y if x-y>0 xy orxn, b#0 quotient of two powers Example 3.1.2 4 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaSimplify the following i (3x2y)(4x2y2) = 3.4.x248y4*? = 12x8y? (-2y2)8 = -28y"5 = —32y"5 iii, (a2\b*)? = Zero and Negative Integers as an Exponent A real number can be raised to a zero power or a negative integer power. Definition 3.1.3, Ifb is non-zero real number, then b° According to the definition, the following statements are true; 5°=1 (xy)°=1ifx#0and y +0. Definition 3.1.4 If nisa positive integer and b is non zero real number, then The following statements are true; Example 3.1.5 Evaluate the following numerical expressions. -2 L @usyt 2 &) Solutions eA power of a product 2.3 power of a power =2(0) =} “2 gays 2 &) power of a quotient power of a power Example 3.1.6 15, Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaSimplify the following a. Bx2y~*)(4x73y) = 34x28) y Att product of power =i ty = 4 BEE = 4g ops quotient of power =—4atp-3 = -*t = Example 3.1.7 a. Simplify 23437 Solution 2734.3" _ agg i =F REVIEW EXERCISE 1. Evaluate each of the following expressions. ade ‘be OTe c 3-28 d = 2. Simplify each of the following; express final result without using zero or negative integer as an exponent. oy? a Gy) ob. @3)t ©. (a2b-2e~1)-* a ®) 3.2 Radicals and surds of real numbers 1. Every positive real number has two square roots; one is positive and the other is negative. 2. Negative real numbers have no real number square roots because the square of any nonzero real number is positive. 3. The square root of zero is zero. 16 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaThe following example illustrates the use of the square root notation. V6 =4 Indicates the non negative or square root of 16 -yI6=—4 _ Indicates the negative square root of 16 v0=0 Zero has only one square root where-V0 = —0 = 0 VF not a real number AF not a real number \B=2 \B= The concept of root can be extended to fourth roots, fifth roots, and sixth root and so on. Definition 3.2.1 Vb =a jfand only if a” ‘The following examples are applications of the definition VBI =3 because 3* = 81V32=2 because 2° = 32. \=32=—-2 because (-2)° = -32 Another property is that (VB)" = b (V4)? =4. If b < 0 and nis any positive integer greater than 1 or if < 0 and nis an odd positive integer greater than 1, then 'VB¥ = b. Simplest Radical Form Let us use some examples to motivate another useful property of radicals, v25. 16 =V400=20 and y25.VI6=54=20 8.27 = 216 =6 and V8 .V27=23=6 In general, the following property can be stated. Property 1 Vbe=\b.¥c if band Ve are real numbers. The definition of n** root, along with Property1, provides the basis for changing radicals to simplest radical form. Consider the following examples of reductions to simplest radical form. Va5 = V5 = V9.N5 = 3V5 V24 = V83 = VB.V3 =2 V3 7 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaVB0 = 285 = (24.5 = 22V5 = ay Distributive property 3V2 + 52 = (3 + 5)V2 = BV2 705 — 305 = (7—3)V5 = 445. if VB and ‘Ve are real numbers and c # 0 For example: simplify by rationalizing the denominator 2 2 GW 3° V3 V3 VB 3 Example 3.2.2 Change the form “£24 py rationalizing the numerator: Solution veth + ve _ (Verh + Ve) (Ve4n - Ve h h Wath ~ vx, es xth—-x ~ h(Vx+h = vx) _ A ~h(Vx#h = Vx) _ i Veh — REVIEW EXERCISE 1. Evaluate a Valk -VT Vig a. & e {|-2 2. Express each of the following in the simplest radical form. a V54 b. /45xy* « Bae 3. Rationalize the numerator 18 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaLecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala 194: COMPLEX NUMBERS Definition 4.1.1 A complex number is any number that can be expressed in the form a+bi where a and b real numbers. The form a+biis called the standard form of a complex number. The real number ais called the real part of the complex number, and b is called the imaginary part. 7 +8i is in form of a + bi. For example 11 — 3ican be written as 11 + (—3)i even though 11 — 3iis often used , -8 + iV3 can be written as —8 + V3i and finally, —9i can be written as 0 — 9i where a = 0 and it is called pure imaginary number. Definition 4.1.2 Two complex numbers a+biand c+biare said to be equal if and only if a= cand b =d. Thatis the real parts are equal and the imaginary parts are equal Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers two or more complex numbers can be added as follows; (a + bi) + ( +di) = (a +c) + +yi. Example 4.1.3 iL 443) ++ 9) = 445) + G49 =9+ 12 ii (-6 +41) + (8-71) = (-6 +8) + (4-Di= i, G43) +6 +)+G+): iv. (3 +iv2) +(-4 + iv2) = 3 —4) + (V2 + V2)i= 14 2V2i The set of complex numbers is closed with respect to addition; that is, the sum of two complex numbers is a complex number. Furthermore, the commutative and associative properties of addition hold for all complex numbers. The additive identity element is 0 — 0i, or just a real number 0. The additive inverse of at+bi is—a— bi. Multiplying and Dividing Complex Numbers we define i? = 1, the number iis a square root of ~1, so we write i = y=T. (a? = d.CE Therefore, in the set of complex numbers, ~1 has two square roots—namely, i and ~i. This is symbolically expressed as (ivb)* = i2(b) = —1(b) = —b Therefore, let us denote the principal square root of —b by V=b and define it to be P=-1. V-b = iyD where b is any positive real number. In other words, the principal square root of any negative real number can be represented as the product of a real number and the imaginary unit é. VH4 = 9 = 2k N77 = ivi7. 20 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaExample 4.1.3 Find the product of the two complex numbers (2 + 3i) and (4 + Si) Solution (2 +31) (4 + 5i) = 2(4 + 5i) + 3i(4 +51) =8+10i + 12i + 15i B+ 22i + 15(-1) 15 +8 + 22 -7 + 221. 4.2 Quotient of complex numbers We introduce a concept that helps us evaluate the quotient of any two complex numbers. This concept is called the conjugate. Two complex numbers a + biand a — biare called conjugates of each other if the product of a complex number a + bi and its conjugate a—bi is a real number. This concept is illustrated in the following example; Example 4.2.1 a. Givena complex number, expressed it in the forma + bi. 4-Si_4-Si -2i 2 2° Tai ~2i(4 - Si) 5-2. 2 The Absolute Value or the Magnitude of Complex Numbers Example 4.2.3 Find the absolute value of a 2=4-3i b Zz Solutions a. |2)=/P +3 =V5=5 b. It|=VC4P = Vi6=4 c. |Zj=VR=4 21 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaSquare Root of a Complex Number Example 4.2.4 Evaluate 15 +81 Solution By the property of the square root of complex numbers V154+8i =a+bi Our task is now to find the coefficients a and b. By squaring both sides we have (VI5+81) = (a+ bie 15 +8: b? + 2abi Then by grouping the like terms We substitute (ii) into (i) we have Multiply both sides by a? gives 16 = 15a? a‘ —15a*—16 =0 (a)? - 15a? -16 =0 We simplify by letting a* = y then the equation becomes a quadratic equation y? — 15y - 16=0. We proceed by using factorization method of solving the quadratic equation yi ty—l6y-16=0 (y+ D0 - 16) =0 Since y = a? then we substitute back in the equation (a? +1)(a? — 16) =0 a should be areal number, then a? +1#0 but a?