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UNIVERSITY
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MATHEMATICS
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000425987
DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS
• • •

ATLANTA - SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited

LONDON • BOMBAY CALCUTTA
•

MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.
TORONTO.
DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

BY

CLYDE E. LOVE, Ph.D.

ASSISTANT PKOFBSSOK OF MATHEMATICS IK THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

MATHEMAV.C3 LiERARY

JANlA 2S77

NetD gfltfe

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1916

All righU reserved *

 COPTBIGHT, 1916,

^T/ftV MACMILLAN OOMPANT.

Set up and elcctrotypcd. Published September, 1916.

Nottnooti ^ttet
J. 8. Cashing Co. —Berwick &'8mlth Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
 PREFACE
This book presents a first course in the calculus sub-
stantially as the author has taught it at the University of
Michigan for a number of years. The following points
may be mentioned as more or less prominent features of
the book.
In the treatment of each topic, the text is intended to
contain a precise statement of the fundamental principle
involved, and to insure the student's clear understanding
of this principle, without distracting his attention by the
discussion of a multitude of details. The accompanying
exercises are intended to present the problem in hand in
a great variety of forms and guises, and to train the stu-
dent in adapting the general methods of the text to fit
these various forms. The constant aim is to prevent the
work from degenerating into mere mechanical routine, as
it so often tends to do. Wherever possible, except in the
purely formal parts of the course, the summarizing of the
theory into rules or formulas which can be applied blindly
has been avoided. For instance, in the chapter on geo-
metric applications of the definite integral, stress is laid
on the fact that the basic formulas are those of elemen-
tary geometry, and special formulas involving a coordinate
system are omitted.
Where the passage from theory to practice would be
too difficult for the average student, worked examples are
inserted.
It seems clear that so-called applications in which the
student is made to use a formula without explanation of
VI PREFACE

its meaning and derivation, are of little value. In the

present text the non-geometric applications are taken sys-
tematically from one subject, mechanics, and the theory
is developed as fully as in the calculus proper.
A feature of the. book is its insistence on the importance
of checking the results of exercises, either directly or by
solving in more than one way. The latter method is

largely used in the integral calculus, on account of the

variety of elementary transformations possible with defi-
nite integrals.
The answers to many of the exercises are given, but
seldom where a knowledge of the answer would help in
the solution, or where a simple means of checking the
answer exists.
Topics of minor importance are presented in such a way
that they may be omitted if it is desired to give a short
course.
The chapter on curve tracing is introduced as early as
possible, so that the results are available for use through-
out the course.
Some instructors will wish to begin the use of integral
tables immediately after the chapters on formal integra-
tion. This of course can easily be done.
In spite of obvious
difficulties, a chapter embodying a
firsttreatment of centroids and moments of inertia is
introduced before multiple integrals have been defined.
By this arrangement the student is brought to realize
the fact that in most cases of practical importance mass-
moments and second orders can be found by
of the first
simple integration, whereas from the usual treatment he
gets exactly the opposite idea.
In the chapters on differential equations, emphasis is
laid on those types most likely to be met by the student
of engineering or the mathematical sciences. In the last
chapter the average student will doubtless require con-
 PREFACE vu

siderable help from the instructor, but it is hoped that,

if properly presented, the chapter may give the student
some and solving the simpler differen-
facility in writing
tial equations of mechanics and in interpreting the results.

To Professor Alexander Ziwet, who has read the entire

manuscript, the author makes grateful acknowledgment,
not only for valuable advice and criticism, but for his
unfailing encouragement and suppoi't. Thanks are also
due to Professor T. H. Hildebrandt, who has kindly
assisted in reading the proofs, and has made a number of
useful suggestions.

CLYDE E. LOVE.
Ann Arbor,
August, 1916.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

FUNCTIONS. LIMITS. CONTINUITY

AET. PAGE
1. Functions 1
2. Geometric representation 2
3. Independent variable 3
4. Kinds of functions 3
5. One-valued and many-valued functions . . . . 3
6. Rate of change slope
;
5
7. Limits g
8. Theorems on limits 7
9. Limit of a function 8
10.
11.
12.
Infinitesimals
Limit of the ratio of
Continuity
two infinitesimals .... 8
8
10
13. Infinity 11
14. Function with infinite argument 12

CHAPTER II

THE DERIVATIVE
15. The derivative .14
16. Higher derivatives 18

CHAPTER III

DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

17. Introduction 19 •

18. Derivative of a constant (19

19.
20.
Derivative of a sum ; a product
Derivative of a function of a function
; a quotient ... 19
21
ix
 CONTENTS
ART. PAGE
21. Derivative of a;", 71 a positive integer 22
22. Derivative of n fractional
a;", 24
The general power foi-mula 24
23.
24. Implicit functions .... .

26
26
25.
26. Inverse functions ....
Differentiation of implicit functions
27

CHAPTER IV
GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS
27. Tangents and normals to curves 29
28. Length of tangent, subtangent, normal, and subnormal . 30
29.
30.
31.
Increasing and decreasing functions
Maxima and minima
Concavity
........ 32
33
33
Points of inflection 35
32.
33.
34.
Summary of tests for
Applications of
maxima and minima,
maxima and minima
...
.....
etc. 35
37
35. Derived curves 42

CHAPTER V
DIFFERENTIATION OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
I. Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
36. Trigonometric functions 45
37. Differentiation of sin x . 46
38. Limit of sin o-lo. as a approaches 47
39. Differentiation of cos x, tan x, etc. 48
40. Inverse trigonometric functions 51
41. Restriction to a single branch 51
42. Differentiation of the inverse trigonometric functions 53

II. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

43. Exponentials and logarithms 55
44. Properties of logarithms 57
45. The derivative of the logarithm 58
46.
47.
48.
The limit e

Differentiation of the exponential function

Hyperbolic functions
.... .
60
62
64
 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER VI
THE DIFFERENTIAL
AET. PAaE
49. Order of infinitesimals 68
The
50.
51.
diilerential
Parametric equations ; implicit functions .... 69
72

CHAPTER VII

CURVATURE
52. Differential of arc 75
53. Curvature . . . ' 76
54. Radius of curvature 78

CHAPTER VIII

APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE IN

MECHANICS
55.
56.
Velocity and acceleration in rectilinear motion
Vectors ... ... 80
82
57. Velocity in curvilinear motion 82
58. Rotation 83
59. Acceleration in curvilinear motion 85
60. Time-rates 88

CHAPTER IX
CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES
I. Algebraic Curves

61. Introduction 92
62.
63.
64.
Singular points .

Kinds of singular points

.

Determination of tangents by inspection

:

.... 92
93
95
65. Asymptotes 97
66. Exceptional cases 101
67. General directions for tracing algebraic curves . . . 101
xii CONTENTS

n. Transcendental Curves
PAGE
68. Tracing of transcendental curves
69. Curve tracing by composition of ordinates
70. Graphic solution of equations
.... 105
106
107
71. The cycloid 108
72. The epicycloid 109
73. The hypocycloid 110

CHAPTER X
CURVE TRACING IN POLAR COORDINATES
74. Slope of a curve in polar coordinates 112
75'. Maxima and minima 114
76. Curve tracing 114

CHAPTER XI
THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
77. Integration 116
78. Integration an indirect process 118
79. Constant of integration 118
Functions having the same derivative
80.
81.
82.
Geometric interpretation of an integral
Variable of integration
.... 119
120
122
83. Change of the variable of integration 122
84. Integration by substitution 123

CHAPTER XII

STANDARD FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION

85. Standard formulas 126
86. Formulas (l)-(3) 127
87. Formula (4) Powers
: . .
•
127
88. Formulas (5)-(6) Logarithms and exponentials
: . . 129
89. Formulas (7)-(9) Trigonometric functions
: . . . 181
90. Formulas (lO)-(ll) Inverse trigonometric functions
: . 132
91. Formula (12) Integration by parts
: 132
92. Integration by substitution 134
 CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER XIII

INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS

ART. PiSB
93. Preliminary step 137
94. Partial fractions 137
95. Distinct linear factors 137
96. Repeated linear factors 139
97. Quadratic factors 140

CHAPTER XIV
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL
98. The definite integral 143
99. Geometric interpretation of a definite integral . . . 144
100. Interchanging limits 145
101. Change of limits corresponding to a change of variable . 145

'
CHAPTER XV
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS THE LIMIT OF
A SUM
102. Area under a curve 148
103. Evaluation of the limit 150
104. The fundamental theorem 150
105. Plane areas in cartesian coordinates 151
106. Plane areas in polar coordinates 154
107.
108.
109.
Volumes
Volumes
A
of revolution
of revolution second method
theorem on infinitesimals
: .... 156
157
158
110. Other volumes 161
111. Line integrals 163
112. Geometric interpretation of the line integral
113. Fundamental theorem for line integrals
114. Evaluation of line integrals
.... . . . 164
165
165
115. Length of a curvilinear arc 167
116. Surfaces of revolution 168
117. Cylindrical surfaces 170
xiv CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVI
INTEGRAL TABLES
ART. PAGE
118. Use of tables 172

CHAPTER XVII
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
119. Definitions 175
120. Geometric interpretation 177

CHAPTER XVIII
CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA
I. Centeoids
121. Mass; density 179
122. Moment of mass 180
123. Centroid 180
124.
125.
126.
Centroids of geometrical figures
Determination of centroids by integration
Centroids of plane areas
.... 182
183
185
127. Centroids of volumes 187
128. Centroids of lines 188
129. Centroids of curved surfaces 189

