THE MODERN MATHEMATICAL SERIES LUCIEN AUGUSTUS WAIT... Gexerat Epiror (GENIOR PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY)THE MODERN MATHEMATICAL SERIES. LUCIEN AUGUSTUS WAIT, (Senior Professor of Mathematics in Cornell University,) GENERAL EDITOR. This series includes the following works: ANALYTIC GEOMETRY. By J. H. TANNER and JosEPH ALLEN. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. By James McMauon and Vircit SNYDER. INTEGRAL CALCULUS. By D. A. Murray. DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS. By Vira Syyper and J.I HUTCHINSON. ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. By J. H. TANNER. ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY. By James McMauon. The Analytic Geometry, Differential Calculus, and Integral Calculus (pub- lished in September of 1898) were written primarily to meet the needs of college students pursuing courses in Engineering and Architecture; accordingly, prac- tical problems, in illustration of general principles under discussion, play an important part in each book. ‘These three books, treating their subjects in’ a way that is simple and practi- cal, yet thoroughly rigorous, and attractive to both teacher and student, received such general and hearty approval of teachers, and have been so widely adopted in the best colleges and universities of the country, that other books, written on the same general plan, are being added to the series. ‘The Differential and Integral Calculus in one volume was written especially for those institutions where the time given to these subjects is not sufficient to use advantageously the two separate books. ‘The more elementary books of this series are designed to implant the spirit of the other books into the secondary schools. This will make the work, from the schools up through the university, continuous and harmonious, and free from the abrupt transition which the student so often experiences in changing from his preparatory to his college mathematics.DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS BY VIRGIL SNYDER, Pu.D. (cérriveen) AND, JOHN IRWIN HUTCHINSON, 'Pu.D. (cuicago) OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY NEW YORK -:. CINCINNATI -:- CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANYCorraranr, 1902, BY VIRGIL SNYDER axp JOHN I, HUTCHINSON Entenep av Srationsns’ Haut, Loxpon. DIF, ONT, CAL. W. PSPREFACE Tue favorable reception accorded the two volumes on the Calculus in this series shows that they have been serviceable in supplying a real need. A general demand has arisen for a similar treatment of the subjects in briefer form, suitable for use in shorter and more elementary courses. Accord- ingly, in response to numerous requests and suggestions, the present volume has been prepared. The part on the Differential Calculus is of essentially the same character as the former separate volume (which will be referred to in the text as D. C.), but the range of topics is restricted ; various theorems have been put in less ab- stract form, and fewer alternative proofs have been given. The chapter on the expansion of functions has been so arranged that the remainder theorem may be omitted with- out marring the continuity of the subject. In the treatment of functions of two independent variables no use is made of an auxiliary variable. The characteristic features of the larger book are retained. Some of these are as follows : — 1. The derivative is presented rigorously as a limit. 2. The process of differentiation is so arranged as to give the 2-derivative of a function of u, in which w is a function of x; the resulting type forms being printed in full-face letters in the text and collected for reference at the end of the chapter.vi PREFACE 8. Maxima and minima are discussed as the turning values in the variation of a function, with complete graphi- cal representation. 4. The notions of rates and differentials are so presented as to grow naturally out of the idea of a derivative, and are not introduced until the student has become familiar with the process of finding the derivative and with its use in studying the variation of a function. 5. The related theories of inflexions, curvature, and asymptotes receive direct and comprehensive treatment. The part on the Integral Calculus has been written en- tirely anew. The first five chapters discuss the ordinary methods of integration. The aim has been to make clear the rationale of each process, and to encourage the students to become independent of formulas. The method of reduction has been put in the simplest possible form ; in the solution of problems students need make no use of formulas of reduction. In the resolution of rational fractions into simpler ones, care has been taken to show the logical basis of the usual assumptions. The rationalization of a differential containing the square root of a quadratic expression has been treated much more fully than usual. The problem is interpreted geometrically as equivalent to the rational expression of the codrdinates of a variable point on a conic in terms of a varying parameter. This makes clear how the required transformations are sug- gested and puts the subject in a more attractive form. Special care has been taken in presenting the subject of integration regarded as a summation so as to combine rigor and simplicity. The ordinary cases of discontinuity, eitherPREFACE vii of the integrand or of the variable of integration, are in- cluded in the discussion. In deriving the formula for length of arc, the definition of such length is given as the limit of the sum of chords, a definition which readily expresses itself, by the use of the mean-value theorem, in the form of a definite integral. The exercises, which are new throughout the book, are carefully graded. Numerous illustrative examples are worked out in the text, and are accompanied by various suggestions and remarks relating to both theory and practice. The authors gratefully acknowledge their indebtedness to their colleague, Professor James McMahon, for permission to make free use of McMahon and Snyder’s Differential Calculus, for a number of valuable suggestions, and for as- sistance in reading portions of the manuscript and proof.CONTENTS DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS CHAPTER I FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES ARTICLE 1. Elementary definitions Sen ene ee 2. Infinitesimals and infinites 3. Fundamental theorems concerning infinitesimals and limits i in general 4, Comparison of variables 5. Comparison of infinitesimals and of infinites. Orders of | mag. nitude 6. Useful illustrations of jnfinitesimals of different orders 15. 16. 17. 18. 5 D . Differentiation of a commensurable power ‘of a function . 20. 21. . Continuity of functions D . Comparison of simultaneous infinitesimal increments of two related variables Definition of a derivative . Geometrical illustrations of a derivative . The operation of differentiation . Increasing and decreasing functions . . Algebraic test of the intervals of increasing and deer easing . Differentiation of a function of a function CHAPTER II DIFFERENTIATION OF THE ELEMENTARY Forms Differentiation of the product of a constant and a variable Differentiation of a sum Differentiation of a product Differeritiation of a quotient Elementary transcendental functions Differentiation of log, z and log, u ix o 15 20 20 24 25 27 30 31 32 33 38 39x CONTENTS ARTICLE 22. 28. 24. 35. 36. 37. 38. 40. 41, 42, 43, 45. Differentiation of the simple exponential function Differentiation of the general exponential function . Differentiation of an incommensurable power . Differentiation of sin u . : . . . eI > 3. Differentiation of cosu . . . . . 27. 28. 29. 30. Differentiation of tamu =. * Differentiation of cot u Differentiation of secu - . .« . Differentiation of esc u . e . : . : . Differentiation of vers u 32. 33. 