—16=0 then a? =16 and a=+4. Therefore, we substitute back a in the equation b == to solve for b. 2 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalab=1 or b Hence, the two possible square roots of 15 + 8i are —4+i or REVIEW EXERCISE 1. Simplify the following a (+2)8+6i) c (-7-3)+(-444) (6 -7i) - (7-61) b. G+2i)+ (+31) do 4 +iv3) + (-6-28V3) £ 1-20% g SNC) 2. Find each of the quotient and express the answer in the standard form. se10i 3491 ara © Sei ee zest at91 baa a ai fi 3. Find the absolute value and the square roots of the following a 342i b. 154+8i c 6+ 2i. 5: EQUATIONS, INEQUALITIES, AND PROBLEM SOLVING Linear equations Solving an equation is the process of finding the number or numbers that makes an algebraic equation a true numerical statement. Such numbers are called the solutions or roots of the equation and are said to satisfy the equation. The set of all solutions of an equation is called its solution set. An equation that is satisfied by all numbers that can meaningfully replace the variable is called an identity. For example 3 +2)=3x+6,x7-4= (ae t2)(@-2) Equivalent equations are equations that have the same solution set. For example, 7x= 20, 7x=21 and x= 3areall equivalent equations because {3} is the solution set of each. Properties of Equality For all real numbers, a, b, and ¢ 1. a =a. Reflexive property 2. Ifa = b, thenb = a. Symmetric property 3.1fa =band b=c, then a =c. Transitive property 4. If a =b, then a may be replaced by b, or b may be replaced by a, in any statement without changing the meaning of the statement. Substitution property 5.a = bifand only ifa +c =b +c. Addition property 6.a = bifanonly if ac = bc,wherec + 0. Multiplication property 23 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaNow let us consider how these properties of equality can be used to solve a variety of linear equations Definition 5.1.1 A linear equation in the variable x is one that can be written in the form ax + b = 0 where a and b are real numbers and a + 0. Example 5.1.2 Solve the equation —4x ~ 3 = 2x+9 Solution Solving this equation, we obtain 4x -3=2x4+9 4x — 3+ (2x) = 249+ (-2x) —6x-3 —6x = 12 x=—2. Example 5.1.3 Solve 2426 Solution 2Qy-3) + 37+ 1)=18 Ty-3=18 Ty =21 y=3. The solution set is {3} Example 5.1.4 If2 is subtracted from five times a certain number n, the result is 28. Find the number n. Solution Let n represent the number to be found. The sentence If 2 is subtracted from five times a certain number, the result is 28 translates into the equation Sn — 2 = 28. 24 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaSolving this equation, we obtain 5n Example 5.1.5 Find three consecutive integers whose sum is —45. Solution: Let n represent the smallest integer; then n +1 is the next integer and n+2 is the largest of the three integers. Because the sum of the three consecutive integers is to be —45, we have the following equation. n+(n+1) + (n+2) =—45 3n+3=-45 3n = ~48 Ifn=-16,n+1 is-15 and n+2 is—14. Hence the three consecutive integers whose sum is —45 are —16,—15 and —14 Example 5.1.6 There are 51 students in a certain class, The number of females is 5 less than three times the number of males. Find the number of females and the number of males in the class. Solution Let m represent the number of males; then 3m — 5 represents the number of females. The total number of students is 51, so the guideline is (number of males) and (number of females) equals 51. Thus, we can set up and solve the following equation m + (3m — 5) = 51 4m-5=51 4m =56 m=14 Therefore, there are 14 males and 3(14) — 5 = 37 females, REVIEW EXERCISE Solve each of the following problems 1. The sum of three consecutive integers is 21 larger than twice the smallest integer. Find the integers. 2. Find three consecutive even integers such that if the largest integer is subtracted from four times the smallest, the result is 6 more than twice the middle integer. 3. Find three consecutive odd integers such that three times the largest is 23 less than twice the sum of the two smallest integers. 4. Find two consecutive integers such that the difference of their squares is 37. 25 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala5. Find three consecutive integers such that the product of the two largest is 20 more than the square of the smallest integer. 6. Find four consecutive integers such that the product of the two largest is 46 more than the product of the two smallest integers. 7. Solve each equation a. 9x-3=-21 b. 5(@x-1)=13 c 3n—2=2n+Sd. -2(y-4)-Gy-1)= d. 3(2¢—1)- 26t+1) =4Gt+1) £. 7 baeh ate xt g = Sent “7 Equations with the denominator containing a variable Now let us consider equations that contain the variable in one or more of the denominators. Our approach to solving such equations remains the same except that we must avoid any values of the variable that make a denominator zero. Example 5.1.7 Solution 3-2 (5 3a+2(a-2)=6 3a+2a-4=6 5a=10 a=2. Example 5.1.7 Solve == +=# Solution xo2 art2_ 3 3 26 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalaabd 242 5x =6 5 apres 6 REVIEW EXERCISE 1. Solve each equations 1, 5,1 8 x ‘ F sa a q Betg=s © gee tee a2 as Boprtomcd® » ~ ptt matin be a ys 5.2 Equations Involving Radicals Example 5.2.1 Solve the following equations involving surds 1 WeF4-VE-T=1 2 yx+6=x 3 xts— 4. xt 45x? - 36 5. 15x"2— 11x" Solution L vrtF=14+vxe1 (ver) =(1+V¥>0) xt4=x-14+2¥x—-141 4.2 SaiyecT Q)2=(ve=1)* 4=x-1 x=5 vE= (x — 6)? 2 12x +36 ? = 12x + 36 0=@-4)(x-9) x=4orx=9 7 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala204 x3 +x3- Let w = 23 then u? = x3 weu=6=0 (u+3)@-2)=0 u=-30r u=2 Thus, uxt =-3or x? 18 3 (#8) =(3)' or (x4) = 2" x=-27 ox 15x-? — 11x74 -12 1 then u? 15u? —11u-12 = Gu +3)(3u-4)=0 Su+3=0or(3u-4) Su = —3or3u=4 Thus, u =x" or Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala5.3 Equation Containing More than Two Radicals Example 5.3.1 Solve Vx42+ Vix = VIB—x In this case, it is impossible to isolate one radical on each sides of the equation, so we begin by squaring both sides as it is, Then proceed as follows (\e+2+Vix) =(V18—x) We use the algebraic property that (a + b)? = a? + 2ab + b? (Ve F2)" + 20 F2)(Vm) + (WIRY =18 x+2+2(vx +2)(V2x) +2x = 18-x 2NIK NEEL = 18 -x-3x-2 16 — 4 Vie.VeF2 = = 2 Vix. VrF2= 8-2 x Squaring both sides (VOe.VEF2) = (82x)? 