11. Moments of Inertia

130. Moment of inertia 190
131. Radius of gyration 190
Determination of moment of inertia by integration
132.
133. Moment of inertia with respect to a plane ....
....
. . 190
194
134.
135.
General theorems on moments of inertia
Kinetic energy of a rotating body ..... 195
198

CHAPTER XIX
LAW OF THE MEAN. EVALUATION OF LIMITS
136. theorem
Rolle's 200
137. The law of the mean 200
138. Other forms of the law of the mean 201
 CONTENTS XV
AST. PAGE

139. The indeterminate forms -,- . . . . . .202

00

The indeterminate forms —

140.
141.
•

General remarks on evaluation of limits

oo, oo oo

....
. . . . 204
206

CHAPTER XX
INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM
I. Series of Constant Terms

142. Series of n terms 209

143. Infinite series 209
144. Sum of an infinite series 210
145. Convergence and divergence 211
146. Tests for convergence 211
147. Cauchy's integral test 212
148. Comparison test 214
149. Ratio test 216
150. Alternating series 218
151. Absolute convergence 219

II. Power Series

152. Power series 220
153. Maclaurin's series 222
154. Taylor's series 223
155. Taylor's theorem 226
156. Approximate computation by series 228
157. Operations with power series 230
158. Computation of logarithms . ' 234

CHAPTER XXI
FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES
I. Partial Differentiation

159. Functions of several variables 236

160. Limits; continuity 236
161. Partial derivatives 237
 XVI CONTENTS

162.Geometric interpretation of partial derivatives 238

163. Higher derivatives 238
164. Total differentials 240
165. Differentiation of implicit functions .
241

II. Applications to Solid Analytic Geometry

166. Tangent plane to a surface 244

167. Normal line to a surface 245
168. Angle between two surfaces; between a line and a surface 246
169. Space curves ... 248

171.
172.
Direction cosines of the tangent
Length of a space curve
.....
170. Tangent line and normal plane to a space curve . . 248
250
250

CHAPTER XXII
ENVELOPES. EVOLUTES
173. Envelope of a family of plane curves . 252
1-74.

175. Envelope of tangents

176. Theevolute
.....
Determination of the envelope . 252
254
256

CHAPTER XXIII
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
177. Volume under a surface 258
178. Volume under a surfacesecond method
:
262
179.
180.
181.
The double integral ....
Interpretation of the given function

The double integral in polar coordinates

.
263
264
265
182. Transformation of double integrals 266
183. Area of a surface 268
184.
185.
186.
Triple integrals
Heterogeneous masses ....
Centroids and moments of inertia the general case
270
273
:
276
 CONTENTS xvii

CHAPTER XXIV
FLUID PRESSURE
*
PAOB
187. Force 279
188. Force distributed over an area 280
189. Fluid pressure 281
190. Resultant of parallel forces 283
191. Center of pressure 284

CHAPTER XXV
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER
I. General Introduction
192. Differential equations 286
193. Order of a differential equation 287
194. Solutions of a differential equation 287

11. Equations of the First Order

195. The general solution 287
196. Particular solutions 289
197. Geometrical interpretation 290
198. Separation of variables 292
199. Coefficients homogeneous of the same degree . . . 294
200. Exact differentials 295
201. Exact differential equations 296
202. Integrating factors 297
203. The linear equation 298
204. Equations linear in/ (j/) 300
205. Geometric applications . 301

CHAPTER XXVI
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER
I. Introduction

206. General and particular solutions 304

207. Geometric interpretation 305
xvm CONTENTS

11. The Linear Equation with Constant Coefficients

208. The linear equation 307
209. The homogeDeous linear equation 307
The characteristic equation
210.
211. Distinct roots ....
....
. 308
309
212.
213.
214.
Repeated roots
Complex roots ....
Extension to equations of higher order
309
310
312
215. The non-homogeneous linear equation 313

III. Miscellaneous Equations or the Second Order

216. The equation y
= /(a:) 316
217. The equation y" = fly) 317
218. Dependent variable absent 318
219. Independent variable absent 319

CHAPTEE XXVII
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
IN MECHANICS
I. Rectilinear Motion
220.
221.
Rectilinear motion
Motion of a particle under given forces
222. The equation of motion
.... 321
322
323
223. Uniformly accelerated motion
Momentum
. . ...
^ . .

324
224.
225. The
Work
; impulse
principle of impulse and momentum .... 326
326
226.
227.
228.
The principle of kinetic energy
Constrained motion
and work .... .
327
328
329
229.
230.
231.
Simple harmonic motion
Attraction proportional to the distance
Hooke's law
.... . 330
332
333

II. Plane Curvilinear Motion

232. Rotation 335
233. The simple pendulum 336
234. The equations of motion 337
235. Projectiles 338
DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
 CALCULUS
CHAPTER I

FUNCTIONS. LIMITS. CONTINUITY

1. Functions. If a variable y depends upon. a variable

X so that to every value of x there corresponds a value of
y, then y is said to be & function of x.
For example, (a) the area of a circle is determined by
the radius and is therefore a function of the radius;
(6) the attraction (or repulsion) between two magnetic
poles is a function of the distance between them (e) the ;

volume of a given mass of gas at a constant temperature is

a function of the pressure upon the gas.
A complete study of the properties of a function is
possible in general only when the function is given by a
definite mathematical expression. For this reason we
shall be concerned almost entirely with functions defined
in this way. Thus, in the examples above, we have
(a) A = irr\

(c) for a "perfect gas,"

V = h—
P
But the existence of a functional relation between two
quantities does not imply the possibility of giving this
relation a mathematical formulation. If by any means
whatever a value of y is determined corresponding to
B 1
2 - CALCULUS

every value of x under consideraticfti, then «/ is a function

of X. For example, the temperature of the air at any
point of the earth's surface is a function of the time at
vrhich the thermometer is read, although no mathematical
law connecting the two variables is known.
We often wish to express merely the fact that y is a
function of a;, without assigning the particular form of the
function. This is done by writing
y =/(a;)
(read y equals /of letters
x). Other may of course be
used in the functional symbol, as -F(a;), </)(2;), yj/'Cx'), etc.

The value of /(a;) when a; =a is denoted by the symbol

/(a). Thus, if

f(x)=x^-Sx-l,
then
= a2 - 3 a - 1,
/(a)
/(2) = - 3,
f(x + A) = (a; + hy - S(_x + K)-1.
Except where the contrary is explicitly stated, the vari-
ables and functions with which we shall have to deal are
restricted to real values. This restriction is introduced
for the sake of simplicity, and also because in the elemen-
tary applications only real quantities are of importance.
2. Geometric representation. The student is already
familiar with the geometric representation of a function
as the ordinate of a plane curve. Thus in (a) of § 1 the
graph is a parabola ; in (J) it is a certain cubic curve; in
(e) it is an equilateral hyperbola.
Even though no mathematical expression for the func-
tion is known, it may still be represented graphically. For
instance, to represent the temperature at a point of the
earth's surface as a function of the time, let a large number
of readings be taken, the corresponding points be plotted on
coordinate paper with time as abscissa and temperature as
 — ;

FUNCTIONS. LIMITS. CONTINUITY 3

smooth curve be drawn through the points.

ordinate, and a
This curve will represent approximately the variation of
temperature throughout the time-interval in question.
3. Independent variable. We usually think of x as
varying arbitrarily i.e. we assign values to x at pleasure,
and compute the corresponding values of y. The variable
X is then called the independent variable., or argument. But
it is clear that if y is a function of a;, x is likewise a func-
tion of y, and in general either one may be chosen as the
independent variable.
The values assigned to x must of course be compatible
with the conditions of the problem in hand. In most cases
X is restricted to a definite range or interval; for instance,
if the function we are dealing with \& y = y/x, we restrict
X to positive values.
4. Kinds of functions. We shall have to deal with both
algebraic and transcendental functions. The algebraic
functions are rational integral functions., or polynomials
rational fractions, or quotients of polynomials and irra- ;

tional functions, of which the simplest are those formed

from rational functions by the extraction of roots. The
elementary transcendental functions are trigonometric and
inverse trigonometric functions ; exponential functions, in
which the variable occurs as an exponent ; and logarithms.
Function

algebraic transcendental

rational irrational elementary higher

integral fractional trigonometric exponential

inverse trig'c logarithmic

One-valued and many-valued functions. A function

5.

'l/=f{x) is said to be one-valued, if to every value of x

corresponds a single value of y two-valued, if, to every ;

value of X correspond two values of y, etc.

In the case of a many-valued function it is usual to
 J ;

4 CALCULUS

group the values in such a way as to form a number of one-

valued functions, called the branches of the original func-
tion, Thus the equation

defines a two-valued function whose branches are

y = — V«.
In dealing with many-valued functions, we shall in gen-
eral confine our attention to a particular branch.

EXERCISES
1. Express the surface and volume of a sphere as functions of the
radius ;the radjus as a function of the surface and of the volume.

2. Express the surface and volume of a cube as functions of the

length of its edge.

3. Represent geometrically each of the functions of Ex. 2.

4. Find /(0,/(3),/(- l),/(0),/(s + K), if

(a)/(^)=2a;-F5; (h) f{x) = x" -Z x + Z;
{c)f{x) = sm7rx; (d)f(x)=2'.
6. Exhibit graphically each of the functions of Ex. 4.