34. Differentiation of sin-! u Differentiation of the remaining inverse tri jgonometric forms 5 Table of fundamental forms CHAPTER IIT Successive DirFERENTIATION Definition of the nth derivative . oe Expression for the nth derivative in certain cases. CHAPTER IV Expansion oF Functions Convergence and divergence of series : General test for interval of convergence . . . . Remainder after n terms . foe Maclaurin’s expansion of a function in n powerseries » Taylor's series... wk Rolle’s theorem . 660 6 4 Form of remainder in Maclaurin’ s series . Another expression for remainder . .« «© «© «+ Theorem of meanvalue . . . . «© «2 « CHAPTER V INDETERMINATE Forms . Definition of an indeterminate form . : soe . Indeterminate forms may have determinate values a . Evaluation by development . . . . . . Evaluation by differentiation . . . . . . aan Bw 57 58 61 62 66 67 68 70 75 W7 78 80 81CONTENTS ARTICLE 50. 51. 52. 53. 54, 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. Evaluation of the indeterminate form. . Evaluation of theformo.0 . . . . . . Evaluation of the forma—o . . . . . Evaluation of the form 1° . . . . . . . Evaluation of the forms0°,o® . 2 2 2 2 «2. . CHAPTER VI Move or VariaATIOn oF Functions or ONE VARIABLE Review of increasing and decreasing functions . a oI fe Turning values of afunction . . . . . . Critical values of the variable Method of determining whether ¢' (x) ‘changes its an in passing through zero or infinity 5 Second method of a emeeechs whether ¢’ (x) changes sign in passing through zero Conditions for maxima and minima derived | from Teylo's 8 theorem The maxima and minima ‘of xy continaous “function occur alternately . . . Simplifications that do not alter ‘critical values oo . Geometric problems in maxima and minima . . . . CHAPTER VII Rates AND DIFFERENTIALS Rates. Time asindependent variable . : . . Abbreviated notation for rates . . a . . . Differentials often substituted for rates . . « CHAPTER VIII DIFFERENTIATION OF Functions or Two VARIABLES Definition of continuity 2. 6. eee Partial differentiation . . . . . . . . Total differential . . . . . . . . Language of differentials . . : . . . . Differentiation of implicit functions . . . . Successive partial differentiation . . . . . Order of differentiation indifferent . . . . . 91 91 93 95 97 98 100 105 108 110 113 114 116 119 120 121 121xii CONTENTS CHAPTER IX CHANGE OF THE VARIABLE ARTIOLE 74, 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. Interchange of dependent and independent variables Change of the dependent variable . . . . . Change of the independent variable... . . . . APPLICATIONS TO GEOMETRY CHAPTER X TANGENTS AND NorMALs : . dy Geometric meaning of a 5 . a eer) Equation of tangent and normal at a given point Length of tangent, normal, subtangent, subnormal . Porar Codrpinates Meaning of oe So Relation between dy and p ae . . . . . . . az? Pap Length of tangent, normal, polar are and oe sub- normal. . . . . . . . CHAPTER XI DERIVATIVE OF AN Arc, AREA, VOLUME, AND SURFACE oF REVOLUTION Derivative of an arc ds a dz’ dy Derivative of the volume of a solid of revolution Derivative of a surface of revolution . Derivative of arc in polar coérdinates . 5 + Derivative of area in polar codrdinates . oo. . Trigonometric meaning of —, CHAPTER XII ASYMPTOTES Hyperbolic and parabolic branches . «6 6 6 + Definition of a rectilinear asymptote . . . Lo nent® PAGE 124 125 126 129 129 180 133 134 135 138 189 140 140 141 142 143 143CONTENTS DETERMINATION OF ASYMPTOTES ARTICLE 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 118. Method of limiting intercepts. - Method of inspection. Infinite ordinates, ssymptotes parallel toaxes . . Method of substitution. Oblique asymptotes . . Number of asymptotes . . . Method of expansion. Explicit functions o 8 ee CHAPTER XIII Direction oF Benpinc. Points or InFLEXIoN . Concavity upward and downward . . Algebraic test for positive and negative bending . Analytical derivation of the test for the direction of bending. . Concavity and convexity towards the axis CHAPTER XIV Contact AND CURVATURE Order of contact . . . . Number of conditions implied by contact . . . Contact of odd and of even order. . . . . Circle of curvature. . . . Length of radius of curvature; codrdinates of center of curvature . . Direction of radius of curvature . . Total curvature of a given arc; average curvature . . Measure of curvature at a given point . . Curvature of osculating circle . . . . Direct derivation of the expression for « and Rin ‘polar coérdinates . 8 . . Evotures anp InvoLutus Definition of anevolute . . .« «© «© «© «| . Properties of the evolute . . . ry . . 5 CHAPTER XV Sincuiar.Pornts Definition of a singular point. . rn Determination of singular points of algebraic curves. . xiii PAGE 143 144 147 149 150 152 153 156 157 159 160 161 163 163 164 166 166 167 169 170 172 179 179xiv CONTENTS ARTICLE 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 421. 122. 128. 124, 125. 126. 127. 128, 129. 130. 131. 182. 133. Multiple points. =... ww Cusps. - oe ee le Conjugate points CHAPTER XVI ENVELOPES Family of curves. a eer. Envelope of a family of curves . The envelope touches every curve of the family Envelope of normals of a given curve . . . Two parameters, one equation of condition INTEGRAL CALCULUS CHAPTER I GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTEGRATION 2. ‘The fundamental problem Integration by inspection . The fundamental formulas of integration Certain general principles . . . . Integration by parts. . . . . . Integration by substitution . . . «© Additional standard forms . se Integrals of the form ((Az+ Bax se 8 ~ Vax? + ba +e Integrals of the form f (az B) ae ar E+ Ce CHAPTER II Repuction Formuras . . . se CHAPTER IT INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS Decomposition of rational fractions . Case I. Factors of the first degree, none repeated | PAGE 181 182 184 187 188 189 190 191 195 196 198 199 203 205 209 210 212 215 223 225ARTIOLE 134. Case II. Factors of the first degree, some repeated Cas III. Occurrence of quadratic factors, none repeated Case IV. Occurrence of quadratic factors, some repeated General theorem on the integration of rational fractions 135. 136. 137. 138, 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144, 145. 146. 147, 148, 149. 150. 151. 152. CONTENTS CHAPTER IV INTEGRATION BY RATIONALIZATION Integration of functions containing the irrationality Yax +0 Integration of expressions containing Vaz? + bx + ¢ General theorem on the integration of irrational functions CHAPTER V INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC AND OTHER TRAN- SCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Integration by substitution Integration of J seo ada, Sieosect™ adxz Integration of Siseom atan®+1z dz, feo seo" x cot +1z dr Integration of Stan» xdz, Seot» adz Integration of f sin" 2 cost2 dz Integration of ft at eos? Neca +bsin2* Integration of fesinnzdz, (ecosnzds .~ . CHAPTER VI INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION The definite integral . Geometrical interpretation of the definite integral as an area Generalization of the area formula. area Certain properties of ‘definite integrals Definition of the definite integral when see becomes infinite. Infinite limits Positive and negative XV PAGE 226 228 229 230 231 232 236 238 238 240 242 244 246 248 253 256 257xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER VII GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS ARTICLE 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162, 168. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. Areas. Rectangular codrdinates . . 2 «ew Areas. Second method . Precautions to be observed in evaluating definite integrals Areas. Polar coérdinates Length of curves. Rectangular cobrdinates Length of curves. Polar coérdinates Measurement of ares by the aid of parametric representation : Area of surface of revolution Volume of solid of revolution . . . . . . Miscellaneous applications a a 5 a a s CHAPTER VIII Successive INTEGRATION Successive integration of functions of a single variable . Integration of functions of several variables . Integration of a total differential . 