2x(x +2) = 64 - 32x + 4x? x? — 18x +32=0 (-16)(x-2) =0 x=160r x=2 5.4 Two Systems of equations in two variables (Simultaneous equations) The systems of equations in form of ax +by =p cx +dx=q Where x and y are variables and a, b, c,d constants are called simultaneous equations There are four possible methods that can be used to solve the variables x and y namely 1. Graphical method 2. Substitution method 3. Elimination method 4. Matrix method We discuss two methods of solving the simultaneous equations that is substitution method and elmination method. The method of matrix is studied in the topic matrices. Substitution method Steps involved in substitution method 29 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaFor any two simultaneous questions, we solve the variables x and y by following steps 1 Solve one of the equations for one variable in terms of the other. (making the subject of the formula Il Substitute the expression obtained in step I into the other equation, producing an equation in one variable. TI Solve the equation obtained in step TL TV. Use the solution obtained in step III, along with the expression obtained in step I, to determine the solution of the system. Example 5.4.1 Solve the system x-3y=-25 4x +5y =19 Solution Solve the first equation for x in terms of y to produce x =3y-25 Substitute 3y — 25 for x in the second equation and solve for y. 4@y - 25) +5y =19 12y - 100 + 5y=19 12y + Sy = 100 +19 17y =119 y=? Next, substitute 7 for y in the equation x = 3y — 25 to obtain x =3(7)-25 -4 x Example 5.4.2 Solve 5x+9y =-2 2xt4y=—1 Solution Sx+9y 2x+4y=—1 Sx=—9y—2 ~9y-2 30 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaWe substitute the value of x in the second equation. 2x+4y = ~9y-2 2 3 )+4y 2(-9y — 2) + y= —5 ~18y — 4+ 20y = 2y-4= -1 Substitute the value of y in the first equation Elimination method. 1. Any two equations of the system can be interchanged. 2. Any non-zero real number can multiply both sides of any equation of the system. 3. Any equation of the system can be replaced by the sum of that equation and a nonzero multiple of another equation. Examples 5.4.2 Solve a) 3x+5y ~6y =-39 Non-Linear Simultaneous Equations Example 9 Solve the simultaneous equations a) x+y? =13 ax+y aL Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaQUADRATIC EQUATIONS Definition 6.1.1 A quadratic equation of the variable x is defined as any equation that can be written in the form ax? + bx + = 0, where a, bc are real constants and x is an arbitrary variable. The form ax? + bx +c =Qis called the standard form of a quadratic equation. The equation x? + 2x — 15 = 0 is an example of the quadratic equation. Methods for solving the value of x 1. Completing the square method. 2. Factorization method. 3. Quadratic formula method. 4. Sketching graph method (graphical method). Factorization method For any quadratic equation ax? + bx +c that is factorable, the variable x can be solved as follows i) Find the product P such that; P = ac ii) Find the sum S, that is S = b iii) Find two real numbers r and t such that rt =P and r+t=S iv) Then express b in the equation ax? + bx +c as. a sum of rand t and factorize the like terms, Example 6.1.2 Solve x*4+2x-15=0 Solution x24 2x-15= a=1, b= and e=-15 P =ac =1x(-15)=-15 S=b=2 The two real numbers are ~3,5 x?- 3x4 5x-15=0 (x +5)(x -3) x+5=0 or x-3=0 x=-5 or x=3 32 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaExample 6.1.3 Solve x = —6x* +12 Solution x= -6x? +12 6x? +x-12=0 a=6, b=1andc=-12 P =ac =1x (-12) =-12 S=b=1 The real numbers are —3, 4 6x? - 3x + 4x-12=0 (3x — 4)(2x +3) =0 Bx-4=0 or = 2x+3=0 x or x= 3 2 Now suppose that we want to solve x? = k, where k is any real number. We can proceed as follows. k =0 (e+ VE) - VE) =0 x=-vk or x=VK Hence x = +VE Property 1 The solution set of x? = k is (—Vk, Vk), which can also be written {VR}. Example 6.1.4 Solve each of the following a x?=72 b. Gn-1)? =26 Solutions a. x? =72 x=iv7Z x= t6V2. b. Gn-1)? =26 26 1426 3n=1-V26 3n-1 3n 33 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaCompleting the Square method Example 6.1.5 Solve x?+8x-2=0 Solution x? +8x-2=0 x? +8x=2 Thus 16 has to be added to the left to make a perfect trinomial. Thus 16 has to be added to the right also. x? + 8x +16 =2+16 (44)? =18 xt+4=4VI8 x+4=432 x=—443V2. Example 6.1.6 Solve 2x?+6x-3=0 Solution 2x? +6x-3=0 2x* + 6x =3 Multiply both sides by 2 3 2 ~ x 43r=5 add 2 on both sides Quadratic Formula method 34 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala‘The process called completing the square can be used to solve any quadratic equation. If we use this process of completing the square to solve the general quadratic equation ax* + bx + c = 0, we obtain a formula known as the quadratic formula. Definition 6.1.7 Ifa #0, then the solutions (roots) of the equation ax? + bx +c = Dis given by =b+ VP Fae = Ta How do we show that ~b4 Vitae ga ENE ee 2a We consider the quadratic equation ax? + bx + ¢ = 0, and then proceed as follows ax? +bx+c=0 ax? +bx = multiply both sides by = Slat +bx) = coz b xox a complete the square by adding “on both sides b xt poxt a ta combine the right side in a single fraction but 2a can be used because of +. 35, Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalaib? Fac 2a b Vi —4ac 2a 2a -b + Vb? —4ac 2a Or -b-ViP— fac 2a b + Vb? =4ac 2a Example 6.1.8 Solve each of the following by using the quadratic formula. a. 3x7=x-5=0 b. 25x? — 30x c x -2x+4=0 9 Solutions a, 3x2=x-5=0 We need to think of 3x? — x ~ 5 = 0 as 3x? + (=x) + (5) =0; 5. We then substitute these values into the quadratic formula thus a=3, b=~landc= and simplify. or b, 25x? —30x = 25x? — 30x + a= 25,b =-30andc = 9. ‘Now we use the formula = (30) + V30)? = 4(25)(—9) 2(25) 36 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalac. We substitute a = 1,5 ==2,andc = 4 into the quadratic formula. 2) + (OAD 20) Q4eV—I2 _ 24213 2 2 x=14iv3. Discriminant of the quadratic equation The number b? —4ac in the quadratic equation ax* + bx +c =0 is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation. It can be used to determine the nature of the solutions of the quadratic equation as follows. Types of solutions of the quadratic equation 1. Real solutions (two real numbers) 2. Real solution (one real number) 3. Complex solution (two complex numbers) Identifying the type of solution in a quadratic equation Given any quadratic equation ax? + bx +c = 0 1.If b*—4ac > 0, the equation has two unequal real solutions. 2. If b? = 4ac =0, the equation has one real solution. 3. If b? = 4ac <0, the equation has two complex but nonreal solutions. The following examples illustrate each of these situations. (You may need to solve the equations completely to verify the conclusions.) EQUATION DISCRIMINANT NATURE OF SOLUTIONS 4x?-Tx-1=0 b? —4ac = 65 two real solutions 4x74 12x4+4+9=0 Bb? —4ac =0 ‘one real solution Sx? 4+2x+1=0 b? — ac = -16 two complex solution The Sum and the Product of Two Roots 37 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaLet _-b + Vi Fac = 2a and -b-\F Fae yo ee Za The sum of the two roots are expressed as b+ vb2— ae ata = 2a The product of the two roots are expressed as —b + Vb* — 4ac\ (—b — yb* — 4ac’ taxa (SEED (bee b? — (6? — 4ac) 6.6 Symmetric properties of the roots of quadratic equations Let wand £ be the two roats (solutions) of the quadratic equation ax? + bx + ¢ = 0. Then the sum of the roots a + 6 = —= and the product of roots a8 = Proof We have boc ax? +bx+c=0 9 Vtorts=0 If cand f are roots, then (x — @)(x ~ B) = This implies that 2 Bx —ax+ af =0>x?