6. Plot the graph of each of the functions (a), (6), (c) of § 1.

7.Restate the examples (a), (J), (c) of § 1 both in words and by

an equation, with the independent and the dependent variable inter-
changed.
8. Plot the graph of each of the following functions

(a) y = (l- x^y; (b) y = ^J-^;

X
(0 y = r-— {d) y
1 +
x^' ^ ' " l-x
9. Show that (a) the graph of a one-valued function is met by
any parallel to the ^-axis in not more than one point ; (6) thegraph
of a many-valued function consists of a number of branches (not
necessarily disconnected), each of which has this same property.
Give examples.
10. Show that the equation y"^ = x^ — a^ defines y as a two-valued
function of x, and draw the graph.
 ;

FUNCTIONS. LIMITS. CONTINUITY

11. The freezing point of water is 32° Fahrenheit, 0° Centigrade
the boiling point, 212° F., 100° C. Express temperature in degrees
F. as a function of temperature in degrees C, both analytically and
graphically.

12. A sum of money is placed at simple interest. Express

the amount at any time as a function of the time, and draw the
graph.

6. Rate of change slope. A fundamental problem in

;

studying the nature of a function is the determination of

its rate of change.
Let P : (x, if) be a point on the graph of the function

Assign to X an arbitrary change, or increment., Aa; (read

delta a;, not delta times a;), usually taken positive, and
denote by At/ the corresponding
change in y, so that the point
P' (a; + Aa;, y + A?/) is a second
:

point on the curve. The ratio

A^ is the average rate of change
Aa;
of y with respect to x in the in-
terval Aa;; geometrically this
Fig. 1
ratio is the slope of the chord
Ay
—
PP'. If now we let Aa; approach 0, the ratio ^ in gen-
Aa;
eral approaches a definite limiting value, which is de-
fined as the rate of change of y with respect to x at the
point P-
The geometric interpretation is obvious : when Aa; is
taken smaller and smaller, P' approaches along the P
curve, the chord PP' approaches the tangent at as its P
limiting position, and —^ approaches as its limit the slope
Aa;
of the tangent. Hence the rate of change of a function is
the slope of its graph.
6 CALCULUS

7. Limits. From what has just been said, it appears

that the determination of the rate of change of a function,
or the slope of a curve, requires the evaluation of a certain
limit. It will therefore be well to introduce at this point
a brief discussion of the subject of limits.
When the successive values of a variable x approach
nearer and nearer a fixed number a, in such a way that the
difference a —x becomes and remains numerically less than
any preassigned positive number however small, the con-
stant a is called the limit of a;, and x is said to approach the
limit a —-in symbols,
lim x=^ a.

Examples are found in elementary work

easily :

(a) If a regular polygon be inscribed in a circle, the

difference between the area Ap of the polygon and the area
Agoi the circle becomes arbitrarily small (less than any
preassigned number) as the number of sides increases in-
definitely. Hence
lim Ap = Ac-
(F) We know from elementarj'^ algebra that the sum
Sn of the geometric series

1 +
IS
 FUNCTIONS. LIMITS. CONTINUITY 7

the spring will oscillate about its original position.

The length x and
of the spring will be alternately greater
lessthan the original length Z, but as the oscillations be-
come smaller the difference between x and I will become
and remain arbitrarily small. Thus
lim x = l.

In this example, the variable actually reaches its limit,

since the spring soon ceases to oscillate at all. In many
cases, however, the variable never reaches its limit.
This is true in (a) above, since no matter how many
sides the polygon may have, its area is always less than
that of the circle.

8. Theorems on limits. We shall have occasion to use

the following theorems on limits, which we assume without
formal proof.
Theorem I* : The limit of the sum of two variables is equal
to the sum of their limits.
Theorem II : The limit of the product of two variables
is equal to the product of their limits.

Theorem III: The limit of the quotient of two variables

is equal to the quotient of their limits, provided the limit of
the denominator is not 0.

Theorem IV : // a variable steadily I

, [ but
[ decreases J

never becomes \
.
\
than some fixed number A, the vari-
\ less

able approaches a limit which is not \

1-
than A
Theorems I and II may evidently be extended to the
case of any number of variables.

* In theorems I, II, III it is of course implied that the limits of the two
variables exist. We shall see later (§§ 139, 140) that the sum of two vari-
ables, for instance, may approach a limit when neither of the two variables
taken by itself approaches a limit.
8 CALCULUS

9. Limit of a function. We
have frequently to observe
the behavior of a function f(x) as the argument x ap-
proaches a limit. If, as x approaches a, the difference be-

tween f(x) and some fixed number I ultimately becomes

and remains numerically less than any preassigned constant
however small, the function f(x) is said to approach the
limit I, and we write
lim /(,) =,
Unless otherwise specified supposed that the same
it is

limit is approached whether x comes up to a from the

positive or the negative direction. If we wish to consider
what happens when x approaches a from the positive side
only, we write "^ f(x) ; from the negative side only,
1"^
f(x).

10. Infinitesimals. An infinitesimal is a variable whose

limit is 0. Thus a constant, however small, is not an in-
finitesimal. An infinitesimal is not necessarily small at
all stages of its variation ; the only thing necessary is that
ultimately must become and remain numerically less than
it

any assignable constant however small.

If one infinitesimal is a function of another, the inde-
pendent variable is called the principal infinitesimal.
In the problem of § 6, both Aa; and A«/ are infinitesimals,
with Aa; as the principal infinitesimal.
11. Limit of the ratio of two infinitesimals. We return
to the exceptional case of theorem III, § 8, in which the
denominator is infinitesimal. Given anv fraction - in
M
which u approaches 0, two cases are to be distinguished :

(a) V also approaches ;

^
(S) V does not approach 0.
-'

It is clear that in case (6) the fraction — may

' be made
u
to assume values greater than any assignable constant by
 ;

FUNCTIONS. LIMITS. CONTINUITY 9

taking u sufficiently small ; hence the fraction can ap-

proach no limit. But consider case (a), in which both u
and V are infinitesimal. Theorem III does not apply; the
ratio of the limits is -, which is quite meaningless ; never-

may exist, as we shall find in

theless the limit of the ratio
many cases in the next few chapters.
The determination of the limit of the ratio of two
problem of the greatest importance
infinitesimals is a
in fact, it is from the discussion of § 6 that this
clear
problem always arises in finding the rate of change of a
function, or the slope of a curve.

EXERCISES
(a;8 - 3 x" - 5 x -
1. Determine (a) lim 5) ;

CM lim x'^-x-1

Which of the theorems of § 8 are needed ?

x''-3x + 2
2. Determine (a) }^
»*fl X + i.
.

(6) ^ (sin 3;

1
+ cos a) ;

x +
(0 l^O^^-j-- Ans.ic)-2
2x
Which of the theorems of § 8 are needed ?

1™ x''-Sx + 2 ^f theorems of § 8
3. Determine -yyjjjgjj (.jjg
x->-l x-1
are used? Ans. — 1.

^~^
4. Evaluate J™
"^1
•

-v/n^^

6. Evaluate lim
^1 -
- ^ . Am. iVS.

Evaluate ^w*- 1-
6. Ji™^^-

7. Evaluate l™/i2A£- Ans. 2.

^'^O tan X
10 CALCULUS

8. Evaluate Jiratan^.
^"^0 sin X

9. Show that, if n is a positive integer,

lim x" = (lim x)".
10. Show that, if P(x) is a polynomial in x,

^P(x)=P(a).
11. Show that, if P-i^x') and Pi(x) are polynomials,

x^xi P^{x) Pi^a)'

provided PjC") ^ 0.
12. Under what circumstances may the limit in Ex. 11 exist when
P^^a.) = V Give an example.
13. Does the limit in Ex. 11 always exist when Pi(a) = Pi(a.) = Q'i
Give examples.

12. Continuity. An important idea in the study of

functions is that of continuity.
A function /(a;) is said to be continuous at the point
a;= a if

This means, first, that the function is defined when x = a,

and second, that the difference between f(x) and /(a) be-
comes and remains arbitrarily small (numerically less than
any assignable constant) as x approaches a. The curve
y =f(x) passes through the point x= a without a gap or
break.
A function is said to be continuous in an interval of
values of the argument if it is continuous at all points of
the interval.
In the discussion of § 6, it is tacitly assumed that the
functionis continuous in an interval including the point

P; this assumption is an essential part of the argument.

AU the functions treated in this hook are continuous., ex-
cept perhaps for certain particular values of the variable,
and such values are either excluded or subjected to special
investigation.
 :

FUNCTIONS. LIMITS. CONTINUITY 11

13. Infinity. The most important type of discontinuity

is that in which the function increases numerically without
limit, or, as we say, becomes infinite, as x approaches a. In
this case we write
lirn/(,)=cc.

But it must be noted that this equation is merely symbolic,

for the reason that the symbol oo does not represent a num-
ber. The symbolic equation tells us, not that /(a;) ap-
proaches some vague, indefinite, very large limiting value,
but that it increases beyond any limit whatever.
Graphically the occurrence of such a discontinuity means
that the curve y = f(x') approaches nearer and nearer the
line x= a, usually without ever reaching it, at the same
time receding indefinitely from the a;-axis.