5 5 c a Multiple integrals 2 6 ewe ee Definite multiple integrals eee ee Plane areas by double integration . . . Volumes ~ - 1 ee ee PAGE 260 260 263 267 269 271 273 274 279 286 288 289 292 293 294 295DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 079400 CHAPTER I FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES LL Elementary definitions. A constant number is one that retains the same value throughout an investigatién in which it oceurs. A variable number is one that changes from one value to another during an investigation. When the varia- tion of a number can be assigned at wiil, the variable is called independent; when the value of one number is determined by that of another, the former is called a dependent variable. The dependent variable is called a function of the indepen- dent variable. Eyg., 3.2%, 4Vz—1, cos x, are all functions of 2. Functions of one variable w will be denoted by the sym- bols f(x), $(#), -++3 similarly, if 2 be a function of two variables x, y, it will be denoted by such expressions as 2=f@ y) 2= Fy) When a variable approaches a constant in such a way that the difference between the variable and the constant may become and remain smaller than any fixed number, pre- viously assigned, the constant is called the limit of the variable. There is nothing in this definition which requires a vari- able to attain the value of its limit, or not to attain it. The 12 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. I. examples of limits met with in elementary geometry are usually of the second kind; i.e. the variable does not reach the limit. The limiting values of algebraic expressions are more frequently of the first kind. £.g., the function 1 has the limit 1 when « becomes zero ; it has the limit 0 when x becomes infinite. The function sin 2 has the limit 0 when x becomes zero; tan x has the limit 1 when z becomes i EXERCISES 1. Let (2, y) = Ax+ By + C; show that (2, y) =0, p(y, —2) =0 are the equati6ns of two perpendicular lines. 2. If f(2) =22V1—24, show that f(sin 3) =sinz = (0s 5) -b(2)—$(y) _ zy, 1+O@)o(y) l+zy 4. If f(2) = log ¢ = shes show that f(z) +/(y) =s( 5. Given f(z) = V1 —2%, find f(VI— 2). 6. If f(zy) =f(z) +f(y), prove that f(1) = 0. 7. Given f(e+y)=f(2) +f(y), show that (0) =0, and that pf (2) =f(p2), p being any positive integer. 8. Using the same notation as in the last example, prove that Sf (mx) = mf (x), m being any rational fraction. 3. E o@)=2 : show that ita) 2. Infinitesimals and infinites. A variable that approaches zero as a limit is an infinitesimal. In other words, an infini- tesimal is a variable that becomes smaller than any number that can be assigned. The reciprocal of an infinitesimal is then a variable that becomes larger than any number that can be assigned, and is called an infinite variable. E.g., the number (4)" is an infinitesimal when n is taken larger and larger ; and its reciprocal 2" is an infinite variable.1-2.) FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 3 From the definitions of the words “limit” and “ infinitesi- mal” the following useful corollaries are immediate inferences. Cor. 1. The difference between a variable and its limit is an infinitesimal variable. Cor. 2. Conversely, if the difference between a constant and a variable be an infinitesimal, then the constant is the limit of the variable. For convenience, the symbol + will be used to indicate that a variable approaches a constant as a limit; thus the symbolic form z = a is to be read “the variable x approaches the constant a as a limit.” The special form 2 + o is read “x becomes infinite.” The corollaries just mentioned may accordingly be sym- bolically stated thus: 1. If +a, thenz=a+a, wherein «+0; 2. Ife=a+a, and a=0, thenz=a. It will appear that the chief use of Cor. 1 is to convert given limit relations into the form of ordinary equations, so that they may be combined or transformed by the laws governing the equality of numbers; and then Cor. 2 will serve to express the result in the original form of a limit relation. In all cases, whether a variable actually becomes equal to its limit or not, the important property is that their differ- ence is an infinitesimal. An infinitesimal is not necessarily in all stages of its history a small number. Its essence lies in its power of decreasing numerically, having zero for its limit, and not in the smallness of any of the constant val- ues it may pass through. It is frequently defined as an “infinitely small quantity,” but this expression should be interpreted in the above sense. Thus a constant number, however small it may be, is not an infinitesimal.4 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. 1. 3. Fundamental- theorems concerning infinitesimals and limits in general. ‘The following theorems are useful in the processes of the calculus; the first three relate to in- finitesimals, the last four to limits in general. Theorem 1. ‘The product of an infinitesimal a by any finite constant & is an infinitesimal ; 0, =0. 4.€., if then k For, let ¢ be any assigned number. Then, by hypothesis, « can become less than £ 3 hence ke can become less than e, the arbitrary, assigned number, and is, therefore, infinitesimal. Theorem 2. The algebraic sum of any finite number n of infinitesimals is an infinitesimal ; ie. if a+0, B=0, then a+B+- For the sum of the n variables does not at any stage numerically exceed » times the largest of them, but this product is an infinitesimal by theorem 1; hence the sum of the n variables is either an infinitesimal or zero. 0. Nore. The sum of an infinite number of infinitesimals may be infinitesimal, finite, or infinite, according to circumstances. E.g., if a be i finite constant, and if n be a variable that becomes infinite; then © ea 5 4, are all infinitesimal variables; but n nb £44 4...ton terms =%, which is infinitesimal, nee nn? n while 2424 ...t0n terms =a, which is finite, nin and £424 ...to n terms = ant, which is infinite. nt nt3-4.] FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 5 Theorem 3. The product of two or more infinitesimals is an infinitesimal. Theorem 4. If two variables 2, y be always equal, and if one of them, 2, approach a limit a, then the other ap- proaches the same limit. Theorem 5. If the sum of a finite number of variables be variable, then the limit of their sum is equal to the sum of their limits; he, lim@+y+-)=lime+limy+-. For, let wea, yd, Then t=ata, y=b+, --, [Art. 2, Cor. 1. wherein «=0, B20, 5 hence etytnHCatbt-)+(at+Rt-)3 but a+ B+-+0, (Th. 2. hence, by Art. 2, Cor. 2, lim@+tyte)=atdb4+--=lime+limy+-. Theorem 6. If the product of a finite number of varia- bles be variable, then the limit of their product is equal to the product of their limits. Theorem 7. If the quotient of two variables z, y be variable, then the limit of their quotient is equal to the quotient of their limits, provided these limits are not both infinite, or not both zero. 4. Comparison of variables. Some of the principles just established will now be used in comparing variables with each other. The relative importance of two variables that are approaching limits is measured by the limit of their ratio.6 , DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. I. DEFINITION. One variable « is said to be infinitesimal, infinite, or finite, in comparison with another variable x when the limit of their ratio « : x is zero, infinite, or finite. In the first two cases, the phrase “ infinitesimal or infinite in comparison with” is sometimes replaced by the less pre- cise phrase “infinitely smaller or infinitely larger than.” In the third case, the variables will be said to be of the same order of magnitude. The following theorem and corollary are useful in com- paring two variables : Theorem 8. The limit of the quotient of any two varia- bles z, y is not altered by adding to them any two numbers a, 8, which are respectively infinitesimal in comparison with these variables ; 1.