—(B+a)x +afp =0 Hence a +B = 2 and ap=s Example 6.6.1 ‘The roots of the equation 3x? — 8x + 2 = O are a and f. Find the values of 38 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalae) at +p Solutions 3x2 -Bx+2= b) We have Then d) Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala (a +B)? =a? + 2aB +p? (a+ B)? = a? +f? +208 a? +B? = (a +B)’ — 208 ere -(-3) 26) pel go] gels solo x R £ hy 39at + pt = (a? + 6)? ~ 2@8)* -@) -2@) 2704 8 81 Equations of Quadratic Form An equation such as x* + 5x? — 36 = 0 is not a quadratic equation. However, if we let u = x? then, u? = x*. We substitute in the equation we have u? + 5u — 36 = 0 which is a quadratic equation of the form au? + bu +c = 0 where a + O and wis an arbitrary variable of algebraic expression in x. Example 6.6.2 Solve 27/3 +x/3—6 Solution 3 4x3 6 =0 Let u=x¥/5 then wi x7/3 and the equation can be written as w+u-6=0 (u+3)(u—2)=0 ut+3=0 or u-2=0 u=-3 or w=2 Now substituting x13 for u we have x3 =-3 or x= From which we obtain x = (—3)? or x =23 -27 or x=8 Example 6.6.3 Solve x* + 5x? - 36 =0 Solution xt +5x?-36 =0 (x2 + )@2-4)=0 x74+9=0 or x? 0 w=-9 or xt =4 x=+3i or x=+2. Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaREVIEW EXERCISE 1 Solve each equations a. V8x-Z2=4 e VWix-3=1 b. V2-1+2=t £ V3r-2=3x-2 « vet2-1=\x-3 g Vint lt+Vviet4=3 d. \—2x—7 +Vx¥9=VB—x ho Ve=2 +y2e—-Tl=ve-5 Solve each equation by factoring or by using the property, if x? = k then x = +VK. a x?-3x-28 b. 2x7-3x=0 c 9y?=12 d. x?-4x-12= ‘Use the method of completing the square to solve each equation. x? = 10x +24=0 n?+10n=2=0 yr +5y=-2 3n? + 5n—1 x? =6n+20==1 ise the quadratic formula to solve each equation 3x? + 16x = 5 x? +4=8x 2a? - 6a +1 ve +24=0 n?—3n=-7 PER See oPAneE Find the discriminant of each of the following quadratic equations and determine whether the equation has (1) two complex but non-real solutions, (2) one real solution, or (3) two unequal real solutions, a Sx*=2x=4=0 bo x7 4+4x4+7=0 © 16x7=40x=25 Solve each equation xt = 5x7 +4 = 6x23 = 5x/¥-6=0 27/3 4 3x¥3—10=0 xt = 2x? 35 =0 pane INEQUALITIES EQUATIONS The following symbols are used < less than, >greater that, < less than or equal to , > greater than or equal to Properties For any real numbers a and b, then ab means a is greater than b. az=b means a is greater than or equal to b. aL Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaThe following are examples are true B+7>10 4-1<6 5+4<9 9-326 Linear inequalities A linear inequality is an algebraic inequality contain one or more variables. The following are examples of algebraic inequalities. x+3>8 , 3x4¢2y<4(x-2), (+420 , x? ty? 427 < 16 Properties in solving linear inequalities 1. For all real numbers a,b and c,a > b ifand only ifat+e >b+c 2. For all real numbers a,b and ¢, with c > 0,a > b if and only ifac > be 3. For all real numbers a,b and c, withc <0,a 2 Example 7.1.2 Solve 4 > 4 Solution -3x+1 Fe > Multiply both sides by 2 (“S**)2 > 4(2) —3x4+1>8 -3x>8-1 3x >7 el x<-3 az Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaExample 7.1.3 Solve Solution (> -A54) «(qe 3-4) - 20-2) <5 Bx—12—2x44<5 x-8<5 x< 13. Compound Statements we use the words and, or in mathematics to form compound statements. 1.844 =12 and-4<-3True 2. -7<-2 and -6<-10 True 3.6>5 and-4<-8 False 4.4<2 and 0 < -10 False 5. 3 +2= and 5+4=8 False We call compound statements that use or disjunctions. The following are some examples of disjunctions that involve numerical statements. 6 14 > 130135 <37 True 2s tot or —4 + (—3) = 10 true Example 7.1.4 Solve -2< <7 Solution 3x42 eR ae 2 3x +2) =2(2) < 2(: ) < 207) -4<3xd2<4 —-4-2<3x<14-2 ~6<3x<12 —22 ininterval notation Solution The solution set is (v0, —1) U (2,0) 7.2 Quadratic Inequalities The equation ax? + bx + c= 0 is called the standard form of a quadratic equation in one variable. Similarly, the form ax? + bx +c <0 is called quadratic inequality (The symbol < can be replaced by >, < or > to produce other forms of quadratic inequalities.) The number line can be used to help us solve quadratic inequalities where the quadratic polynomial is factorable, Example 7.2.1 Solve 2x? +x-6<0 Solution xt4x-6<0 @+3(x-2)<0 Let (x + 3)(x — 2) is equal to zero. Then x = —3 and x = 2 ‘The numbers —3 and 2 divide the number line into three interval. We can choose a test number from each of these intervals and see how it affects the signs of the factors x + 3andx —2and, consequently, the sign of the product of these factors. Figure 1 (x+3)@-2)=0 (x +3)(@-2)=0 3 2 (0) x +3 is positive @ x+3 — isneg ) x +3 is positive x-2 isneg (x +3)(x—2)is ne; x-2is neg x-2 is positive neg positive Therefore, the given inequality x? + x — 6 <0, is satisfied by the numbers between —3 and 2. That is, the solution set is the open interval (—3,2). Definition 7.2.2 ‘The numbers where the given polynomial or algebraic expression equals zero or is undefined, are referred to as critical numbers. Example 7.2.3 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaSolve 6x*+17x-14 20 Solution 6x? + 17x- 1420 (2x+7)(x-2)20 (2x + 7)(3x — 2) and Now let us choose a test number from each of the three intervals and observe the sign behavior of the factors (Qx+7@x-2)=0 (2x +7)@x-2)=0 wa (2x +7) isneg (2x + 7)is positive (2x + Tis positive (3x —2)isneg) (x — 2)isneg (3x — 2) is positive P positive negative positive Using the concept of set union, we can write the solution set(3x41>1 e -1<#<1 2. Solve each inequality and express the solution sets in interval notation. a 4x?7-4x4+1>0 c 9x? +46r4+1<0 b. 15x? -26r+8<0 do x 45x <6 7.3 Inequalities involving quotients and absolute value Example 7.3.1 solve ==>0 Solution e-2 0 x+3 = as Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaFirst we find that at x = 2, the quotient — equals zero and that at x = —3, the quotient is undefined. The critical numbers ~3 and 2 divide the number line into three intervals. Then, using a test number from each interval, we have x-2 isneg x-2 isneg x—2 is positive x+3is neg x-+3 is positive x+3 is positive 2 a e 2 iis positive neg, positive Therefore the solution set of =>0 is of (—00, 3) U (2, 0) . Example 7.3.2 Solve <3 <3 Solution First, let us change the form of the given inequality. xt+2 < x4 3 x+2 -3.<0 x+4 os x+2-3(x+4) z xt+4 =ta~10 35. x+4 7 Ifx = -5, then the quotient = equals zero, and if x = ~4, the quotient is undefined. Then, using test numbers such as -6,~4+ and—3, we are able to study the sign behavior of the quotient, as in the figure below positive The solution set of == <3 is (—c0,—5] U(-4,00). 