Examples : (a) As a; approaches 0, the function

^=^
becomes infinite (Fig. 2)

limi =00.
a»0 a^

-X

Fig. 2 FiQ. 3

(6) The function

y =
-2
 : :

12 CALCULUS

becomes positively or negatively infinite according as x ap-

proaches 2 from the right or the left (Fig. 3)

lim ^_
—2
T-^-a"*" a;
= +Qo, lim
^->2~ x
^
— 2
=-oo.
14. Function with infinite argument. We have fre-
quently to investigate the behavior of a function as the
argument becomes infinite.
If when X increases indefinitely the difference between
/(a;) and some fixed number I ultimately becomes and re-
mains numerically less than any preassigned constant how-
ever small, we write

Graphically this means that the curve y = f(x) ap-

proaches nearer and nearer the line y = 1, usually without
ever reaching it, at the same time receding indefinitely
from the y-axis.
Examples: (a) As x increases indefinitely in either

direction, the function y = -^ approaches (Fig. 2)

lim — = 0.

1+1
(h^ lim ^+ 1 _ lim ^ := 1
^ 2->« X —1 ^->^ -,
_ 1
X
EXERCISES
1. Show that a polynomial is continuous for all values of x (see
Ex. 10, p. 10).

2. For what values of x is a rational fraction discontinuous?

^ ,

3.
7<

4.
 ?

FUNCTIONS. LIMITS. CONTINUITY 13

6. Evaluate lim ^''-3z +2 ,

^->-2 (1-2)2
7. Evaluate _4
lim _3£i±5^ ,j) Hm ^ •
(a)

W jiP
^' + ^'^+^ (/) lip tan X.

4m. (a) 3; (c) 0; (/) non-existent.

8. Does sin X approach any limit as x becomes infinite ? Does
™£?0 Does *?il^?
X X
9. Show that as x approaches 0, the function sin - oscillates be-
X
tween — 1 and 1, without approaching any limit.

10. Discuss the behavior of tan - near the origin.

X
1

11. Discuss the behavior of 10* near the origin.

12. Evaluate lim x sin-.

13. Is the function

continuous at x = 2? Can/(2) be so defined as to make/(x) contin-

uous?
14. If /(x) is continuous, is its square continuous? Is its
reciprocal

15. Given two continuous functions, what can be said of the con-
tinuity of their sum ? Their product ? Their quotient ?
16. Are the trigonometric functions continuous for all values of the
argument ? Discuss fully.
 . :

CHAPTER II

THE DERIVATIVE

15. The derivative. We return now to the problem

(§ 6) of finding the rate of change of a function, or the

slope of a curve.
Given a function
y = /(a;),
continuous at the point P : (a;, y'), let us assign to x an ar-
bitrary increment Aa:, and compute the corresponding in-
crement Ay of y. We have

y + Ay=f(ix + Ax'),
so,that
Ay = /(a: + Ax') - f(x).
Now form the ratio

^y ^ f(x + Ax) - fix) _

Fig. 1
Ax Ax
The limit of the ratio —^ as Ax approaches is called the

derivative of y with respect to x.

The derivative is designated by the symbol -^

lim M= lim /(j^ + Ajc)-/(jr)

^= Aao^oAjf
dx Ax^o Aj:

Other commonly used symbols for the derivative are y\

i>.y,fXx-).
The operation of finding the derivative is called
differentiation
14
 THE DERIVATIVE 15

It follows from § 6 that the derivative of a function is

identical with its rate of change. Geometrically the deriva-

tive of a function is the slope of its graph.
Only differentiable functions (i.e. those having a deriva-
tive) are considered in this hook. In some cases the de-
rivative may fail to exist for particular values of the
argument, but such values are either excluded or subjected
to special investigation.
To find the derivative of a given function, we have
merely to hwild up the " difference-quotient " —^ and then

pass to the limit as Ax approaches 0. It will be remembered

that this is essentially the method used in analytic geometry
to find the slope of a curve. Since Ax and Ag approach
together, our problem is to find the limit of the ratio of two
infinitesimals (cf. §11). In general, this limit cannot be
evaluated until some suitable transformation, algebraic or

otherwise, has been applied to the quotient —^•

Ax
The process of finding the derivative is illustrated by
the following
Examples: (a) Find the slope of
the parabola

at the point (x, y') ; at the point (1, 0).

If
y=f(x) = 27?-Qx + 4:,

then
y -\- Ay =f(x + Ax')
Fig. 4
= 2(a; + Axy - 6(2; + Aa;) + 4,
Ay = i xAx + 2 aP — 6 Ax,
^
Ax
= 4a; + 2Aa;-6,
y' = lim ^=4,; 6.
Ax->o Ax
16 CALCULUS

Hence the slope at any point (x, y") is 4 a; —6 ; in par-

ticular, the slope at the point (1, 0) is — 2.

(i) Given
 —

THE DERIVATIVE 17

At/_ 1
Aa; Va; + Aa; + Va;'
^= lim
A;!v>.o
%- 1_
c^a: ^2; 2Va;
At the point (4, 2), the rate of change is

EXERCISES
Find the slopes of the following curves at the points indicated.
1. y = — x'^ at {x, y); at = 2. Trace the curve.
a; a; —3
2. y = + 1 aX (x, y). Trace the curve.
ofi

3. y = x^ — x^ at the points where the curve crosses the a;-axis.

Trace the curve.

4. 2/
= at a; = 2. Ans. — i.
X +1
5. y = —- at a; = 2. Ans. — i.

6. 2/ = X* - 3 x2 + 2 at (x, y).

7. « = a: +- at a; = 2. Ans. |.
X

8. If 2/ = i,
i,find^.'
find
x"
x^ dx
ax

9. If y = VS -X, find 2/'. Ans.

2V3
^
10. If /(x) = , find /'(x).
' ^ns.
(1 - x)2 •'
^ (1 - x)8
11. measured in feet and t in seconds, find the rate at which
If s is
s is changing at the end of 2 seconds when

(o) s =- ^; (6) s =y/t +X. Ans. (a) | ft. per second.

= X 1
12. At what points does the curve y have the slope =?
X + 1 4
An^. (1,1), (-3,1).

13. Differentiate y = — Ans. ^^——.

Vx 2xt
14. Find ^
dd
if r = tfi Ans. f 6^
 18 CALCULUS

15. Differentiate v =

16. If f{x) = Va2 - x\ find f'{x). Arts.

Va^ - x^

17. Find the angle between the curve y = and the line

'y = X at each point of intersection.

16. Higher derivatives. The derivative of y with re-

spect to X is itself a function of x. The derivative of the
first derivative is called the second derivative, and is written
d^v
—
-^
(read d second y over dx square); the derivative of

the second derivative is called the third derivative, written

S^ *
Other symbols for the higher derivatives are y", y'", • • •
;

D^%D^%...;f"(x),f'"(x-),...,
Example: In example (a), § 15, we found
«/' = 4 a; — 6.

-Hgucs
y' + At/' = 4(a; + Aa;) - 6,
A^/' = 4 Aa;,

^' = 4,
Aa;

/' = lim
A^->o Aa;
^= 4.

In this case all the higher derivatives are 0.

EXERCISES
1. Find y" and y'" in Exs. 2, 3, 5, p. 17.

2. In example (6), § 15, find ^.

3. In Ex. 10, p. 17, find/"(i).

4. In Ex. 11, p. 17, find how fast — is changing when < = 2 seconds.
 ,

CHAPTER III

DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

17. Introduction. In this and a later chapter (V) we

develop certain standard formulas by means of which any
elementary function may be differentiated. The use of
these formulas effects a great saving of time, and obviates
the necessity of evaluating a special limit in every problem.
The formulas of §§ 19-20 are direct consequences of the
definition of the derivative, and are valid for all functions
(i.e. all functions that are continKOUs, one-valued, and
differentiable; see §§ 12, 5, 15).
18. Derivative of a constant. We note first that the
derivative of a constant is 0:

(1) 1= 0.

For, if y = c, then no matter what the values of x and

Aa; may be, y will remain unchanged, and hence Ly = :

Aj/^0,
Aa;
^=
dx
lim^=0.
a^->o Aa;

The line y = c is parallel to OX everywhere 0.

; its slope is

19. Derivative of a sum a product a quotient.

; If m and ;

V are functions of a;, the following formulas are true by the

definition of the derivative :

(2)
^
d ^
(u +
,

i;)
\
=—
du
+—
dv ,

^
dx dx dx
d ^ ^ dv ,
du
^ ^ dx dx dx
du dv
... dfu\_ ^dx dx
^^^
dx\vJ i^
19
 .

20 CALCULUS

These formulas may be stated in words as follows :

(2) The derivative of the sum of two functions is equal to

the sum of their derivatives.

(3) The derivative of the product of two functions is equal
to the first function times the derivative of the second plus the
second times the derivative of the first.

(4) The- derivative of the quotient of two functions is equal

to the denominator times the derivative of the numerator
minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator,
divided hy the square of the denominator.
Proof of (2^: Let x assume an increment Aa;, and de-
note by Am and Aw the corresponding increments of u and v.
Then
y = u+v,
y + A«/ = M + Am + v + Aw,
Az/ = Am + Aw,
A«/ _ Am Aw
Lx Ax Ax
^y — V ^y _du dv
dx Aa>->o Ax dx dx
Proof of (3);
= MW,
«/

y + Ay=^(u + Am)(w + Aw),

Ay = mAw + w Am + AuAv,
Ay Aw Am , Aw , .