€., provided For, since it follows, by theorems 4, 6, that 142 ate galing. lim es y+B 148 but, by theorems 7, 5, and hypothesis, 1+< lim ——=1; 148 y therefore, lim 7tB =lim A4-5.] FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 7 Cor. If the difference between two variables 2, y be infinitesimal as to either, the limit of their ratio is 1, and conversely ; i.e, if 2—4=0, then 221. y ¥ 7 . a x For, since Joe 1, hence piso and f= 1. [Art. 2, Cor. 2. Conversely, if 7241, then 7—%=0. y gy For, by Art. 2, Cor. 1, 7_120; ie, 7 %e0. 5. Comparison of infinitesimals, and of infinites. Orders of magnitude. It has already been stated that any two variables are said to be of the same order of magnitude when the limit of their ratio is a finite number; that is to say, is neither infinite nor zero. In less precise language, two variables are of the same order of magnitude when one variable is neither infinitely larger nor infinitely smaller than the other. For instance, 48 is of the same order as 8 when & is any finite number; thus a finite multiplier or divisor does not affect the order of magnitude of any variable, whether infinitesimal, finite, or infinite. rc In a problem involving infinitesimals, any one of them, @, may be chosen as a standard of comparison as to magni- tude; then « is called the principal infinitesimal of the first order, and a7! is called the principal infinite of the first order.8 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. I. To test for the order n of any given infinitesimal 8 with reference to the principal infinitesimal « on which it depends, it is necessary to select an exponent m such that lim B _ a=0gn hy wherein & is a finite constant, not zero. When n is negative, 8 is infinite of order —n. An infinitesimal, or infinite of order zero, is a finite number. £.g., to find the order of the variable 324 — 42, with reference to x as the principal infinitesimal. Comparing with 2%, x8, x‘, in succession: Hin Sat — 42° _ lim (32% 42)=0, nob finite; z=0 x2 lim 31-429 _ li ; 2207 ZoGrt-4=-4 finite ; lim 324-428 _ lim 220 gf 20 (8 - 4)= o, not finite; x. hence 32 — 48 is an infinitesimal of the same order of smallness as «3; that is, of the third order. The order of largeness of an infinite variable can be tested inasimilar way. For instance, if x be taken as the principal infinite, let it be required to find the order of the variable 3at—423. Comparing with 2 and 2: lim 3a4—423 _ lim rio pea Be—A=a; lim 8a4—423_ lim (3-2 rao a “eso hence 824 — 423 is an infinite of the same order of largeness as 24, that is, of the fourth order. The process of finding the limit of the ratio of two in- finitesimals is facilitated by the following principle, based5-6] FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 9 on theorem 8 of Art. 4: The limit of the quotient of two infinitesimals is not altered by adding to them (or subtract- ing from them) any two infinitesimals of higher order, respectively. Sottot _ lim S243, (4m ock T= 04a 4 Eg, . From these definitions the following theorems are at once established : Theorem 1. The product of two infinitesimals is another infinitesimal whose order is the sum of the orders of the factors. Theorem 2. The quotient of an infinitesimal of order m by an infinitesimal of order x is an infinitesimal of order m—n. Theorem 3. The order of an infinitesimal is not altered by adding or subtracting another infinitesimal of higher order. 6. Useful illustrations of infinitesimals of different orders. Theorem 1. aa sine =1; aa mm 6 =1 With O as acenter and OA=r BD as radius, describe the circular arc AB. Let the tangent at A \ meet OB produced in D; draw -‘ BC perpendicular to OA, cutting OA in C. Let the angle AOB=@ in radian measure, then arc AB= 6, CB 9; B ; ; paell : the function may be indeterminate, as sin 7 when z= 0; finally, the value of the function may depend upon.the manner in which the variable approaches the value z,, as in the function 7 fz)=2=*; 1-3 when z= +h, f(z)=1; when 2=~h, f(—h) 22 as h=0. A continuous function actually attains its limit for any value of the variable within the region of continuity, and the variable may be substituted directly.7-8.] FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 15 It may be shown as on p. 14 that any polynomial ax" +ba*-+4.-. [na positive integer. is continuous for every finite value of x. The ordinary functions involving radicals and ratios are continuous only for certain intervals. The trigonometric functions sin z and cosa are continuous for all real finite values of 7; the other trigonometric func- tions are rationally expressible in terms of sine and cosine. Show that tan z is discontinuous when z= 47. The exponential function a and the logarithmic function log # are each continuous, the former for all finite values of a, the latter for all finite positive values of # [D. C., p. 31]. 8. Comparison of simultaneous infinitesimal increments of two related variables. The last few articles were concerned with the principles to be used in comparing any two infini- tesimals. In the illustrations given, the law by which each variable approached zero was assigned, or else the two vari- ables were connected by a fixed relation; and the object was to find the limit of their ratio. The value of this limit gave the relative importance of the infinitesimals. In the present article the particular infinitesimals com- pared are not the principal variables z, y themselves, but simultaneous increments A, & of these variables, as they start out from given values 2,, y, and vary in an assigned manner, as in the familiar instance of the abscissa and ordinate of a given curve. The variables 2, y are then to be replaced by their equiva- lents v,+h, y,+, in which the increments h, & are them- selves variables, and can, if desired, be both made to approach zero as a limit; for since y is supposed to be a continuous16 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. I. function of z, its increment can be made as small as desired by taking the increment of x sufficiently small. The determination of the limit of the ratio of & to h, as h approaches zero, subject to an assigned relation between x and y, is the fundamental problem of the Differential Calculus. £.g., \et the relation be : y=2; let 2, y, be simultaneous values of the variables 2, y; and when zx changes to the value 2,+h, let y change to the value y,+%. Then n=, Artka@QthPrace+2anh+h; hence k=2Qah+ i? This is a relation connecting the increments h, k. Here it is to be observed that the relation between the infinitesimals 4, & is not directly given, but has first to be derived from the known relation between z and y. Let it next be required to compare these simultaneous increments by finding the limit of their ratio when they approach the limit zero. By division, k 77 Qa+h; hence, A =2n,. This result may be expressed in familiar language by saying that when « increases through the value a, then y increases 22, times as much as 2; and thus when z continues8.) FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 17 to increase uniformly, y increases more and more rapidly. For instance, when x passes through the value 4, and y through the value 16, the limit of the ratio of their incre- ments is 8, and hence y is changing 8 times as fast as 7; but when z is passing through 5, and y through 25, the limit of the ratio of their increments is 10, and y is changing 10 times as fast as 2. The following table will numerically illustrate the fact that the ratio of the infinitesimal increments h, & approaches nearer and nearer to some definite limit when h and & both approach the limit zero. ‘ Let 2, the initial value of 2, be 4. Then y,, the initial value of y, is 16. Let A, the increment of zx, be 1. Then &, the corresponding increment of y, is found from. 164+4=(4+h); thus k=9, and £9. Next let A be successively diminished to the values .8, .6, .4, ---. Then the corresponding values of & and of 5 are as shown in the table: wa4th yale+k k z 441 25 9 9 448 23.04 7.04 8.8 44.6 21.16 5.16 8.6 444 19.36 3.36 84 44.2 17.64 1.64 82 44 16.81 81 81 01 16.0801 .0801 . 