46 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaAbsolute Value we defined the absolute value of a real number by _|a| Property 1 For any real number k > 0, if |x| =&, then x= k or x= Property 2 For any real number > 0, if |x| 0 x43 and 4x 412 x+3 5x +10 x+y x43 and -3x-14 — 0 and thusx > 1. Therefore, the domain (D) is_D = {|x > 1} b. The symbol y~ indicates the nonnegative square root; thus the range (R) is FOF) = 0} vi=2 a) f= b) f= ©) FG) =Vx 42-12 Solutions a. We can replace x with any real number except 2 , because 2 makes the denominator zero that makes the function undefined. Thus the domain is D={x|x#2 xR} b. We need to eliminate any values of x that will make the denominator zero, Therefore, let's solve the equationx? — 9 = 0, 2-9 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalar-33 The domain is thus the set D ={xlx#3and x#-3 x€R} d. The radicand,x? + 4x — 12 must be nonnegative. Therefore, let’s use a number line approach as we did in solving the inequality x* + 4x-12>0 @+6)(x-2)20 ‘The critical values are x = —6 and x=2 (x +6) isnegatlve positive positive: (x—2)is negative negative positive The product is positive negative positive The product (x + 6)(x — 2) is nonnegative if x < —6 or x > 2. Using interval notation, we can express the domain as (—<, -6] U [2, +20) 8.3 Even and Odd Functions A function f having the property that f (—x) = f (x) for every x in the domain of f is called an even function. A function f having the property that f(—x) = —f(x) for every x in the domain of f is called an odd function. Example 84 For each of the following, classify the function as even, odd, or neither even nor Odd. a. f(x) = 2x3 - 4x b. fx) =x! = 7x2 ce fax? +2x-3 Solutions a. The function f(x) = 2x? — 4x is an odd function because f(x) = 2(-x)* — 4(—x) which is —2x3 + 4x = —(2x3 — 4x) =- f(x) b. The function f(x) = x* — 7x? is an even function since f(-x) = (-x)! — 7(-x)? = x - 7x2 which is equal to f(x). ¢. The function f(x) = x? + 2x — 3 is neither even nor odd because F(-x) = (2)? + 2(-x) -3 = x? — 2x — 3 Which is neither f(x) nor—f (x). SL Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala8.5 Sketching of some basic graphs of function The constant function identity function y= where cis aconstant yex Domain = {x: x € R} Domain= {x:x € R} Range= {y = c where c € R} Range= {y: y € R} Squaring function cubic function yer yax? Domain= {x:x € R} Domain= {x:x € R} Range= {y € R:y > 0} Range= {y:y € R} Square root function Reciprocal function - an Domain= {x:x € R,x 2 0} Domain= {x:x € R,x #0} Range= {y:y € R.y > 0} Range= {yy € Ry # 0} Reciprocal square function Absolute value function y =41 Domain= {x:x € R,x # 0} Domain= {x:x € R} Range= {y € R:y > 0} Range= {y € R:y = 0} 8.6 Transformation of Common Functions 52 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala8.6.1 Translations of the Basic Curves 1. The graph of f(x) = x? + 3 is the graph of f(x) = x? moved up threeunits. 2. The graph of f(x) = x* — 2 is the graph of f(x) = x* moved down twounits. Vertical Translation ‘The graph of y = f(x) +k is the graph of y = f (x) shifted k units upward if k > 0 or shifted | k | units downward if k < 0. —20on the same axis Example 8.6.1: sketch the graph y = x? +3 and y 2 t /— y=x?+3 Horizontal Translation The graph of y = f(x ~ h) is the graph of y =f (x) shifted h units to the right if > 0 or shifted | h | units to the left if i < 0 Example 8.6.2 Sketch y = (x — 1)? and y = (x + 1)? on the same axis. y 53 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaExample 8.6.4: Sketch y = (x 3yy=x8 y=@-3)° 8.7 Reflections of the Basic Curves x-axis Reflection The graph of y = —f (x) is the graph of y = f (x) reflected through the x- axis. The graph of f (x) = —V¥ is obtained by reflecting the graph of f (x)= through the x axis. Reflections are sometimes referred to as mirror images yave y=-vE y-axis Reflection ‘The graph of y = f (~x) is the graph of y = f (x) reflected through the y —axis. Now suppose that we want to doa y — axis reflection of f (x) = Vx. Because f (x) = Vx is defined for x > 0, the y —axis reflection f (x) = v—x is defined for —x > 0, which is equivalent to x < 0. The figure shows the y axis reflection of f (x) = Vx. Vertical Stretching and Shrinking, Translations and reflections are called rigid transformations because the basic shape of the curve being transformed is not changed. In other words, only the positions of the graphs are changed. The graph of y = cf (x) is obtained from the graph of y = f (x) by multiplying the y coordinates for y = f (x)byc. Ifc> 1, the graph is said to be stretched by a factor of c, and if 0 < ¢ <1, the graph is said to be shrunk by a factor of c. The graph of f (x) = 2Vz is obtained by doubling the y- coordinates of points on the graph of f(x) = V¥. Likewise, the graph of f(x) = 7 VX is obtained by halving the y coordinates of points on the graph of f (x) = Vx. 54 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalayave alg yaa Successive Transformations Some curves are the result of performing more than one transformation on a basic curve. That is the graph can involve stretching, a reflection, a horizontal translation, and a vertical translation of the basic absolute value function. Example 8.7.1. Sketch y = —2|x — 3] +1 This is the basic absolute value curve stretched by a factor of 2, reflected through the x axis, shifted three units to the right, and shifted one unit upward. To sketch the graph, we locate the point (3, 1) and then determine a point on each of the rays. REVIEW EXERCISE Sketch each of the following functions, find the domain and the range from the graph. a. y=(x+2)3 eae ys2xt+3 b. y=2vx-1 ff. y=dxt1l-4 c y=v2—x gg y=nveF242 da. y=—2(e +12 +2 8.8 Combining functions Functions are defined in terms of sums, differences, products, and quotients of simpler functions. In general, if f and g are functions and D is the intersection of their domains, then the following definitions can be made. Sum 55, Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala(fF +9) =f@) +9) Difference GF - 90) =f@)- 9) Product F.N@)=FO.9@ Quotient _f@) @= 7a #0. Example 8.8.1 ff =3x-1 and g(x)=x?-x-2.Find +a) -a)@) ae) Ow and determine the domain of each. noo Solutions a. (f +g)(x) =3x-1+4 x? x-2=x74+2x-3 b. (f -g)(@) = Gr-1)-G?-x-2=-x +441 (fg) = (Bx 1)? — x — 2) =3x9 - 4x? — 5x + 2 aQe=s5 The domain of both f and g is the set of all real numbers. Therefore, the domain of f +o,f —g,and f.g isthe set of all real numbers. For //g , the denominator x* — x ~ 2 cannot equal zero. Solving x? — x -2=0 G@—2)(x+2)=0 (x2) =0 or (x+2)=0 x=2 orx=-1 Therefore, the domain for //g is the set of all real numbers except 2 and -1. 8.9 Composition of Functions Besides adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing functions, there is another important operation called composition. The composition of two functions can be defined as follows. Definition 8.9.1 The composition of functions f and g is defined by ( f 0 g)(x) = f (g(x) for all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f. Example 89.2 56 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaIf f(x) = x? and g(x) = 3x ~ 4. Find (f 0 g)(x),(g 0 f)(a) and determine its domain. Solution Cf og)@) = f (9) = f(3x-4) (x -4)? 9x? — 24x +16. Since g and f are both defined for all real numbers, so is f 0 g: (99 NM=9 FO) 97) 3x7 = 4, Since f and g are defined for all real numbers, so is g 0 f. The composition of functions is not a commutative operation, Inother words, f 0g #9 0 f forall functions f andg. But there és a special class of functions for which fog =gof. 8.10 Inverse of Functions Let f and g be two functions such that f(g(x)) =x for every x in the domain of g and g(f(x)) =x for every x in the domain of f under this condition, the function g is the inverse of the function. The function g is usually denoted by f-» A B B A f fo 1 j 0 g Example 8.10.1 Show that the functions f and g are the inverses of each other where fx) =x+1and g(x)=x-1 Solution We show that f(g(x)) =x and g(f(x)) f(9@))=@-)+1=x g(fG))=@+)-1 x Hence f and g are inverses of each other. Example 8.10.2 Show that f and g are inverses of each other where f(x) = 2x?