A = ^T + '"it + ^^ ir^
Ax Ax Ax Ax
^^
dx
4^ = M— +w—
lira
A^->oAa; dx dx
Proof of (i):
M
w
M + Am
y + Ay =
V + Av

Ay
u + Am m _ mw + wAm — mw — mAw
w + Aw V (w + Aw)w
 DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 21

Ay _
V
Am
Aa;
u —
Av
Aa;
Ax (v + Av')v
du
V- u —
dv
^.y_ lim ^y — ""^ ^''
dx ^^->o Ax v^

Formulas (2) and (3) can be extended to the case where

n functions are involved. For three functions, (3)
becomes
d du
—UVW = VW—- +WU dv \-uv dw
, ,

dx dx dx dx
In the special case when u= c, a, constant, (3) and (4)
become
(3')
dx
 ! ,

22 CALCULUS

Av
lim —^
V
Ax-^-o Ax
= 1-
lim
Av
—^
Ai-x) Am
•
,.
lim —
Am
Aa>>oAa;
or

,5. dy^dy du
^ ^
dx du dx
This very important formula is easily remembered from
the fact that inform it is a mere identity.
21. Derivative of j:", n a positive integer. If

where n is a positive integer, then

(1) ^
ax
= na?'-i.

. For,
S y + Ay = (a; + Aa;)"
/ =a;"+?za:''-'Aa;+
^'^^ ~ -^^
^''-^A^ + ... + A^",
'^^'^~ ^^
Ay = wz^-'Aa: + A^ + ••• + AS",
Ji I

Ax 2

^=3 lilB^=«:c"-l.
dx da:-^ Aa;
In particular, if w = 1, i.e. \i y = x,
dx _-i
dx
which is obvious geometrically.
By means of (4'), it can be shown that (1) is true when
w is a negative integer.
Examples : (a) Find the derivative of
y = 3a^ + 7a;2+2.
yi = As a^ + ^1x^ + ^2
dx dx dx
=9 a;2 + 14 a;.

(6) Differentiate y=
a; +3
 DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 23

ax ax
y
,
^
(a; +8)2
^ (a; + 3)2 - a; a:'' ^ a:'' + 6 a:

(a; +3)2 (a; +3)2'

EXERCISES
Differentiate the following functions.
1. (a) y = 52»-2x; (6) s = <-3<2 + (8.

2. (a) 3^ = a;* - 3 x» - 2 x2 - 1 (6) y = x2(5x= + 3). ;

3. (a) 2/ = 1 -2a; -3x5; (ft) = (x^ - 1) (x^ + 3x + ,/ 2).

1+^'
4., = -^.
-1
X2
^n.
(X2 - 1)2

x^ + 3

3,^(l+x)(l-2x).
l.y^^-.
1 - X
8.
X

9. Ifv==-^^^ =, find =-2- Ans.

X dx^ x'

10. Find — (5x8 + 7x2 + 8x)(x2 + 3x + 4).

dx
11. Differentiate !/ = (x + l)(x + 2)(x + 3).

12. Ifx = l,find^:. --^^-

13 If F(0=(:j-'— )", fin<ii="(0- Am.

.

(1 - 0™
2 3
14. Find the rate of change of s = t 1- - •

15. In the proof of (1), § 21, why is n assumed to be a positive

integer ?
16. Show directly from the definition of the derivative that for-
mula (1) of § 21 holds when n = ± i-

17. Find ^
dx
if 2^ = 2u2 _ 4, u = Sx^ + 1.

18. Find the slope of the curve y = x(x + l)(x + 2) at the points
where it crosses the x-axis. Trace the curve.
24 CALCULUS
19. At what points is the tangent to the curve y =(x — 3)^(0; — 2)
parallel to OX'i Trace the curve.
20. Prove formula (l)of § 21 when re is a negative integer.
21. Given a polynomial of the n-th degree, prove that all the deriva-
tives after the n-th are identically 0.

22. By means of formula

Derivative of x^, n fractional.
(5), the power formula (1) of § 21 can be extended at once
to the case when w is a rational fraction.
If £

where p and q are positive integers, then

?/« = X'P.

Differentiating each member of this equation with respect

to, a;, we find, by (5),

qy^-
 .

DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 25

An important special case of this formula is the case

du

(6') #V« = -^_-

Example : Find the derivative of
2/ = (3a;2+l)*.
This function is of the form m", with u='ix^+l, m=4.
Hence (6) gives
^
dx
= 4(3 a;2 + 1)3 .
6 a: = 24 <3 ^2 + 1)3.
EXERCISES
^ Differentiate the following functions.
y^'1. y = a;i+3a;i 2. y = -^.
xi +1
3. y = (2 a; + 1)6. ^ns. /= 10(2 x + \y.
4. y ^ (2;8 + 5 x2 + 7)2. ^n.t. .y' = (6a;2 + 20 x) (s^ '+ Sa;^ + 7).
1
6. 2/ = VI - 3 x\ 6. y =
Vx^ —X
7. y^\x^ -\x-\^^x. 8. y=(x2-5x)3(8a;-7)2

9 „ = (3x3-7a: + l)». 10 (^, ^J)|.

(1 - i)^
''

11. 2, =(3 + 2)3 + (5 +

a; a; 7)2. 12. ^ = Jj^ + 2a;
2a:

13. y = ^^^^^. 14- 2' = (1 - ^') (1 + ^')'-

15. y= ^ns- 3'

= ;•
V'(a2-x2)8 (a2-x2)j
16. Find the slope of the hyperbola x'^ - y^ = 12 at (4, - 2).
Ans. -2.

17. If ^{v) = —J— find ^'(«), .^"(f ), <^"'(") •

VI -w
,

Ans. <^"'(u) =
8(1
T
i^
-
—
v)i
r-

18. Find ^^/l- s- Vl + ,

as

19. If 2/ =2 VaJ, find j/"- 20. Find j- (a* - xJ)i

 = :

26 CALCULUS

21. Differentiate ^ = ( ) )
. Ans. y' ^
^1+ VT^^^j xy/l
22. rind the slope of the curve y = {pfl — 1)" at each of the points
where y" = 0. Trace the curve.
23. Draw the graph of the function y = x" for n = J, 1, |, 2, 3.

24. Implicit functions. Up to this point we have been

concerned with functions defined explicitly by an equation
of the form j^/- ^

It may happen, however, that x and y are connected by an

equation not solved for y ; for example,
Q?-\- y^=z c?.

In such a case y is called an implicit function of a;, and

the relation is expressed by writing

i^(^,t/)=0.
The definition becomes explicit if we solve for y ; in the
above example,
y = ± Va^ — x^.
25. Differentiation of implicit functions. To find the
derivative of an implicit function, we proceed as follows
Differentiate each term of the equation

Fix,y-)=0,
bearing in mind that, owing to the equation, y is a function
of x.

Example : Find the slope of the ellipse

X
•2 .
xy + y'^ +x=\
at the point {x, y').

We have d . ^

dx^^-
 ;

DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 27

26. Inverse functions. The equation

(1) y=f(x^
defines x implicitly as a function of y ; when solved for x,

it takes the form

(2) x = ,^(yy
The function ^(«/) is called the inverse of the direct func-
tion fix).
For example,
(a) ii y = x\ then x = ± Vy ;

(V) if y = ± Va2 - then = ± Va^ -

a:2, a; «/2

(e) if ?/= a% then = log„ y. a;

In each case the second func-

tion is the inverse of the first.
To construct the graph of
the inverse function from
that of the direct function,
we have only to interchange x
and y, which amounts to a
reflection in the line y = x.

This is shown in the figure

for example (a) above.
If /(a;) and (/>(?/) are in- FiQ. 5

verse functions, then

(3) (<^'(2/)^0).
•^'(^Z)
For, since

Aa; A£'
Ay
we have, passing to the limit,

dx dx
dy
which by (1) and (2) is the desired formula.
 ;

28 CALCULUS
9
'

EXERCISES
1. Express y explicitly as a function of x, when
(a) x8 - ^8 =1 (6) 2 X!/ + 2/2 = 4 ;

(c) sin (x + y) =1; (d) xa« = 1.

Find the slopes of the following curves at the points indicated.
2. ^2 + 2,3 = 25 at {x, y) ; at (3, 4). Ans. --; - 7.

3. x'^+xy + y'' = Z at (1, 1). Ans. - 1.

4. 2 a;2 + 2 - 9 xy = at (1, 2).

1/8

5. xy^ = 3 at (3, 1). Do this in two ways.

Find —
dx
in the following cases.

*^-
6. K + t=^. Ans.

7.
 CHAPTER IV
GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS

27. Tangents and normals to curves. It is known from

analytic geometry that the equation of a line through the
point (xq, z/q) with slope m is
(1) y-y^ = m(x-x^^.
Let P : (xq, i/q) be a point on the curve
Fix, y~) = 0,
and denote by y^' the value of the derivative at the point
(xq, ^q). The equation of the tangent to the curve at P
can then be written, by (1), in the form

The equation of the normal — i.e. the line perpendicular

to the tangent at the point of contact can be found at —
once from that of the tangent, by recalling that if two
lines are perpendicular, the slope of one is the negative
reciprocal of the slope of the other.
Exampleg: (a) Find the tangent and normal to the
ellipse
4a:2+9y2 = 40
at the point (1, — 2).
We have
?>x + lSyy' = 0,
hence
,4 a;"] 2

Therefore the equation of the

tangent is

y + 2 = %(x-l), Fig. 6

that of the normal is

y + 2 = -^ix !)•
^
29
30 CALCULUS

(J) Find the equation of a tangent to the curve y = 3?

parallel to the line y = 3 a; + 1.
The slope of the required tangent is 3. But the slope
at any point (x, y') of the curve y = a;^ is

y'=2,x\
Hence the coordinates of the point of
contact are found by solving the simul-
taneous equations
8a;2=3, y = 7?.
This gives the points (1, 1), (— 1, — 1),
and the required tangents are
Fig. 7
y-l = 3(a;-l), y+\ = \x + r).
28. Length of tangent, subtangent, normal, and sub-
normaL Let P : {x, «/) be a point on the curve
FCx, y-) = 0.
The segment TP of the tangent intercepted between the
point of tangency and the 2;-axis is called the length of the
tangent; its projection TQ on OX is

called the length of the subtangent.