8.01 44h 164+ 8h +h? 8h +h? 8+h18 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cn. I. Thus the ratio of corresponding increments takes the successive values 8.8, 8.6, 8.4, 8.2, 8.1, 8.01, +, and can be brought as near to 8 as desired by taking small enough. As another example, let the relation between x and y be yur Then y= 28, + 4)? = (+ 1) hence, by expansion and subtraction, Qyk + B= Bah + 32h? + 2, EQn+k) =h(Ba2+ Sah tM), E_da2t3ah+h? h 2y,4+k ‘Therefore lim © = tim 3404+ 82h +™ 4, p20, 20, ih QR+E and, by Art. 4, theorem 8, limé = 342. hoody The “initial values” of a, y, have been written with subscripts to show that only the increments h, k vary during the algebraic process, and also to emphasize the fact that the limit of the ratio of the simultaneous incre- ments depends on the particular values through which the variables are passing, when they are supposed to take these increments. With this understanding the subscripts will hereafter be omitted. Moreover, the increments h, k will, for greater distinctness, be denoted by the symbols Az, Ay, read “increment of 2,” “increment of y.” Ex. 1. If 2+y?= 4%, find im. variables be denoted by z, y, and let the variables take the respective increments Az, Ay, so that their new values ~ + Az, y + Ay shall still satisfy the given relation. Then G@+ Az)? + (y + Ay)? = a? Let the initial values of the8) FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 19 By expansion, and subtraction, 22-Ax+ (Ar)? + 2y-Ay + (Ay)? =0, hence Az (2x4 Ar) =—Ay(@y + dy), . 4 Qe+Ac d Sy BET Or, an a ae Therefore lim Ay__ lim 24+Av__2, At 0A, At =09y4 Ay y The negative sign indicates that when Ax and the ratio z:y are positive, Ay is 7 negative; that is, an increase in x produces , a decrease in y. This may be illustrated geometrically by drawing the circle whose 0 equation is x?+ y? = a? (Fig. 5). Xx Ex.2. Ifz?+y=y?—2a2, lim Ay _ 2242. eee Ar=0Ar Qy-1 Fic. 5. Similarly, when the relation between x and y is given in the explicit functional form y=¢@), then ytAy=¢@+An), and Ay = $(@ +.A2)— $(2) = Ag(2), hence Tim $2 = tim? Eh aO He : ‘When the form of ¢ is given, the limit of this ratio can be evaluated, and expressed as a function of z. This function is then called the derivative of the function $(#) with regard to the independent variable z. The formal definition of the derivative of a function with regard to its variable is given in the next article.20 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. 1. 9. Definition of a derivative. If to a variable a small increment be given, and if the corresponding increment of a continuous function of the variable be determined, then the limit of the ratio of the increment of the function to the increment of the variable, when the latter increment approaches the limit zero, is called the derivative of the function as to the variable. If $(«) be a finite and continuous function of z, and Ar a small increment given to 2, then the derivative of @(a) as to x is = {tereo= o(x) } — lim Ad@) aes Ae = ar=0- Ay It is important to distinguish between Tin S62) and iE lim A$@) , that is, between the limit of the ratio of two lim Ax infinitesimals and the ratio of their limits. The latter is indeterminate of the form ; and may have any value; but the former has usually a determinate value, as illustrated in the examples of the last article. EXERCISES 1. Find the derivative of z?- 22 as to z. 2. Find the derivative of 32?- 42+ 3 as toz. 3. Find the derivative of 2 as to a. 4. Find the derivative of 22+ 3 as tox. x 10. Geometrical illustrations of a derivative. Some con- ception of the meaning and use of a derivative will be afforded by one or two geometrical illustrations. Let y=¢(z) be a function of x that remains finite and continuous for all values of 2 between certain assigned con-9-10.] FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 21 stants a and 6; and let the variables 2, y be taken as the rectangular codrdinates of a moving point. Then the rela- tion between x and y is represented graphically, within the assigned bounds of continuity, by the curve whose equation is y=). Let (2, ¥1), (%q Ya) be the codrdinates of two points P,, P,, on this curve. Then it is evident that the ratio YI tT 7% is equal to tana, wherein @ is the inclination angle of the secant line P,P, to the z-axis. Let P, be moved nearer and nearer to coincidence with P,, so that 2,2, y,=y,. Then the secant line P,P, approaches nearer and nearer to coinci- dence with the tangent line drawn at the point P,, and the inclination-angle « of the secant approaches as a limit the inclination angle ¢ of the tangent line. Hence, P, (ao) 1B (294) tan a= tan ¢. ARTY: " 1 |_—_________x Thus mot tan ¢, when %=2), Y,= 4}. It may be observed that if 2, be put directly equal to a, and y, to y,, the ratio on the left would, in general, assume the indeterminate form i: as in other cases of finding the limit of the ratio of two infinitesimals; but it has just been shown that the ratio of the infinitesimals y,— y,, % — 2, has, nevertheless, a determinate limit, viz., tan ¢.22 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS iCu. 1. They are thus infinitesimals of the same order except when ¢ is 0 or a If the differences z,— 24, y,—y, be denoted by Az, Ay, then Uy = 21+ Az, y= y, + Ay; but, since y=$@), it follows that I= OC) Yo=P(%)s hence the ratio of the simultaneous increments may be written in the various forms Ay _ 92-9) _ $@1)— OC) _ (4, + At) — @) At t,— 2, U_— 2y Ax In the last form 2 is regarded as the independent variable and Az as its independent increment; the numerator is the increment of the function $(x), caused by the change of x from the value 2, to the value z,+Az. The limit of this ratio, as Aa = 0, is the value of the derivative of the function ¢() when x has the value 2, Here 2, stands for any assigned value of x. Thus the derivative of any continuous function $(x) is another function of « which measures the slope of the tangent to the curve y=¢(#), drawn at the point whose abscissa is 2. Ex. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y= at the point (1, 2). * —_2___2 _ tim @+Ame Here tan d= An£0 Ag = lim —2@2+Az)__ 4 ~ Ae =O 72(z + Ax)? 210.) FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 23 Hence tan ¢ = — 4, when z = 1; and the equation of the tangent line at the point (1, 2) is y-2=~-4(¢-1). As another illustration, if the codrdinates of P be (a, y), and those of Q, (a+ Az, y+Ay), then * MN=PR=Az, and PS=RQ=Ay. Y| If the area OAPM be denoted by Se z, then z is evidently some function LOR of the abscissaz; alsoif areaOAQN 4 be denoted by z+Az, then the x area MNQP is Az; it is the incre- 9 uN Fie. 7. ment taken by the function z, when a takes the increment Az. But MNQP lies between the rectangles MR, MQ; hence yhau < hz <(y + Ay)Az, Az d —< Ay. an y< Ra ~! + Ay Therefore, when Az, Ay, Az all approach zero, lim acne y Ax Thus, if the ordinate and the area be each expressed as a function of the abscissa, the derivative of the area function with regard to the abscissa is equal to the ordinate function. Ex. If the area included between a curve, the axis of x, and the ordinate whose abscissa is x, be given by the equation z= 2, find the equation of the curve. a Az lim (+ Az)?~- 2% Here =lim= nu got Nn AZ =O Ac = 2 2+ 3 2Az + (Azx)*]= 3.2%24 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. L 11 The operation of differentiation. It has been seen in a number of examples that when the operation indicated by lim $(e+Az)— $(2) Ar=0 Agr is performed on a given function ¢(x), the result of the operation is another function of x. The latter function may have properties similar to those of $(«), or it may be of an entirely different class. The operation above indicated is for brevity denoted by the symbol = and the resulting derivative function by ¢'(x); thus, dp(z)_ lim AG@)_ lim $(@+Ar)—$(@) _ yy dg = Ar£0~ Ag =Ar=0 Az =¢'(@). The process of performing this indicated operation is called the differentiation of $(x) with regard to x The symbol * 4, when spoken of separately, is called the differ- y’ da y entiating operator, and expresses that any function written after it is to be differentiated with regard to x, just as the symbol cos prefixed to $(#) indicates that the latter is to have a certain operation performed upon it, namely, that of finding its cosine. The process of differentiating ¢(x) consists of the follow- ing steps: 1. Give a small increment to the variable. 