—1 and g(x) = Solution 57 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaWe show that f(g(x)) and g(f(x))=x 3 alxt1 f(a) =2{ S*} -1 =2(24)-1 x+1-1=x 3/(2x¥ = 1) +1 [2x3 5 2) Hence f and g are inverses of each other. 8.11 One -to - one function A function fis one-to-one if each value of the dependent variable y corresponds to exactly one of the independent variable x. A function f has an inverse if and only if f is one-to-one. A one-to-one function is said. to be injective. Horizontal line test for inverse function A function f has an inverse function if and only if no horizontal line intersects the graph of f at more than one point. ‘ ’ —1 f__, a) by > a) The function y = x? has the horizontal line that cuts the graph at more than one point. Hence not one-to-one and has no inverse. b) The function y = x has the horizontal line that cuts the graph only at one point. Hence one- to-one and has the inverse. Algebraic test for one-to-one functions. Let A and B be two sets, a function f from A to B is called one-to-one (injective) if f(a) = f(b) =a Example 8.11.1 Show if the functions y = 3x —2 and y =x? are one-to-one or not. Solution y=3x-2 Weshow that f(a) = f(b) =a=b f(a) = f(b) 3a-2=3b-2 Hence one-to-one 58 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalayar? We show that f(a) = f(b) =a=b F(a) = Fb) a? = b? ab = (a~b)(a +b) a=b ora Hence f is not one - to - one Finding the inverse of a function i Use the horizontal line test to decide whether the function f has an inverse. ii, In the equation for f(x) replace fix) by y. iii Interchange the roles of x and y, then solve for new y. iv. Replace y by f~* (x) in the new equation. v. Verify that fand f~* are inverse of each other. Example 8.11.2 Find the inverse of f (x) Solution _S—3x Faas 5-3 I= Relation between the Graph of the function and the Graph of its inverse. The graph y = f(x) isa reflection of the graph of the function y = f(x) in the identity function rome Example 8.11.3 The functions y= x +4 and y= 4 are inverses of egch other, their graphs are related as 59 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaREVIEW EXERCISE 1. Find (fag)(x) and (gof)(x) for the following. i fQ@)=2x , g@)=3x-1 ii f@)=2 , g&)=3r-1 ii, f(x) =Ve—-2 , g(x) =3x-1 w. f=. o@=5 v. Iff(x)=x?-2 and g(x)=x+4.Find (fog)(-4) 2. Show that (fog)(x) = xand (gaf)(x) = x i f()=2x, g@)=5x fi. f(x) =3x44, gy = 3 Pre ii, F(X) =4x-3, 9) => 3. Determine whether the function is one-to-one, if it is, find the inverse and graph both the function and its inverse i f@=-2 i, f@)=e i f@yeet3 iv. f(x)=x* ve fQ)=vE-1 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS The function f(x) = ax* + bx +c where a,b and c are constants is called the quadratic function. The domain of a quadratic function is a set of all real numbers. The graph of a quadratic function ‘The graph of a quadratic function is a special curve called parabola. All parabolas are symmetric with respect to a line called axis of symmetry. The point where the axis intersects the parabola is called the vertex of the parabola. Properties of the parabola Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalai If a> 0 in the function f(x) = ax? + bx + c.Then the graph of f(x) opens up. \/ ii, If a <0 in the function f(x) = ax? + bx +c, then the graph of f (x) opens down. iii, When x = 0 in the function f(x) = ax? + bx +c, then, f(0) =c. Hence, c is the y intercept. The graph of f(x) = ax? + bx +c cuts y-axis at the point (0,c). iv. The vertex of a parabola is obtained by completing the square of the function f(x) = ax? +bx+c b f@) =a(x? +2x) +e bb be f@=a vette 4a? 4a? fe)=a(x+ 2) oe OF ONE TG 4a Therefore, the parabola associated with the function f(x) = ax? + bx +c has its vertex a rica =e . And the equation of its axis of symmetry is x = == Example 9.1.1 Graph f(x) = 3x? - 6x +5. Solution f (x) = 3x2 —6x 45 Step! Because a > 0, the parabola opens upwards. Step2 Step3 s(-B)=/=3-645=2 thus, the vertex is (1,2) Step 4 for x =0, then f(x) = 5. The parabola cuts y axis at (0,5) 6 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaFQ) = 3x? -6x4+5 0 ~ x Example 9.1.2 Graph f(x) Solution F(x) =x? - 4x -7 Step 1 since a <0 the parabola opens downward Step2 Step3 b f(-g)= 1-2) =-C27-4-2)-7 then its vertex is (—2, —3) Step4 (0) = -7 then, the parabola intercept y ~axis at (0,—7) 1. We can express the function in the form f (x) = a(x —h)?and use the values of a, h, and k to determine the parabola 2. We can express the function in the form f(x) = ax? + bx +c. Applications of Quadratic functions in Problem Solving ‘As we have seen, the vertex of the graph of a quadratic function is either the lowest or the highest point on the graph. Thus, the minimum value or maximum value of a function is an application of the parabola. Example 9.1.3 A farmer has 120 rods of fencing and wants to enclose a rectangular plot of land that requires fencing on only three sides because it is bounded by a river on one side. Find the length and width of the plot that will maximize the area. Solution 62 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala= 2x x The function A(x) = x(120 — 2x) represents the area of the plot in terms of the width x. Because AG) =x(120-2x) = 120x — 2x” = -2x? + 120x We have a quadratic function with a = =2, b = 120, and c = 0. Therefore, the maximum value (a < 050 the parabola opens downward) of the function is obtained where the x value is b 120 =30 If x = 30 then 120 — 2x = 120 — 2(30) = 60. Thus the farmer should make the plot 30 rods wide and. 60 rods long to maximize the area at (30)(60)= 1800 square rods. Example 9.1.4 Find two numbers whose sum is 30, such that the sum of their squares is a minimum. Solution Let x represent one of the numbers; then 30 — x represents the other number. By expressing the sum of their squares as a function of x, we obtain f@) =x? + G0-x)? which can be simplified to f(x) =x? +900 - 60x + x? F(x) = 2x? +900 — 60x This is a quadratic function with a= 2,b = —60, and c= 900. Therefore, the x value where the ‘minimum occurs is ~ = ~S5 = 15. If x = 15 then 30 ~ 15 = 15 thus, the two numbers are both 15 REVIEW EXERCISE 1. Determine the nature of the curve, find the turning point and sketch the following. i f@)=-2+ 2x- 7 iv. f(x) = 2x? -3x-4 i, f@= v. F@Q)= x7 +2x-3 ii, f(x) =5-2x-4x? 2. Show that, the parabola associated with the function f(x) =ax*+bx+c has its vertex Ce) POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS The function of the form f(x) = a," + dy.Xx""* +--+ ax? + @y is called the polynomial function in. x of degree when a, # 0,The domain of any polynomial is a set of all real numbers. Dividing polynomials by long division Step 1 Use the conventional long division format and arrange both the dividend and the divisor in descending powers of the variable. Step 2 Find the first term of the quotient by dividing the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor. 63 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaStep 3 Multiply the entire divisor by the quotient term in step 2 and place this product in position to be subtracted from the dividend. Step 4 Subtract. Step 5 Repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 Example 10.1.1 Divide3x? —5x?410e+1 by 3x+1 Solution x -2xt4 3x41] 3x*—5x7+10x +1 “(3x3 +2? 