The segment NP of the normal inter-
cepted between P and the 2;-axis is

called the' length of the normal; its pro-

jection QN on the a>axis is called the
length of the subnormal.
It is customary to consider all these
lengths as essentially positive. They are evidently de-
termined by the coordinates Qc, y) of the point P and the
slope at p.
EXERCISES
Find the tangent and normal to each of the following curves at the
points indicated.
1. (a) jr = 1 - X - x2 at (1, - 1) ; (6) ay = 2 a^ at (a, 2 a) ;

(c) z2 + 2,2 ^25 at (-3, 4); (d) 3, = a; +- at (1, 2).

X
Am, (a) 2/ + 1 =- 3(a: - 1), y + 1 = ^(a; - 1).
 .

GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 31

2. a;' - 2 xy + 2 y' -X= at the points where x = 1.

Ans. At (1, 0) :

2y = x-l, y+2x = 2; at (1, l):2y = x + l, 2/ + 2x=3.

3- y = ^; ^ ^a
at X = 2 a. ^ns. x + 2i/ = 4a, y = 2x - 3 a.

4. Find the equation of the tangent to

(a) y^ = iax at (x„, y„) ; (6) |' ±g= 1 at (x„, y.)

Ans. (a) 3,„2/

= 2 a(x + x„) ; (6) M±M=a-" 0-'
i.

6. Find the subtangent, subnormal, tangent, and normal lengths

in each of the cases of Ex. 1. Draw a figure in each case.
6. Find the angle between the parabolas y" = x, y = x^ at each of
their points of interse6tion.
7. Find the tangent and normal to the curve y^ = 2 x^ — x" at the
points X = 1. Ans. At (1, 1) :

2y = x+ 1, y + 2x = 3; at (1, - 1) : x + 2y + = 0, y = 2x - 3.
1

8. Show that the subtangent to the parabola y^ = iax is bisected

at the and that the subnormal is constant. Hence give a
vertex,
geometric construction for drawing the tangent and normal; also
show how to find the focus of a parabola if the axis is given.
9. Find a tangent to the parabola y^ = iax making an angle of
45^^ with the x-axis. Ans. y = x + a.
10. Find the tangents to the hyperbola ix" — dy" + d6 =0 per-
pendicular to the line 2 y + 5 x = 10. Ans. 2x— 5y=±8.
11. Find a tangent to the curve y = 1 — x* parallel to the line
X -2y = 5.

12. Find a normal to the parabola y = x^ perpendicular to the

line 3 X — 2y = 1.

13. Show that the portion of the tangent to the hypocycloid

xs -f y7 = a* intercepted between the axes is constant.

14. Find the tangents to the circle x^ + y^ = o which are parallel

to the line x + 3y = 0. Draw the figure.
Ans. y±iV2 = -l(x±iV2).
16. Find the tangents to the curve
y = Jx* — x' + 5x
which make an angle of 45° with the x-axis. Plot the curve.

16. Find the angle between the line y = — 2x and the curve
,y =x\l - x) at each point of intersection.
32 CALCULUS

17. Find the equation of a tangent to the curve ^' = 1 — a; parallel

to the y-a,xis. Trace the curve. '

18. Show that the area of the triangle formed by the coordinate
axes and the tangent to the hyperbola 2 xy = a^ is constant.
19. Show that the length of the normal is constant (equal to a) in
the circle
(x — cy + y" = a^,

where c is arbitrary, and explain geometrically.

20. Show that the sum of the intercepts on the axes of the tangent

to the parabola x^ + y^ = a^ is constant.

21. Show that, in the curve y = ax, the subtangent is n times the
abscissa of the point of contact. Hence show how to draw the tan-
gent at any point of the curve y = ax".

22. Find the length of the tangent, subtangent, normal, and sub-
normal to the curve y = /(a;) at the point (a:, t/). Ans. Tangent,

^ Vl + w'2. subtangent, ^; normal, yVl + y''^; subnormal, yy'.

y' y'

29. Increasing and decreasing functions. In studying

the properties of a function

it is usually of great assistance to represent the function

graphically. In tracing a curve, it is well to begin by
locating several points, e.g. the intersections with the
axes, and finding the slope at those points ; it is also
useful to note the behavior of y for large positive and
negative values of x.

In addition to giving the slope at any point, the differ-

ential calculus is of assistance in a variety of other ways,
as will be shown in the next few articles.
We shall assume as usual that the function in question is

one-valued, continuous, and differentiable.

We note first that, as x increases, the curve rises if the
slope is positive, as on the arc AB (Fig. 9) ; it falls if the
slope is negative, as along BB :

If ?/' > 0, y increases ;

If ?/' < 0, y decreases.

 GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 33

Of course this also appears at once from the fact that y'
is .the rate of change of y.

30. Maxima and minima. At a point such as B (Fig. 9),

where the function is al-
Y
gebraically greater than
at any neighboring point,
the function is said to
have a maximum value,
and the point is called a
maximum point. Simi-
Fig. 9
lai'ly, at a point such as D
the function has a minimum value. It is evident that at
8ueh a point the tangent is parallel to OX; i.e.

y' = Q.

But the vanishing of the derivative does not mean that

the function is necessarily a maximum or a minimum ;

the tangent is parallel to OX at F, yet the function is

neither a maximum nor a minimum there. It appears
from the figure that the test is as follows :

At a point where y' = 0, if y' changes from positive

to negative (as x increases), y is a maximum if y' ;

changes from negative to positive, ^ is a minimum if ;

y' does not change sign, y is neither a maximum nor a

minimum.
Since the function is maxima and minima
continuous, the
must alternate : between two maxima there must be a
minimum, and vice versa.
The points at which y' =0 are called critical points,
and the corresponding values of x are the critical values
of X.

31. Concavity. The second derivative is the rate of

change of the first derivative. It follows that when y" is

positive, y' is increasing x increases the tangent turns

: as
in counterclockwise sense and the curve is concave upward.
34 CALCULUS

When y" is negative, V_decreases : the curve is concave

At a maximum point the curve is concave downward, and

hence y'\ if it is not 0, must be negative. At a minimum
y'\ if not must
0, be positive. If the second derivative is

easily obtained and if it does not happen to be at the

critical point in question, it is usually more convenient to
determine whether we have a maximum or a minimum by
finding the sign of y" ; but the test of § 30 has the ad-
vantage of being perfectly general. However, in practice
other considerations usually enable us to distinguish be-
tween maxima and minima without the amplication of either
of these tests.
Example: Find the maximum and minimum values of
the function
y = 7? — Bx,
and trace the curve.
This curve crosses the 2;-axis at a; = 0, ± V3. Since
y = 32^-3,
the slope at (0, 0) is - 3, at (± V3, 0) it is 6.

Setting
y' = 0,
we find the critical points (—1, 2), (1, —2). When x
is and negative, y is large and negative when x is
large ;

large and positive, y is large and positive. It is therefore

clear that the curve must rise to a
maximum at (—1, 2), fall to a mini-
mum at (1, — 2), and then rise in-
definitely. These conclusions may be
verified as follows. The second de-
rivative,
y" = 6x,
is negative at a;= — 1, so that the
Fig. 10 point (— 1, 2) is a maximum ;
y" is
 GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 35

positive at x = l, hence (1, - 2) is a minimum. The

curve is shown in the figure.

EXERCISES
Examine the following functions for maxima and minima, and
trace the curves.
1.1/ = x(x + 5). 2. y = x^- 2a;2 + x.

3. i. y = (x^ - 4)2.
9. y = x^
8. y =
36 CALCULUS

below. If y' >0 at the left* of this point and t/' <.0 at the
right, y is a maximwn; if y' <,Q at the left and y' > at the

y is
right, a minimum. Or, if y" <0 at the point, y is a
maximum; if y" >0, y is a minimum,.
(c) In an interval where y" > 0, the curve is concave
upward; where y" < 0, the curve is concave downward.
(dy A
point at which y" = is a point of inflection, pro-

vided y" changes sign as the curve passes through the point.
(e) A point at which both y' = and y" = is a maxi-
mum or a minimum if y' changes sign as the curve passes
through the point; it is a point of inflection with a horizontal
tangent if y' does not change sign.
Example: Trace the curve
y = x(x — 1)'.
This curve crosses the 2;-axis at (0, 0), (1, 0). For
large positive or negative values of x, y is large and
positive. The derivatives are
= (a: - 1)3 + ix(x- 1)2= (a; - 1)^(4 x - 1),
2/'

y" = 2(x - 1)(4 - 1) + 4(a; - 1)2= 6(2; - 1)(2 x - 1).

a;

The slope at (0, 0) is - 1 at (1, 0) it is 0.;

The critical values are x = \, \. When x = \, y" is

positive hence (^, — 2^^) is a minimum point.
; When
x=l, y" = and the
test by the second de-
rivative fails. Since y'
does not change sign as
X passes through 1, the
function has neither a
Y^f. 11
maximum nor a mini-
at that point. mum
The second derivative vanishes at (^, yL), (1, 0) — ;

these are points of inflection. The slope at (|, is \. — ^)

The curve is shown in the figure.
* That is, immediately at the left.
 GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 37

EXERCISES
Trace the following curves. Where possible, find the points of
intersection with the axes, determine the behavior of y for large
values of x, find the maxima and minima and points of inflection, and
draw the tangent at each point of inflection.
1. 2/ = x8 - 6 a;2 + 9 x + 3. 2. y = 4 + 3 - x^. a;

3. 2^ = x8- 3x2+ 62 + 10. 4. 5^ = (x- 3)2(x-2).

