apply it to their decision-making process. DATA ACQUISITION=—=E> DATA ANALYSIS etwence oo ‘on ee ee | fm Um | | ce) (© Somonct ows @ i 0) Romo ZS mes a ee LOSS 0 error Figure 1-2: oc vst remote sensing system of earth resource (From Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979) y Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree UnWverty of Technology, 2007, Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Page 12 Curran (1985) stated that a remote sensing system using electromagnetic radiation had four components: (1) a source, (2) interactions with the earth's surface, (3) interaction with atmosphere and (4) a sensor. ‘Source: the source of electromagnetic radiation may be natural like Sun's reflected light or the earth's emitted heat, or man-made, like microwave radar. Earth's surface interaction: the amount and characteristics of radiation emitted or reflected from the earth's surface is dependent upon the characteristics of objects on the earth's surface. Atmospheric interaction: electromagnetic energy passing through the atmosphere is distorted and scattered. Sensor: the electromagnetic radiation that has interacted with surface of the earth and the atmosphere is recorded by a sensor, for example a radiometer or camera. Landgrebe (2003) divided an Earth observational system into three basic parts: (1) the scene, (2) the sensor, and (3) the processing system as shown in Figure 1-3. ‘em |_[ ttomaton 1 aatiee []_Ustzton ==] eth Anca Data Figure 1-3: A conceptual view of an Earth observational system (From Landgrebe, 2003). ‘Scene: The scene consists of the Earth's surface and the intervening atmosphere. For systems in the optical portion of the spectrum that rely on solar illumination, the sun is included. ‘This portion of the system is characterized by not being under human control, not during system design nor operation. However, its most defining characteristic is that it is by far the most complex and dynamic part of the system. It is easy to underestimate this complexity and dynamism. 'y Dr. Sunit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranares University of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Page 13, Sensor: The sensor is the part of the system to collect the main body of data to be used. ‘The sensor systems is usually characterized by being under human control during the system design phase, but less so or not at all during system operation. Processing System: The processing system is that part of the system where data analyst Is able to exercise the most control and have the most choice. One might divide the spectrum of possible degrees of human/machine participation in the analysis process into four parts: fully manual methods, machine aided manual methods, manually aided machine methods, and ‘automatic analysis. Jensen (2005) explained that the remote sensing data-collection and analysis procedures used for Earth resources application are often implemented in a systematic fashion referred as the remote sensing process. The procedures in the remote sensing process were here summarized and shown in Figure 1~4, + The hypothesis to be tested is defined using a specific type of logic (e. g., inductive and deductive) and an appropriate processing model (e. g., deterministic, stochastic). ‘+ In situ and collateral data necessary to calibrate the remote sensor data and/or judge its geometric, radiometric, and thematic characteristics are collected. + Remote sensor data are collected passively or actively using analog or digital remote ‘sensing instruments, ideally at the same time as the in situ data. ‘+ In situ and remotely sensed data are processed using a) analog image processing, b) digital image processing, c) modeling and d) n-dimensional visualization. + Metadata, processing lineage, and the accuracy of the information are the results Communicated using images, graphs, statistical tables, GIS databases, Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS), etc. ®8y Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree Univerty of Technology, 2007. 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To develop proficiency in the interpretation of these images, it is necessary to understand the behavior of this energy as it reflected or emitted from the earth's surface through the ‘atmosphere to the sensor. Therefore, knowledge of the properties and behavior of electromagnetic ‘energy forms a foundation of remote sensing. From basic physics, energy is the ability to do work (Figure 1-5). It is usually transferred from one point to another point by: (@) Conduction. This involves atomic or molecular collisions. (b) Convection. This is a corpuscular mode of transfer in which bodies of energetic material are themselves physically moved. (©) Radiation. This is the only form in which electromagnetic energy may be transmitted either through a medium or a vacuum. ee Tame Cae ee AY? c wiabirer T- @= ite Figure 1-5: Types of énergy transfer: conduction, convection and radiation (From Jensen, 2007) In remote sensing we are primarily concemed with energy transfer by means of radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is one of the most useful force fields for remote sensing, forming a high- ‘speed communications link between the sensor and remotely located substances (Suits, 1983). In the case of electromagnetic radiation two models are necessarily to describe and elucidate its most characteristic: (a) the wave model and (b) the particular mode! (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979; Barrett and Curtis; 1982 and Jensen, 2007). 