6x? + 10x +1 ~(-6x? — 2x 12x +1 (12x +4 3 Therefore,3x3 — 52x? + 10x + 1 = (3x + 1)(x? - 2x + 4) + (-3), which is of the familiar form Dividend = (divisor)(quotient) + remainder This result is commonly called the division algorithm for polynomials, which can be stated in general terms as follows. Division Algorithm for Polynomials If f (x) and g(x) are polynomials and g(x) # 0, then unique polynomials q(x) and r(x) exist such that £0) = g(xa(x) + r(x) where f (x) is the dividend, g(x) is the divisor, g(x) is the quotient and r(x) is the remainder. Example 10.1.2 Divide x? -1 by x—1 and expressin the form f(x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) Solution at+xdd antl x +00? +0x-1 =O a2 x2 40x Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala-(tax Then S-1=(-Det+x4)40. Synthetic Division If the divisor is of the form x+¢ wherec is a constant and x +c is linear, then the typical long, division algorithm can be simplified to a process called synthetic division just by working with the coefficients of the polynomial only. If x +¢ isa factor of a polynomial f(x), then cis one of its roots. Example 10.1.3. Use synthetic division to divide 2x* + x -— 17x? + 13x +2 by x —2 and express the answer in the form f(x) = g@)q(x) +r) Solution 2x4 +23 - 17x? +1342 by x-2 Let f(x) = 2x4 +3 - 17x? 413x+2 and g(x)=x-2 ‘Then x —2 = 0 implies that x = 2 and 2s one of the roots of f(x) We get the coefficient of f(x) then we proceed by putting them in the synthetic table as follows; 272 4-17 13 2 (i) 4 10 (i) 2 5 -7 -1 0 (iii) From part (iii)0 is the remainder and 2, 5,—7,~1 are the coefficients of the quotient in the descending powers of x. Therefore,q(x) = 2x? + 5x? = 7x1 Hence 2xt x3 — 17x? + 13x42 = (x — 2)(2x* + Sx? —7x-1) +0 Example 10.1.4 Use synthetic division to divide x*+16by x+2 and express the answer in the form f(x) = gq) +r) Solution xt + Ox? + Ox? + Ox +16 65. Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalax+2=0,x 32 From the table of coefficients, 32 is the remainder and coefficients 1, -2,4, 8 are the coefficients of the quotient in the descending order of x. Therefore, q(x) = x* — 2x? + 4x —8 xt +16 = (c+ 2)(x3 - 2x? +4x—8) +32. Remainder and factor theorem Let’s consider the division algorithm (stated in the previous section) when the dividend, f (&), is divided by a linear polynomial of the form (x — c). Then the division algorithm, FO) = ge)a@) + r(x) Becomes f(x) = g(x — q(x) + r(x) Because the degree of the remainder, r(x), must be less than the degree of the divisor, (x 0), the remainder is a constant. Therefore, letting R represent the remainder, we have F(x) = g(x -c)q(@x) +R If we evaluate f at c, we obtain F(x) = gle - eq) +R £2) = g(O)q(c) +R FQ) = 0.9) +R FSR Remainder theorem. Ifa polynomial f (x) is divided by (x - c), then the remainder is equal to f (c). Example 10.1.5 If f(x) =x? + 2x? — 5x — 1, find f (2) (a) by using synthetic division and the remainder theorem and then (b) by evaluating f (2) directly. Solution a 2fi 2 -5 -1 2 8 6 74. 3.5 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalab. f(2) =2? + 2(2)?-5(2)-1=8+8-10-1 Example 10.1.6 Find the remainder when f(x) = x? + 3x? — 13x — 15 is divided byx+1 Solution Let f(x) = x3 +3x? — 13x — 15 and write x — (—1)so that we can apply the remainder theorem. f(-1) = (-1)* + 3(-1? - 13(-1) - 15 = 0 Thus the remainder is zero and we say that x + 1 isa factor of x* + 3x? — 13x —15. Factor Theorem ‘A general factor theorem can be formulated by considering the equationf (x) = g(x —c)q(x) +R Ifx —c isa factor of f (x), then the remainderR, which is also f (c), then f(c) must be zero. Conversely, if R = f (c) = 0, then f (x) = (x —c)q(x); in other words, x — c is a factor of f (x). The factor theorem can be stated as follows. Factor Theorem A polynomial f (x) has a factor x ~c if and only if f (c) = 0. Example 10.1.7 Is x +3afactorof 2x? 45x? —6x—7? Solution Let f(x) = 2x3 + 5x? -6x-7 and x +3 be written as x -(—3).Then f(—3) = 2(-3) +5(-3)? - 6(-3) -7 =2 Since f(—3) + 0, by factor theorem, x +3 is not a factor of 2x3 + 5x? = 6x =7. Example 10.1.8 Isx—1a factor of x? + 5x? — 2x —87 Solution Let f(x) = x? + 5x? - 2x-8 and compute f (1) we obtain FQ) = (1)* + 5(1)* = 20) -8 = 0 Therefore, by the factor theorem, x — Lis a factor of x* + 5x? — 2x -8. 67 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaExample 10.1.9 Show that x = 1 isa factor of x* ~ 2x? = 11x + 12 and find the other linear factors of the polynomial. Solution Let us use synthetic division to divide x — 2x? - 11x + 12 byx-1 -2 -11 12 ra 1-1 ~12 T-1-iz 0 The last line indicates a quotient of x*—x-12 and a remainder of zero. The zero remainder means that x—1 is a factor. Furthermore, we can write x8 — 2x? — 11x +12 = (@@—1)(x? — x - 12) We can factor the quadratic polynomial x* — x—12 as(x—4)(x+3) by using our conventional factoring techniques. Thus we obtain x? — 2x? —11y 412 = (-1)(e - 4)(% 43) REVIEW EXERCISE 1. Use the long division to divide a. x3—2x?—11x4+12 by x-1 b. 2x3 +5x7-6x-7 by x4+3 © x845x?-2x-8 byx-1 2. Find f(c) (a) by using synthetic division and the remainder theorem and (b) by evaluating F (0) directly. a f(x)= x34x2-2x-4 and c b. f(x) = 3x? +4x2—Sx+3 and ©. f(x) =x4-2xt 3x2 +8x-1 and c d. f(x) =2x4+x? 4x2 4x41 and c= 3. Use the factor theorem to help answer each question about factors. 1s x—2a factor of 3x? — 4x —4? As x +3. factor of 6x? + 13x — 157 As x— 1a factor of 3x3 + 5x? — x — 2? 1s x— 3a factor of x* ~ 817 Is x +3a factor of x*- 81? panes 4. Use synthetic division to show that g(x) is a factor of f (x) and complete the factorization of f (x). a g@)=x42, f(x)ax+ 7 +x-12 b. gx) -1, f(x) = 3x? + 19x? — 38x + 16 « g(x) —3,, f(x) = 6x? - 17x? -5x+6 d. g(x) +1, f(x) =x9 - 2x? -7x-4 e.g) =x—5, f(x) = 2x3 +x? - 61x +30 10.2 POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS Linear and quadratic equations are special cases of a general class of equations we refer to as polynomial equations. The equation OX" + Oya? Lp axl +a =0 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaWhere the coefficients ao,a,, .., @, are real numbers and nis a positive integer, is called a polynomial equation of degree n. The following are examples of polynomial equations. 2x-6=0 degree of 1 ix? -Sx+1=0 degree of 2 3x3419x?