6. 3^ = (l-x2)8. 6. 2/=(4-x2)2.
7. 2/ = (x- l)3(x + 2)2. 8. jf = x8-3x2-9x + 5.

9. 2/ = X*. 10. y = x^
U. y = x(x - l)(x - 2). 12. 2/ = ^"°
2 + 4 a2
1
13. j,=-_L_. 14,
1 + x< (1 + ':^)^

15. Show that the curve y = has three points of inflection

x^ + a'
lying on a straight line. Trace the curve.
16. Show that, for the curve y = x", where n = 2, 3, 4, -, the
origin is a minimum or a point of inflection according as n is even or
odd.

34.Applications of maxima and minima. The theory

of maxima and minima finds application in a great variety
of problems. In the applications it is rarely necessary to
use either of the tests of § 33 to distinguish between
maxima and minima; the critical value that gives the
desired result can usually be selected by inspection of
the conditions of the problem.
It frequently happens that the function to be tested for
maxima minima can be most simply expressed in
or
terms of two variables. When this is done, a relation
between the two variables must be found from the condi-
tions of the problem. By means of this relation one of
the variables can be eliminated, after which the maxima

and minima can be found in the usual way. However, it

is often more convenient not to eliminate, but to proceed

as in example (6) below.

 :

38 CALCULUS

Examples: (a) A
box is to be made of a piece of card-
board 4 in. square by cutting equal squares out of the
corners and turning up the sides. Find the volume of
made in this way.
the largest box that can be
Let X be the length of the side of each of the squares
cut out. Then the volume of the box is

(1) F=a<4-2a;)2.
The derivative is

^=(4 - 2a;)2- 4a;(4 - 2 a;)

dx
= (4-22;)(4-6a;).
Setting ,Tr

dx
we find
a; = 2 or ^.

Since V vanishes when a; = and again when a; = 2, it

must reach a maximum at some intermediate point ; it

therefore follows without the application of further tests

that the critical value a; = |- gives the required maximum
volume
F™a.. = |(4-f)2 = -W-cu. in.

The graph of equation (1) is shown in the figure, the

F^scale being one fourth as large as
the a;-scale. Since by the condi-
tions of theproblem x is restricted
to values between and 2, the
dotted portions of the curve have
no meaning in the present case.
(5) Find the dimensions of the
largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a given circle.
Take the coordinate axes parallel to the sides of the
rectangle. The area of the rectangle is

(2) A = 4:xy.
 GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 39

This can be expressed in terms of x (or y") by means of

the relation

(3) x^ + f = a^
which gives
y= Va^ — 3^,
A = xsja^ - x\
4:

From this point the method is the same

as in (a). yio. 13
The problem can be solved without
eliminating x or y, as follows: Differentiating equation
(2) with respect to x and setting the derivative equal to
0, we have, since y is a function of a;,

S=<^l+^)=»'
or

dx X
Differentiating equation (3), we get

ax
or
X
dx y

Equating values of —^. we find

dx
- ^ = - 5,
X y
whence
y = x:
the maximum rectangle is a square.

EXERCISES
1. What is the largest rectangular area that can be inclosed by
800 yd. of fencing?
40 CALCULUS
2. For a rectangle of given area, what shape has the minimum
perimeter?

3. Find the most economical proportions for a cylindrical tin cup

of given volume. Am. Radius = height.

4. A rectangular field is to be fenced off along the bank of a

straight river. If no fence is needed along the river, what is the
shape of the rectangle requiring the least amount of fencing ?

5. The equal sides of an isosceles triangle are 10 in. long. Find

the length of the base if the area is a maximum.
"^
6. Find the rectangle of maximum perimeter inscribed in a given
circle.

7. Find the most economical proportions for a box with an open

top and a square base.
— 8. Find the most economical proportions for a covered box whose
base is a rectangle with one side twice the other.
— Ans. Altitude = | x shorter side.

9. Find the dimensions of the largest right circular cylinder that

can be inscribed in a given sphere. Ans. Diameter = V2 x height.
-, 10. In Ex. 9, find the form of the cylinder if its convex surface is

a maximum.
11. Find the dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be in-
scribed in a given right triangle. Ans. a; = | a.
_ 12. Find the most economical proportions for a conical tent of
given capacity. Ans. h = V2r.
X) 13. A man in a rowboat 6 miles from shore desires to reach a point
on the shore at a distance of 10 miles from his present position. If he
can walk 4 miles per hour and row 3 miles per hour, where should he
land in order to reach his destination in the shortest possible time?
Ans. 1.2 miles from his destination.
- 14. A rectangular field of given area is to be inclosed, and divided
into two lots by a parallel to one of the sides. What must be the
shape of the field if the amount of fencing is to be a minimum ?
16. A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by a
semicircle. What shape gives the most light for a given perimeter ?
Ans. Breadth = height.

_ 16. Find the most economical proportions for a quart can.

Ans. Diameter = length.
 GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 41

17. The strength of a rectangular beam is proportional to the

breadth and the squa*e of the depth. Find the shape of the strongest
beam that can be cut from a log of given diameter.
Ans. Depth = V2 x breadth.
N 18. Find the volume of the largest box that can be made by cutting
equal squares out of the corners of a piece of cardboard 6 x 16 in.

and turning up the sides. Ans. ^§^6 cu. in.

19. A gutter be made of a strip of tin 12 in.

is to \ /

wide, the cross section having the form shown in the V y

figure. What depth gives a maximum carrying \ 4 /
capacity? Fia. 14

— .20. Find the most economical proportions for a cylindrical cup of

given capacity, if the bottom is to be three times as thick as the sides.
21. Find the most economical proportions for an A-tent of given
volume, whose sides slope at 45° to the horizontal.
22. Find the dimensions of the largest right circular cylinder that
can be inscribed in a, given right circular cone. Ans. Altitude = y A.
23. Solve Ex. 22 if the convex surface of the cylinder is to be a
maximum.
24. Find the right circular cone of maximum volume inscribed in
a given sphere.
26. Find the cone of minimum volume circumscribed about a given
sphere.
26. The base of a box is a rectangle with one side twice the other.
The top and front are to be made of oak, the remainder of pine. If
oak is twice as valuable as pine, find the most economical proportions.
27. A wall tent 12 x 16 ft. is to contain a given volume. Findthe
most economical proportions. Ans. Height above eaves=2v'3 ft.

28. An oil can is made in the shape of a cylinder surmounted by a

cone. If the radius of the cone is three fourths of its height, find the
most economical proportions.
Ans. Altitude of cylinder = altitude of cone.

29. A cupboard 5 ft. high and having shelves 1 ft. apart is to be

made from a given amount of material. If a front, but no back,
is required, what shape gives the greatest amount of shelf room ?
Ans. Width = twice depth.
30. A silo is made in the form of a cylinder, with a hemispherical
roof; there is a floor of the same thickness as the wall and roof.
Find the most economical shape. Ans. Diameter =: total height.
 .

42 CALCULUS
31. Solve Ex. 30 if the floor is twice as thick as the wall and roof.
Ans. Height of cylinder = diameter.
t

32. The cost of erecting an office building is 1 100,000 for the first
$ 105,000 for the second, $ 110,000 for the third, etc. other ex-
floor, ;

penses (lot, plans, excavation, etc.) are $ 700,000. The net annual
income is $10,000 for each story. How high should the building be,
to return the maximum rate of interest on the investment?
Ans.-Vt stories.

35. Derived curves. The curves y =/'(a;), y =f"(^x),

y=f"'(x'), ••• are called the first, second, third, ••• derived
curves, corresponding
to the curve y =f(x').
The relations be-
tween the given func-
tion and its first and
second derivatives,
which have been
formulated analytic-
ally in § 33, are well
brought out graphi-
cally by drawing the
original curve and its
first and second de-

rived curves. This

is shown in Fig. 15

for the curve

y
^
=—
3
— a;

The work should be

arranged with the
several axes of ordi-
Fio. 15
nates lying in the
same vertical line.
It often happens in practical work that a function is
defined in such a way — for instance by experimental data
 GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 43

— that no mathematical expression for it is known. If

then we wish
to examine the behavior of one of the deriv-
atives, as is frequently the case, we plot the graph of the
original function from the given data, and construct the
required derived curve graphically. The process is ob-
vious. We can measure the slope at any point of the
original curve the number thus obtained is the ordinate
;

of the corresponding point on the first derived curve. In

this way as many points as desired may be plotted on the
first derived curve and a smooth curve drawn through
them, after which the second derived curve may be con-
structed in a similar way; etc.

EXERCISES
1. What can be said of the first derived curve t>vA> - U w

(a) in an interval where the original curve is < . , . \l

(b) in an interval where the original curve is concave J " )2

\ downward J
^si a point
(c) at
-ii .., i,
where the original curve has a
> r maximum I ^
>tyv,c-i,Afi.
° < .

minimum J
.