1.5.1 The Wave Model. This typifies radiation through regular oscillary variations in the electric and magnetic fields surrounding a charged particle. Wave-like perturbations emanate from the source at the speed of light (3x108 m sl). They are generated by the oscillation of the particle itself. The two associated force-fields are mutually orthogonal, and both are perpendicular to the direction of advancement (Figure 1-6). 'y Dr. Suwit Ogsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree Univesity of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digtal Image Processing Page 16 Electric field (Number of evcies per second ‘atzing a fixed pot) Figure 1-6: An electromagnetic wave. Components include a sinusoidal electro wave (E) and a similar magnetic wave (M) at right angles, both being perpendicular to the direction of propagation. (From Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979) 1.5.2 The Particular Model. This emphasizes aspect of the behavior of radiation which suggest that it is comprised of many discrete units. These are called “quanta” or "photons". These carry from the source some particle-like properties such as energy and momentum, but differ from all other particles in having zero mass at rest. It has been hypothesized, consequently that the photon is a kind of "basic particle". In term of the wave model, waves obey the general equation from basic physics: ota (1-4) where: c__ isthe speed of light, a constant (3x108 m s-1); fF _ isthe wave frequency, cycle per second (Hertz, Hz); 4 isthe wavelength (micrometers, jm) Since c is constant, wave frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength and directly proportional to its speed of wave advancement. In another term, particle model, the energy of a quantum is given as E=hf (12) where: E _ is the energy of a quantum, Joule (3); h isa Planck's constant, 6.226 x 10% J sec. We can relate the wave and particle model of electromagnetic radiation by the common frequency value in both equations to obtain: ‘By Dr. Sunit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree University of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Page 17, hee E= 7 (1-3) This tells us that the energy of a quantum is inverse proportional to its wavelength. The longer the wavelength involved, the lower its energy content. These relationships are fundamental to appreciation of the behavior of electromagnetic radiation. In remote sensing, electromagnetic radiation, that occurs as a continuum of wavelengths and frequencies from short wavelength, high frequency to long wavelength, low frequency, is ‘common categorized as electromagnetic spectrum. The boundaries between them are expressed in several different ways. Figure 1-7 is the one that be proposed by Suits (1983). It shows the extent of the electromagnetic spectrum, the various named bands, the transmittances of the earth's atmosphere to the electromagnetic radiation, and the effects caused by its interaction or presence. ‘The sun is the most obvious source of electromagnetic radiation for remote sensing. However, all matter at temperatures above absolute zero (0°K or -273°C) continuously emits electromagnetic radiation. Thus, terrestrial objects are also sources of radiation though it is considerably different magnitude and spectral composition than the sun (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979), Barrett and Curtis (1982) stated that a useful concept widely used by the physicists in radiation studies, is that of blackbody, a model (perfect) absorber and radiator of electromagnetic radiation. A blackbody is conceived to be an object or substance which absorbs all the radiation Incident upon it, and emits the maximum amount of radiation at all temperatures. Although there is no known substance in the natural world with such a performance, the blackbody concept is lnvaluable for the formulation of laws by comparison with which the behavior of actual radiators may be assessed. They also summarized the principal faws that relate to this concept as following: 1.5.3 Stefan-Boltzmann' Law. This states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is Proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature (T). This can be expressed as: M=oT! (1-4) Where: M__ is the radiant exitance in W m? © _ is the Stefan-Boltzmann Constant, 5.6697x10* W m? °K* T is absolute temperature (°K) of emitting material. This relationship applied to all wavelengths shorter than the microwave. In the microwave region radiant exitance varies as a direct function of T (°K). The Stefan-Boltzmann's