—38x +16 =0 — degree of 3 xt—81=0 degree of 4 Remark: The most general polynomial equation allows complex numbers as coefficients. However, for our purposes in this text, we will restrict the coefficients to real numbers. We refer to such equations as polynomial equations over the reals Equation ‘Solution Set 3x44=7 {1} x +x-6=0 {-3,.2} 2x3 — 3x? — 2x +3 = 1, x*-16= {-2, 2,-2i, 2i} Note that in each of these examples, the number of solutions corresponds to the degree of the equation. Finding Rational Solutions Rational Root Theorem Consider the polynomial equation anx" + an-1x""! +++ axx1 +a =0 where the coefficients o,4,...,4q are integers. If the rational number ¢/d, reduced to lowest terms, is a solution of the equation, then c is a factor of the constant term ag, and d is a factor of the leading coefficient a. Example 10.21 Find all rational solutions of 3x? + 8x? — 15x +4=0 Solution If c/d is a rational solution, then c must be a factor of 4 and d must be a factor of 3. Therefore, the possible values for c and d are as follows. For c +1,+2,+4 For d +1,43 ‘Thus the possible values for c/d are +1, +2, +2, +5, +4, +5 By using synthetic division, we can test x — 1 1J3 8 -15 4 3 11 -4 3 11-4 0 69 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaThis shows that x — 1 is a factor of the given polynomial; therefore, 1 is a rational solution of the equation. Bx? + 8x? - 15x +4 (e-1)(Bx? + 11x-4) =0 ‘The quadratic factor can be further factored by using techniques we are familiar with. (e-1)(Bx? + 1lx-4) =0 @-DGx-Dx+4) =0 @=-1)=0 or Gr-1)=0 or (x+4)=0 x=1 or x= Thus the entire solution set consists of rational numbers and can be listed as {-#5 4} REVIEW EXERCISE 1. Use the rational root theorem and the factor theorem to help solve each equation. Be sure that the number of solutions for each equation agrees with the degree of the polynomial. a. xt — 6x5 4 22x? — 30x 413 =0 b. x8 4x2 -4x-4=0 ce. 6x3 +x?—10x+3=0 d. x3 - 2x? -7x-4=0 e x 4x%—4y-4=0 fo xt + 4x3 — x? — 16x-12=0 g x8-4x2748=0 2. Find a polynomial equation with integral coefficients that has the given numbers as solutions and the indicated degree a. 2,4,-3. degree 3 b. 1,-1,2,-4 degree 4 © 2,-1,1 degree3 103 Graphing Polynomial Functions Graphing Polynomial Functions in Factored Form Every polynomial function of odd degree has at least one real zero—that is, at least one real number c such that f (c) =0.Geometrically, the zeros of the function are the x intercepts of the graph. The figure below shows some graphs of polynomial functions. 70 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakalafhs, polynomial functions usually have turning points where the function either changes from infeasing to decreasing or from decreasing to increasing, Example 10.3.1 Graph f(x) = (x +2)(-1)(x - 3) Solution First, let us find the x intercepts (zeros of the function) by setting each factor equal to zero and solving, for x. x+2=0 of x-1=0 or x-3=0 -2 or 1oor x=3 Thus the points (~2,0), (1,0), and (3,0) are on the graph. Second, the points associated with the x intercepts divide the x- axis into four intervals. x<-2 Ta3 ——+1___}___ | __s, 3 In each of these intervals, f (x) is either always positive or always negative. Interval Test value Sign for f(x) Location of graph ask f(-3)=-24 Negative Below x — axis chsEst FO) =0 Positive Above x ~ axis 1<2<3 f(Q)=-4 Negative Below x — axis a) f@) = 18 Above x ~ axis Additional values:f(—1) = 8 f(2) 4. mn Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaMaking use of the x intercepts and the information in the table, we indicated turning points of the graph at (2, —4) and (—1, 8). Examplel0.3.2 Graph f (x) = x* + 3x? -4 Solution FQ) = x8 43x27 -4 (xe 1)? + 4x44) =G-D@+2)? Now we can find the x intercepts. @-1)=0 or (&+2)2=0 x=lor x=-2 Thus the points (—2, 0) and (1, 0) are on the graph and divide the x axis into three intervals. 1 1 The following table determines some points and summarizes the sign behavior of f(x). interval Test value Sign of f(x) Location of graph Deed f(-3)=-4 Negative Below x — axis S2eES4 F(0) Negative Below x — axis are F2)=16 Positive Additional values: f(-1) = F(-4) =-20 2 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaREVIEW EXERCISE 1, graph each polynomial function, (x — 2)(x + 1) +3) ad fx)=%+4)e+DQ-) at NEtDE-YE-2Z) ie f@)= G+ 2h@-4) —@-2z graph each polynomial function by first factoring the given polynomial. You may need to use some factoring techniques, as well as the rational root theorem and the factor theorem, dd. f(x) =x8-x*-4x44 x? — 3x? — 32 +2 SKETCHING OF RATIONALAND PIECE-WISE FUNCTIONS at for q(x) # Owhere p(x) and q(x) are both polynomial functions, is called a rational function. The following are examples of rational functions. __ x «= —2 _ x88 =6 2 f= Fy » I" In each example, the domain of the rational function is the set of all real numbers except those that make the denominator zero. Try to use the calculator with some test values an plot the graph of f(x) =+. You will see that the graph is £G Sl x 3 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaVertical Asymptote ‘A line x = a isa vertical asymptote for the graph of a fupction f if it satisfies either of the following two properties. 1. f (a) either increases or decreases without bound as x approaches the number a from the right. 2. f (a) either increases or decreases without bound as x approaches the number a from the left Horizontal Asymptote ‘Aline y =b [or f (x) =b] isa horizontal asymptote for the graph of a function f if it satisfies either of the following two properties. 1. f (x) approaches the number b from above or below as x gets infinitely small. 2. f (x) approaches the number b from above or below as x gets infinitely large. The following suggestions will help you graph rational functions of the type we are considering in this: section 1. Check for y —axis symmetry and origin symmetry, 2. Find any vertical asymptote(s) by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving for x. 3. Find any horizontal asymptote(s) by studying the behavior of f (1) as x gets infinitely large or as x gets infinitely small. 4. Study the behavior of the graph when it is close to the asymptotes. 5. Plot as many points as necessary to determine the shape of the graph. This may be affected by whether the graph has any symmetry. Example 11.1.1 Graph f (x) ==> mm 4 Lecture notes 2018 by W.SakalaSolution Because x = 2 makes the denominator zero, the line x = ~2 is a vertical asymptote. = 1 — 1O=s5 x42 5,2 aE ise Now we can see that (i) as x gets larger and larger, the value of f (xx) approaches 1 from below, and (ii) as x gets smaller and smaller, the value of f (x) approaches 1 from above. Thus, the line f (x) = Lis a horizontal asymptote. Drawing the asymptotes (lines) and plotting a few points enable us to complete the graph shown, Example 11.1.2 Sketch the graph of f (x) = solution First, note that f (2x) = f (x); therefore, this graph is symmetric with respect to the y_axis. Second, the denominator x? +4 cannot equal zero for any real number x. Thus there is no vertical asymptote. Third, dividing both the numerator and the denominator of the rational expression by x? produces 22 at xz x4 4 gig ite 2 Now we can see that as x gets larger and larger, the value of f (x) approaches 2 from below. Therefore, the line f (x) = 2 isa horizontal asymptote. We can plot a few points using positive values for x, sketch this part of the curve, and then reflect across the f (x) axis to obtain the complete graph Examplel1.1.3 Sketch the graph of f (x) = Solution First, note that f (—x) = f (x); therefore, this graph is symmetric about the f (xx) axis. Second, by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving for x, we obtain x2-4=0 gas x=t2. 5 Lecture notes 2018 by W.Sakala