2. Compute the resulting increment of the function. 8. Divide the increment of the function by the increment of the variable. 4. Obtain the limit of this quotient as the increment of the variable approaches zero. * This symbol is sometimes replaced by the single letter D.11-12.] FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 25 EXERCISES Find the derivatives of the following functions : 1. 5y®—2y 4+ 6astoy. 3. 8ue—4u+ 10 as to2u. 27f-41-lUastot. 4. 22%-5rtGastor—3. This process will be applied in the next chapter to all the classes of functions whose continuity within certain inter- vals has been pointed out in Art. 7. It will be found that for each of them a derivative function exists; that is, that Ad(z) Ar curve y= (2) has a definite tangent within the range of continuity of the function. lim has a determinate and unique value, and that the A few curious functions have been devised, which are continuous and yet possess no definite derivative; but they do not present themselves in any of the ordinary applications of the Calculus. Again, there are a few functions for which tim 9$@) has a certain value when Az =0 from the positive side, and a different value when Az +0 from the negative side; the derivative is then said to be non-wnique. Functions that possess a unique derivative within an as- signed interval are said to be differentiable in that interval. Ex. Show that the four steps of p. 24 do not apply at a discontinuity. 12. Increasing and decreasing functions. A good example of the use of the derivative is its application to finding the intervals of increasing or decreasing for a given function. A function is called an increasing function if it increases as the variable increases and decreases as the variable de- creases. A function is called a decreasing function if it decreases as the variable increases, and increases as the variable decreases. E.g., the function z? + 4 decreases as x increases from — © to 0, but it increases as x increases from 0 to +o. Thus 2? +4 is a decreasing26 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. 1 function while z is negative, and an increasing function while z is posi- tive. This is well shown by the locus of the equation y=2?+4 (Fig. 8). Yy Fie. 8. Fia. 9. Again, the form of the curve y =i shows that : is a decreasing func- tion, as z passes from — to 0, and also a decreasing function, as z passes from 0 to +. When passes through 0, the function changes discontinuously from the value — « to the value + (Fig. 9). v Most functions are increasing functions for some values of the variable, and decreas- ing functions for others. Eg. V2re—< is an increasing function from z= 0 toz=r, and a decreasing function from x = r to z = 2r (Fig. 10). A function is,said to be an increasing or decreasing func- tion in the vicinity of a given value of x according as it increases or decreases as 2 increases through a small interval including this value.12-18.) FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 27 13. Algebraic test of the intervals of increasing and de- creasing. Let y= (2) be a function of 2, and let it be real, continuous, and differentiable for all values of z from a to d. Then by definition y is increasing or decreasing at a point w= 2,, according as $@ + Az)— $@) is positive or negative, where Az is a small positive number. The sign of this expression is not changed if it be divided by Az, no matter how small Az may be; hence ¢$(#) is an increasing or a decreasing function at the value 2, accord- mgs yk 2, + Ae) — $1 im 2) — b(a, _ en fe {PG tA SG) } _ oa, is positive or negative. Thus the intervals in which ¢(2) is an increasing function are the same as the intervals in which ¢'(z) is positive. Ex. Find the intervals in which the function p(x) = 228-9224 122-6 is increasing or decreasing. The derivative is f(z) = 62? — 182 +12 = 6(¢ —1)(z — 2); hence, as z passes from — © to 1, the derived function ¢!(2), is positive and (2) increases from @(—~ ) to $(1), ie., from p=—o to p=—1; as x passes from 1 to 2, $/(x) is negative, and $(z) decreases from (1) to $(2), te, from —1 to —2; and as = passes from 2 to +, ¢$'(2) is positive, and ¢(z) increases from (2) to p(o), ie, from —2 to +o. The locus of the equation y=d(z) is shown in Fig. 11. At points where ¢'(z)=0, the function (x) is neither increasing nor decreasing. At such points the tangent is parallel to the axis of x. Thus in this illustration, at z=1, «= 2, the tangent is parallel to the z-axis. Fre. 11.28 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS [Cu. 1. EXERCISES 1. Find the intervals of increasing and decreasing for the function bz) B22 +22%°+2-4. Here $e) =3 2 + 4241=(3241)(e41). The function increases from x to « =—}; increases from r= —o tor ftor=o. — 1; decreases from « =— 1 2. Find the intervals of increasing and decreasing for the function y=O—Iet+e—4, and show where the curve is parallel to the x-axis. 3. At how many points can the slope of the tangent to the curve y=2e8— 32241 be 1? —1? Find the points. 4. Compute the angle at which the following curves intersect : y=3e—1, ya 2at+3 14. Differentiation of a function of a function. Suppose that y, instead of being given directly as a function of 2, is expressed as a function of another variable u, which is itself expressed as a function of 2 Let it be required to find the derivative of y with regard to the independent variable x. Let y=f(u), in which w is a function of x When x changes to the value 2+ Az, let wu and y, under the given relations, change to the values u+Au, y+Ay. Then Ay _ S(ut+ Au)—f@ , Aw, Ax re a Au Az hence, equating limits, dy _ dy du _df(u) , du13-14.] FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 29 This result may be stated as follows: The derivative of a function of u with regard to x is equal to the product of the derivative of the function with regard to u, and the derivative of u with regard to x. EXERCISES 1. Given y=3u?—1, u= 82244; find #. ie dy _ du ame ia ae dy _ dy du_ geo. e Se on 2. Given y=3u?—4u45,u=229—5; fina 2. 3. Given y=t, uxBat— 2244; fina $2. a xt 3s fina 22. Fi 1 4 Given y= 3u2+ PeeCHAPTER II DIFFERENTIATION OF THE ELEMENTARY FORMS In recent articles, the meaning of the symbol a was ex- plained and illustrated; and a method of expressing its value, as a function 2, was exemplified, in cases in which y was a simple algebraic function of x, by direct use of the definition. This method is not always the most convenient one in the differentiation of more complicated functions. The present chapter will be devoted to the establishment of some general rules of differentiation which will, in many eases, save the trouble of going back to the definition. The next five articles treat of the differentiation of alge- braic functions and of algebraic combinations of other differ- entiable functions. 15. Differentiation of the product of a constant and a variable. Let y= cn. Then ytAy=c@+Az), Ay = c(a+ Ax) — cx = cAz, Ay _.. Ac? therefore _ og, dx 30Cu, II. 15-16.] DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTARY FORMS 31 Cor. If y=eu, where uw is a function of 2, then, by Art. 14, dou) _ du da “da @) The derivative of the product of a constant and a variable is equal to the constant multiplied by the derivative of the variable. 