Law is that hot ‘adiators emit more energy per unit area than cooler ones. y Dr. Suit Ongsomwang, Schoo of Remote Sensing, Suranaree University of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Page 18 ULTRA- VIOLET |VISIBLE INFRARED Reflected IR Thermal IR ge ti ie te ae 0" Figure 1-20: The bi-directional reflectance function (BRDF) of a sand shinnery oak rangelands community at 31° solar zenith angle at = 862 nm. (From McCloy, 2006) - | +15" “" o ms <— backward scattering view Nadir view forward scatering view —p- Figure 1-21: The bi-directional reflectance effects (From Jensen, 2007) B. Directional reflectance. If the observer views the surface under overcast conditions when the main source of illumination is scattered skylight, then the illumination is approximately ‘equal from all directions, but sensor is in one direction relative to the surface. Reflectance of this form is called directional reflectance. The directional reflectance is the ratio of the single directional reflected energy to the total irradiance incident on the surface giving the hemispherical directional reflectance facto as: Hemispherical directional reflectance factor (15) ‘By Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranares University of Technology, 2007. undamentalsof Remote Sersing and Digtal Image Processing Page 33 ¢. _ Hemispherical reflectance. Hemispherical reflectance occurs when both the incident and reflected energy is measured over the whole hemisphere. Hemispherical reflectance is of little concer in relation to sensor, but is of great interest in the modeling of light interactions within the surface and in assessing the impact of reflectance on aerial photography and other imagery that is taken with sensors that have a wide FOV. Hemispherical reflectance should be identical to bi- directional reflectance for Lambertian surfaces, and provides an average reflectance value for specular surfaces. Comparison of hemispherical and bi-direction reflectance values can thus Indicate how close surface are to the Lambertian model. For canopy modeling and inversion, hemispherical reflectance is defined as the ratio of total (hemispherical) reflected energy from a location to the total (hemispherical) incident energy. This bi- hemispherical reflectance factor is given by: QdQ Bi-Hemispherical directional reflectance factor = 22a H(7-2)d0. (1-16) hoa HQ, )40,, In conclusion, Jensen (2007) stated that the amount of electromagnetic radiance, £ (watts m-2 sr-1; watts per meter squared per steradian) recorded within the IFOV of an optical remote sensing system (e.g., a picture element in a digital image) is a function of: L= sas -40,P.2) (1-17) XYZ where: 2. is wavelength (spectral response measured in various bands or at specific frequencies). Wavelength (2) and frequency (v) may be used interchangeably based on their relationship with the speed of light (qj: where ¢ = 2x v. 8%y.2_ is x,y,z location of the picture element and its size (x, y) t is temporal information, i.e., when and how often the information was acquired © is set of angles that describe the geometric relationships among the radiation source (eg,, the Sun), the terrain target of interest (e.g., a com field), and the remote sensing ‘system P is polarization of back-scattered energy recorded by the sensor 2 Is radiometric resolution (precision) at which the data (e.g., reflected, emitted, or back- scattered radiation) are recorded by the remote sensing system. Ullesand et al. (2004) illustrated the basic components of radiation entered through the Sensor when records reflected solar energy as shown in Figure 1-22. This figure provides an initial frame of reference for understanding the nature of atmospheric affecting to the spectral response yx. Suit Ongsomvang, School of Remake Sensing, Suanarce Universy of Tecnlagy, 007. fundamen of Remote Sensing and Dial Image Processing Page 4 pattern, They stated that the atmosphere affects the “brightness,” or radiance, recorded over given point on the ground in the two almost contradictory ways. First, it attenuating a ground object ang being reflected from the object. Second, the atmosphere acts as a reflector itself, adding a scattered, extraneous path radiance to the signal detected by the sensor. By expressing these two atmospheric effects mathematically, the total radiance recorded by the sensor may be related to the reflectance of the ground object and the incoming radiation or irradiance using the equation: T tot ~ a +f (1-18) where: is total spectral radiance measured by sensor, Is reflectance of object, is irradiance an object, incoming energy, is transmission of atmosphere Is path radiance, from the atmosphere and not from the object. FAmue Log wa ~ eet (2) Rane ones {ii lcident radiation € . {wah tenunton tor (2) Tein lent of rellacnce » Figure 1-22: Atmospheric effects influencing the measurement of reflected solar energy. (From Lillesand et al, 2004) It should be note that all of the above factors depend on wavelength. Also, the irradiance (E) stems from two sources: (1) directly reflected “sunlight: and (2) diffuse “skylight” which is sunlight that has been previously scattered by the atmosphere. The relative dominance of sunlight versus skylight in any given images is strongly dependent on whether condition (e.9., sunny vs 'By Dr. Suwit Ongsomweng, School of Remote Sensing, Surenaree University of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Dita Image Processing Page 35 hazy vs. cloudy). Likewise, irradiance varies with the seasonal changes in solar elevation angle (Figure 1-23) and the change distance between the Earth and Sun. ‘Sali Figure 1-23: Effects of seasonal change on solar elevation angle. (The solar zenith angle is equal to 90° minus the solar elevation angle (From Lillesand et al. 2004). Lillesand et al. (2004) mentioned that the earth-sun distance correction is applied to ‘normalize for the seasonal changes in the distance between the Earth and the Sun. The earth-sun distance is usually expressed in the astronomical units. (An astronomical unit is equivalent to the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun, approximately 149.6 x 10° km.) The irradiance from the Sun decreases as the square of the earth-sun distance. If we ignore atmospheric effects, the ‘combined influence of solar zenith angle and earth-sun distance on the irradiance incident on the Earth’s surface can be expressed as: 5 F008, (v9) a where: E is normalized solar irradiance, & is solar irradiance at mean earth-sun distance, % is sun’s angle from the zenith, dis earth-sun distance, in astronomical units y Or. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree University of Technology, 2007. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Page 3 1.8.1. The interactions of electromagnetic radiation with vegetation The complex assemblage of the earth surface consists of a biological and physical feature Both features involve directly in the remote sensing system. Vegetation is the one of biologic, features of the earth's feature that plays an important role in remote sensing system. Therefore, a! fundamental understanding of electromagnetic radiation with vegetation, especially the spectra reflectance of vegetation and its effecting factor is important. Knipiing (1970) concluded that the reflectance of a plant canopy is similar, but is modified by the nonuniformity of incident solar radiation, plant structure, leaf areas, shadows, anj background reflectivity. Sensors receive an integrated view of all these affects, and each crop cr ‘vegetation type tends to have a characteristics signature which permits its discrimination. Colwell (1974) suggested the main factors that can be very important influencing vegetation canopy reflectance in certain situation: (a) leaf hemispherical reflectance and) transmittance, (b) leaf area, (c) leaf orientation, (d) hemispherical reflectance and transmittance of supporting structures (stalks, trunks, limbs, petioles), (f) solar zenith angle, (g) look angle, and (h) azimuth angle. Hoffer (1987) summarized distinct difference in reflectance of vegetation and their effecting factors that are found among the visible, near-infrared, and middle-infrared portions of the spectrum. In visible wavelengths, the pigmentation of the leaves is the dominanting factor. Most of incident energy is absorbed and remainder Is reflected. The internal structure of the leaves controls the level of reflectance of the near infrared, where about half of the incident energy is reflected, nearly half is transmitted, and very litte is absorbed by the leaf. The total moisture content of the vegetation controls the middle-infrared reflectance, with much of the incident energy being absorbed by the water in the leaf, remainder being reflected. Characteristic of spectral reflectance ‘curve of vegetation is shown in Figure 1-24. Furthermore, Cirran (1985) confined the spectral reflectance of vegetation and its effect factor into two different types of reflectance. 1. The hemispherical reflectance of vegetation. By definition, the hemispherical reflectance Infers the angles of incidence and collection of reflectance are hemispherical. It is usually operated in laboratory. Each of three features of leave: pigmentation, physiological structure and water content have an effect on the reflectance, absorbance and transmittance properties of a green leaf as indicated in Figure 1-24. 2. The bidirectional reflectance of vegetation. By definition, bidirectional reflectance infers the angles of incidence and collection of reflectance are directional as would be the case with satelite sensor measurements of radiance on a sunny day. With constant hemispherical reflectance of the individually leaves the bidirectional reflectance could vary appreciably due to effect of the soil background, the presence of senescent vegetation, the angular elevation of the sun and sensor, the canopy geometry and certain episodic and phenological canopy changes. By Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang, School of Remote Sensing, Suranaree University of Technology, 2007,

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