16. Differentiation of a sum. Let y=F@)+E@+¥@)- Then y+Ay=f@+Az)+ d+ Axr)+ v@ + Az), Ay _f@+A2)—-f@) , 6@+Az)— $@) Ax Ax Ax 4g Vet As)— Ho), Ax Therefore, by equating the limits of both members, ae =f'(z)+P'@)+yl(x). [Art. 8, Th. 5. Cor. 1. If y=u+v+uw, in which wu, v, w are functions f av, th rian du dv, dw, d gg tetw)= dae’ dat dx (2) The derivative of the sum of a finite number of functions is equal to the sum of their derivatives. Cor. 2. If y=u+te, c being a constant, then ytAy=uthute; hence, Ay =Au, and . dy _du dx dx The last equation asserts that all functions which differ from each other only by an additive constant have the same derivative.82 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cn. I. Geometrically, the addition of a constant has the effect of moving the curve y= u(z) parallel to the y axis; this opera- tion will obviously not change the slope at points that have the same z. , dy _du , de F 2), SZ SN oe; MED, dx dx" dx’ but from the fourth equation above, dy _ du, dx dx’ hence, it follows that de _ 0. dx The derivative of a constant is zero. If the number of functions be infinite, theorem 5 of Art. 3 may not apply; that is, the limit of the sum may not be equal to the sum of the limits, and hence the derivative of the sum may not be equal to the sum of the derivatives. Thus the derivative of an infinite series cannot always be found by differentiating it term by term. 17. Differentiation of a product. Let y=f@)O@)- then AY LS @HADS@t Aa) —F@)$C), Az Ax By subtracting and adding f(7)¢(#+ Az) in the numer- ator, this result may be rearranged thus: Ay f(e+Az)—f@) $@+Az)— o(z), Rg = OC + Ax) nS +f@) Aa Now let Az approach zero, using Art.’ 8, theorems 5, 6, and noting that the first factor 6(# + Az) approaches $(x) since by hypothesis $(x) is continuous (Art. 7). Then WW ga fw) +f@#@)-16-18.] DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTARY FORMS 88 Cor. 1. By writing u=¢(x), v=f(@), this result can be more concisely written, LO) «BP 4 pM. 8) The derivative of the product of two functions is equal to the sum of the products of the first factor by the derivative of the second, and the second factor by the derivative of the first. This rule for differentiating a product of two functions may be stated thus: Differentiate the product, treating the first factor as constant, then treating the second factor as constant, and add the two results. Cor. 2. To find the derivative of the product of three functions uvw. Let y = uw. By (3), dy _ wt (ws) + wT a dx = o edt ait) si The result may be written in the form teeevne) ww eo +ew +wu = ® By application of the same process to the product of 4, 5, ++, n functions, the following rule is at once deduced: The derivative of the product of any finite number of facters is equal to the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the derivative of each factor by all the other factors. 18. Differentiation of a quotient. _f@, Let day Then yt Ay = Let 42) o@+Azy’34 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cn. U1. f@tAz)_ f@ Ay _d@+Ax) $@) Az Ax _$@)f (e+ Ax)—f @)bC@ +A2). Ar g(a)o@ + Ax) By subtracting and adding $(#)f(x) in the numerator, this expression may be written Ay $(z) {fe + A) F@) } —f(z) {oeree— $@) } Ax S@)$@ + Aa) Hence, by equating limits, dy _ $(2)f'(@)—-F@4¢'@), de eee [Art. 3, Ths. 6, 7. This result may be written in the briefer form ott - ut d(u dx dx £()-2;8 o The derivative of a fraction, the quotient of two functions, is equal to the denominator multiplied by the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator multiplied by the derivative of the denominator, divided by the square of the denominator. 19. Differentiation of a commensurable power of a function. Let y =u", in which w is a function of z Then there are three cases to consider. 1. na positive integer. 2. na negative integer. 8. na commensurable fraction. 1. na positive integer. This is a particular case of (4), the factors w, », w, ++ all being equal. Thus BY ye de de18-19.) DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTARY FORMS 35 2. na negative integer. Let » =— m, in which m is a positive integer. Then m=1 and wy ae . oa by (5), and Case (1) =— myn du, GY = ny MH, hence de ae 38. na commensurable fraction. Let n=f, where p, g are both integers, which may be either positive or negative. P Then you au; hence yaw, ad d * =_ =—_ PY: ae 5 Y= 5 ws i di tery gy y = pw a Solving for the required derivative, dy _pygidu. dx q dx’ hence ae =nun-1 ce 6) The derivative of any commensurable power of a function is equal to the exponent of the power multiplied by the power with its exponent diminished by unity, multiplied by the derivative of the function. * If two functions be identical, their derivatives are identical.36 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. IL These theorems will be found sufficient for the differentia- tion of any function that involves only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and involu- tion in which the exponent is an integer or commensurable fraction. The following examples will serve to illustrate the theo- rems, and will show the combined application of the general forms (1) to (6). ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 322— y= T4T aT ee ag csyten-»-aa-n tea dy _ dz dz by (5) dz @+iez y 432 -2=4 32-4 (9 by (2 £62-=£62-2@) 7 (2) =62. by (1), (6) 2@+yeHa1 by @) Substitute these results in the expression for $2. Then dy _ (a+ 162-222) _ 32246242 dx (@+1)? («+ 1)? 2. w= (859+ 2)VI 4 583; fina du (394. 0)4 Vigaeavitos. 2(35242). by (8) ds ds ds avivss= fa +59 =hassytLatsey — by (6) 5s vVid58 feet 2) =6s. by (6)19.) DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTARY FORMS 387 Substitute these values in the expression for a, ‘Then ds du_58G842) yg vppepa set 1s ds VIi458 vit ie vite + VI-#, 9 ate vVi¢2-VvV1l-2 First, as a quotient, (Wire vine) 2 (vias Vina) A 3. y= ay dz (V142— V1=22)2 (VIF 4 VI-a®) L(vi¢ 8 VI-a) xo by (5 (V1 4 2 =— VI —23)? a 4 (vie e+ Vine) =“ vig 4vITe by (2) dz dz dz a ag tl hd 4viye-4a4mt=la+ayttay. fvige=ta+micla+yitays. by © Za ta) a2e, . by (2) and (63 Similarly for the other terms. Combining the results, dy_ =? \. = a Ex. 3 may also be worked by first rationalizing the denominator. EXERCISES Find the x-derivatives of the following functions: 1 yao, a 2 yar, 8 3. y=evz. 9. y= SS 8/5 _— 4. y= 2% 10. y= (2+ 1) Veto vs ne y= ate. a Va+VE 6 y= ". vata) we. y= 7 y=m+ar JEN 838 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. I. Bad +2 (a8 + yt 20. y = 3(z2 + 1)84. 22 8). 21. y=3u2-7. 19. y= a v 14. y= (abs chy Vabs ol 15. y= a" ig To at 22. y=4u8— Gu? + 12u—3. 23. y =(1-3 u246 wt)(1 4-02), 16. y= 24, y= uz. 17. y= 25. y =u? + Bau2+ zt, 26. '= Gia 1 1 a x is. y=—!_ ._1 Gia Grp 27, y = wav. 28, Given (a + x)® = a5 + 5 atx + 10 a8? + 10 0228 + Saat + x5; find (a + x)‘ by differentiation. 29. Show that the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 2° is never negative. Show where the slope increases or decreases. 30. Given B%? + ay? = a, find &. (1) by differentiating as to 2; (2) by differentiating as to y; (3) by solving for y and differentiating as toa. Compare the results of the three methods. 31. Show that form (1), p. 31, is a special case of (8). 32, At what point of the curve y? = az* is the slope0? -—1? +41? 33. Trace the curve y= 22 43224+a2—-1. aa, yo BET ViwT 5 _ 85. At what angle do the curves y? = 127 and y? 4 224 62—63=0 intersect ? and u=52?—1; find & de 20. Elementary transcendental functions. The following functions are called transcendental func- tions: Simple exponential functions, consisting of a constant number raised to a power whose exponent is variable, as 4%, a”;19-21.] DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTARY FORMS 39 general exponential functions, involving a variable raised to a power whose exponent is variable, as 27; the logarithmic * functions, as log, 7, log, w; the incommensurable powers of a variable, as a ur; the trigonometric functions, as sin u, cos u; the inverse trigonometric functions, as sin-! w, tan~! There are still other transcendental functions, but they will not be considered in this book. The next four articles treat of the logarithmic, the two exponential functions, and the incommensurable power. 21. Differentiation of log, # and log, w. Let y =logax Then y + Ay =log,(@+ Az), Ay _ log. («+ Az) — logax Az Av 7 1, 242) AS Oa z . For convenience mes h for Az, and rearranging, Ay _ Ar « 0 (ts) dy _ 1 pe om whence in ae “ +5 . * The more general logarithmic function log, w is not classified separately, as it can be reduced to the quotient pet.40 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. 1. z Ti To evaluate the expression (1 +4) when A= 0, expand it by the binomial theorem, supposing A to be a large positive integer m. The expansion may be written (42y Laem Ly minaV), 1, m(m—1)Gm—2), 1 7) aia norte 1-2-8 mat which can be put in the form (143)- 10-5) 10-3)0-3) t4+14+7—g— +75 ae Now as m becomes very large, the terms —, +» become m very small, and when m =o the series oe the limit 1 1 1 l+ltyt+y+qt~ The numerical value of this limit can be readily calculated to any desired approximation. ‘Chis number is an important constant, which is denoted by the letter e, and is equal to 2.7182818 ---; thus ae hs tm (1+ AY" ae =2.7192818 ...* The number e¢ is known as the natural or Naperian base ; and logarithms to this base are called natural. or Naperian logarithms. Natural logarithms will be written without a * This method of obtaining e is rather too brief to be rigorous ; it assumes that = is a positive integer, but that is equivalent to restricting Ax to z approach zero in a particular way. It also applies the theorems of limits to the sum and product of an infinite number of terms. The proof is completed on p. 315 of McMahon and Snyder’s ‘ Differential Calculus.”21-22.) DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTARY FORMS 41 subscript, as logz; in other bases a subscript, as in log,2, will generally be used to designate the base. The logarithm of e to any base a is called the modulus of the system whose base is a. z If the value, ; lim (142) =e, be substituted in the ex- pression for oy, the result is dx dy 1 Gnas log,e. More generally, by Art. 14, a =i, du, ae loge U = a loga € de @ In the particular case in which a =e, @ jong —1 au, ata oo ae ®) The derivative of the. logarithm of a funetion is the product of the derivative of the function and the modulus of the system of logarithms, divided by the function. 22. Differentiation of the simple exponential function. Let y=a". Then log y =u loga. Differentiating both members of this identity as to 2, ie loga- es, by form (8), aU loga-y- a, therefore far = = loga-at- ee oS In the particular case in which a=e, (10)42 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - (Cu. IL. \ The derivative of an exponential function with a constant base is equal to the product of the function, the natural logarithm of the base, and the derivative of the exponent. 23. Differentiation of the general exponential function. Let you, in which u, v are both functions of 2. Take the logarithm of both sides, and differentiate. Then log y= v log u, Eig aeh log u +2%, -by forms (3), (8), yde dx dy dv, vdu = yl | ee af! osu. dx as u ae; therefore hue =u" log u aw + our 1, (1) The derivative of an exponential function in which the base is also a variable is obtained by first differentiating, regarding the base as constant, and again, regarding the exponent as constant, and adding the results. In the differentiation of any given function of this form it is usually better not to substitute in the formula directly but to apply the method just used in deriving (11), ie., to differentiate the logarithm of the function by the preceding rules. Ex. y=(422— 7) ve, fina 24 ber 1D gto 7). ldy_ ydr Vani ay <4 ge TF log (4 2% — 7) se 4vi = 8). dx a vat 5 427 q log (40? — D+O+VA= apes =22-24.) DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTARY FORMS 43 24. Differentiation of an incommensurable power. Let in which n is an incommensurable constant. you, Then logy =n log wu, Ls yde ou dx’ 4y au de ude’ 4 yr any, dx dx This has the same form as (6), so that the qualifying word “commensurable” of Art. 19 can now be omitted. EXERCISES Find the z derivatives of the following functions: 1. y= log (z+ a). 16. yao . 2. y= log (ax +b). @ 3. y= log (422-7242). 1 Y=Te 4 y= logit 2. 18. y=e(1— 2). 5. y= log lt 19. y= » Y= 8 8 e+e* 6. y=xlogz. 20. y = log (e* - e-*). 7. y= wloge 21. y= log (x + e*). 8 y = 2 loga”, 22, y= oar 9. y= log Vina 23, y= log VA+V2, 10. y = Vz— log (Vz +1). a = log, (3 22— V2¥2). 2 Y= 12. y= log) (22+ 72). 25. y = (log x)*. 13. y = log,a. 26. y = log (log x). 27, 28. y=44, DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. IL. The following functions can be easily differentiated by first taking the logarithms of both members of the equations. 21h 31. y= 204). 29. yo—@-y’ + vi-v (2-2)8@-a)t 32. y= (a + 82)%(a — 22) 30. y=a2vI—a(1+2). 33, y= Vt O?* Vi-—a Articles 25-31 will treat of the differentiation of the Trigonometric Functions. 25. Differentiation of sin w. Let y=sinu. Then Ay _ = sin (u + Aw)— sinu Au Ax Au Ax = 2cos$(2u+ Au)sind Au Aw Au Ax = 1 sin} Au | Aw, cos(u + $Au) - 2 au Ae But, when Au = 0, cos(u + 4Au)= cosu, and ee =1 by Art. 6; hence, passing to the limit, a ad du ° qu sin =cosu a (12) The derivative of the sine of a function is equal to the prod- uct of the cosine of the function and the derivative of the Sunetion. 26. Differentiation of cos w. Let ¥ = 00su= sin($— «)- Bie) Then de Zain w= cos(5 \s uw), eos u=—sin ue (18)24-28.] DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTARY FORMS 45 The derivative of the cosine of a function is equal to minus the product of the sine of the function and the derivative of the funetion. 27. Differentiation of tan w. Let y=tanu= a cos u a cosu-Zsinw —sinw- 2 cose Y ad zs 7 costar M4 gintay . 2H du _ dx dx dx 12), (13 _ Costu ~ cost uy? (12), 8) . a o,, du that is, aa" = Ue a4) The derivative of the tangent of a function is equal to the product of the square of the secant of the function and the derivative of the function. 28. Differentiation of cot w. 1 Let =cotu= . © Y= Olu nt dy -1 a secu du t = = 6 14 ano dx tantu dz ane =~ Tana da’ (6), G4) ad du qa (Olu = — ese u ae (15) The derivative of the cotangent of a function is equal to minus the product of the square of the cosecant of the function and the derivative of the function.46 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (Cu. 11. 29. Differentiation of sec w. Let y = secu dy sin u du Then = cota de dx cos? u da’ dad = du, .. ag OU = tan w see we Te (6) The derivative of the secant of a function is equal to the product of the secant of the function, the tangent of the func- tion, and the derivative of the function. 30. Differentiation of csc w. Let y=cscu= a sin w fF di -1 ida. cosu du Then YY _ = »-“*sinu=— = oe dx sin?u dx sin? u dz # csew=— ese u cot u 2. qd?) da dx The derivative of the cosecant of a function is equal to minus the product of the cosecant of the function, the cotangent of the Sunetion, and the derivative of the function. 31. Differentiation of vers w. Let y = versu =1— cosu. ‘Then au =— < cos U. d = sin &. da vers U = sin w a (1g) The derivative of the versed-sine of a function is equal to the product of the sine of the function and the derivative of the function.29-32.] DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTARY FORMS 47 EXERCISES Find the « derivatives of the following functions: L. y=sin7x. 18. y = sin (u + 6) cos (u — 8). 2. y=cosba. 19. y= sin" nz 3. y=sinz’. cos" mx 4, y=sin2x cosa. 20. y= 2+ log cos( 2 5. y=sin'x, 6. y=sind2%, 22. y= log VF 7. y= sin? 72, 22. y = sin (sinu). 8. y =} tan?s— tan. 23, y = sin®e*, 9. y=sin®zcosz. 24, y=sine®-loga. 10. y = tanz + secz. 25. y=Vame. Ll. y = sin? (1 — 22%)% 26. y= xin, ek el ee 27. y = csc?4z. 13. y = tan?x — log (sec? x). 28. y = sec (42 — 8)% 14. y= log tan (42+ }7). 29, y = vers 2°. 15, y = log os va. 30. y = cota? + see Vz. 16. y=tana®. 31. y=sin zy. 17. y= sinnzsin® 2. 82, y= tan(*+y). 32. Differentiation of sin-!w. Let y =sinu. Then siny =u, and, by differentiating both members of this identity, dy _ de, SIT ~ dx’ di ‘1 du 1 du h dy 1_ dui, a dx cosyde 4VI— sin?y dx f I 1 d Tbr 2 sinew = + x = a The ambiguity of sign accords with the fact that sin“ w is a many-valued function of w, since, for any value of u be-