(d) at a point where the original curve has a point of inflection ? ^

2. What can be said of the second derived curve
(a) in an interval where the original curve is concave

J
upward In'*"
downward --"
\ J

(6) at a point where the original curve has a point of inflection ?

(c) in an interval where the first derived curve is ° Iv

^^ J . ,,.
\ falling/;.

(d) at a point where the first derived curve has a \ ^'f'^^^''"^

L (J
I, minimum J 4-
3. What can be said of the original curve at a point where the

second derived curve touches the i-axis without crossing it? it-v^t,„^yL

4. Plot the curve y = X* x^ + x^ and its first, second, and third

4
derived curves.
6. Plot the curve y = sin x, and construct the first derived curve.
What well-known curve does the latter resemble ?
44 CALCULUS
6. Draw a smooth curve, on a large scale, through the points

X
 CHAPTER V
DIFFERENTIATION OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

I. Teigonometbio and Inverse Trigonometkic

Functions

36. Trigonometric functions. The student is already

familiar with the elementary properties of the trigono-
metric functions. They are one-valued and continuous for
all values of the argument a;, except that the tangent and
secant become infinite when a;= ±(2m-1- 1) — , the co-
A
tangent and cosecant become infinite when x = ± wtt, where
w is a positive integer. The
sine and cosine, and their re-
ciprocals, the cosecant and secant, are periodic with the
period 2 ir ; the tangent and cotangent are periodic with
the period tt.

y = ain pa
Fig. 16

The properties just mentioned are well exhibited by the

graphs of the various functions. The graphs of the sine,

y = cos X
Fig. 17

cosine, and tangent are shown in Figs. 16-18 ; the student

should draw the graphs of the other functions.
45
46 CALCULUS

The derivative
is an important
aid in the fur-
ther study of
these functions.
Since all the func-
tions can be ex-
pressed in terms
of the sine, it will
be sufficient to
find the deriva-
tive of this one
function by the general method from this result all the
others can be obtained.

37. Differentiation of sin x. The derivative of sin x

may be obtained directly from the definition of the deriva-
tive (§ 15). We have
= sin y a;,

y-hAy = sin(a;H-A2;),
Ay = sin {x Aa;) — sin x. -t-

Ay _ sin (a; Aa;) — sin x -f-

Ax Ax
Expanding sin (a; -|- Aa;) by the addition formula of trigo-
nometry, we get

Ay _ sin x cos Aa; -t- cos x sin Aa; — sin x

Ax Ax
By trigonometry,

cos Aa; =1— 2 sin^ | Aa;,

so that
Ay _ cos X sin Aa; — 2 sin x sin^ ^ Aa;
Aa; Aa;

(1) = cos X sin Aa;

•sin a; —
sin A Aa;
-^ •
.

sm i
,

^ Ax.
.

Ax ^Ax
 :

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 47

It will be shown in the next article that

lim5Hl^=l.
«->o a
Assuming this result for the moment, we see that
T„ sin Aa; ^ lim sin 1 Aa; -,

Aa»o Aa; JAa;

Hence, passing to the limit in equation (1), we find
dy d
= -—
-^ sin X — cos X.
dx dx
In some applications, it is convenient to write this formula
in the form
d = sin(a. + |).
sin X
dx
If u is any function of x, it follows from formula (5) of
Chapter III that
d
dx
—
sin u =
d
du
sin u
du—
—-,
dx
.
•

or
yws
CI) — sinu = cosu — =
tf

dx
• <^u

dx
•
sin
(
\
u
^
—
+ -'^\du
1J dx
Example: Differentiate sin 5 a^.
By (7), with m = 5 a;^,

—- sin 5 3?=\0 X cos 5 a^.

dx
38. Limit of sin a/ a as a. approaches 0. In the differen-
tiation of sin X we had to make use of the fact that

lim 512^=1.
«->^) a
This result may be obtained as follows.
Let P, Q be two points on a circle
such that the chord PQ subtends an
angle 2 a < tt. As « approaches 0,
the ratio of the chord to the arc
approaches unity
,.
lira
a.>o
chord
arc
^P^ = 1.
PQ
1

Fig. 19
48 CALCULUS

But
chord PQ=2r sin «,

and, if a is measured in radians,

arc PQ = 2 ra.
Hence
,.
lim
chord—— PO^ = ,.
lim —
2 r sin a
= ,.
lim
sin a ^
= 1.
a^SH) arc PQ n->o 2 ra a->o «

When a is in degrees, the length of the arc is

arcPg=2r ^a, .

and the formula for —

ax
sin a; is much less simple than

when radians are used (see Ex. 26, p. 50). For this
reason angles in the calculus are always measured in radians
unless the contrary is stated.

39. Differentiation of cos x, tan x, etc. The derivatives

of the other trigonometric functions can also be obtained
directly from the definition of the derivative, but they are
more easily found from (7).
To differentiate cos x, we write

cos X = sin lx+ — ],

d
-—
dx
cos x =—
d
dx
f
sm [x
\
-\ —2) =
,
7r\
cos f
[x A
\
,
— TT

2
= — sin X.
If u is any function of x, we find by formula (5) of
Chapter III,

(8) ^cosu=-8ini/^ = cosfa + '!^')*^.

dx dx \ 2J dx
The remaining trigonometric functions may be differen-
tiated by expressing them in terms of the sine and cosine.
The results are as follows :

(1) ^7- tan X = sec* x,

dx
 . .

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 49

(-) —
ax
x= — cot oosec''^ X,

(3) —
ax
X= x tau
sec sec x,

(^4") —
ax
eosec x= — eosec x cot x.

If u is any function of x. we find by formula (5) of

Chapter III,

(9) — tan u = sec* u —

dx dx
—d
dx
cot M
.

= — cosee^Q u —du—
dx
d du
—- sec i( = sec u tun u—-.
,

dx dx
—d- oosee !/ = — ooseo ^
u cot m -—
du •

dx dx

EXERCISES
1. Trace the curve t/ = sin j . finding maxima and minima and
points of inflection, and drawing the inflectional tangents.
2. Proceed as in Ex. 1 with the curves
(a) y = oosa-: (6) y = tan.r; (c) y = secx.

DlfiEerentiate the following functions.

S. (o) sin'J.1-; (6") oos -; (c) tau ^- + j) ;

((/) iseo.r; (OJ^cota-; (/) (^3 6 + 1) cos3 6:

C.-^) ^: (A) sin*^: CO cos^-'e.

.Ill,*, lb) —sin-; (h) 2sinj-oosi-: (i) — 6 cos^'2 dsm'2 0.

4. y = X tan 2 + \ j- 1 + r^.
-i .r
6. M = % + sill
1 J-. 6. « = —.
sm X
7. y = cot* 4 i. .4 H»". — 1'- cot^ 4 cosec* 4 x. j-

8. = sin>3ft.-; -^ "^^ 9. r = secci«+l).

,v

Find -i^ in the followina; cases.

dx
10. cos 2 y = J- + 4. ^ 11. y sin r = oos '2 J.
50 CALCULUS

^ 1 + cos 2 X
^
-o2x. ""15. w' — w = tan - •

— ,.
14. y^
,
= sm " " i
^16. If y = sin find a:, y", 2/'", ••, J^"'.

17. If a; = cos (ui, find -— , —rr-

dt df
dh;
'*
18. li X =A sin fc/ + B cos kt, show that -—r = — k^x.
dt'

19. Obtain each of the formulas (l)-(4), § 39.

20. From the trigonometric formula for sin {x + a), deduce by

differentiation the formula for cos (x + a).

- 21. Find the tangent and normal to the curve y = sin x at x = -TT •

22. Find tangents to the curve y = tan x parallel to the line

y = 2x + 5.

- 23. If /(x) = cos2 X, find /"(x),/'" (a;), ..,/W(x).

^ 24. liy = X sin x, find —^

26. If X = < cos kt, find —

d^x

26. Show that if x is measured in degrees, the formula for the

derivative of sin x becomes

£sinx = j|^cosx.

27. Differentiate cos x directly from the definition of the derivative.

28. Writing tan x in the form tan x = , obtain the derivative

cos X
of tan X directly from the definition of the derivative.

29. Find the maximum rectangle inscribed in a circle, using trigo-

nometric functions.
30. Find the rectangle of maximum perimeter inscribed in a circle.

31. Find the right circular cylinder of maximum volume inscribed

in a sphere.

32. Find the largest right circular cone that can be inscribed in a
given sphere. Ans. V= ff ira'.

33. A steel girder 30 ft. long is carried along a passage 10 ft. wide
and into a corridor at right angles to the passage. The thickness of
the girder being neglected, how wide must the corridor be in order
that the girder may go round the corner ?
 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 51

34. A wall 8 ft. high is 27 ft. from a house. Find the length of
the shortest ladder that will reach the house when one end rests on
the ground outside the wall.

40. Inverse trigonometric functions. The symbol arc-

sin X, or sin~^ x, denotes the angle whose sine is x:

y = arcsin x ii x= sin y.
That is, the function arcsin x is the inverse (§ 26) of the
function sin x. The graph of
y = arcsin x
is as shown in Fig. 20. It is of course the same as that
of sin a;, with the coordinate axes interchanged; i.e. it is

the reflection of the sine curve in the line y = x.

The functions y = arccosa;, y = arctana;, etc., are de-
fined in a similar way.
In §§ 41-42 we consider only the three principal func-
tions arcsin a;, arccos a;, arctan x. The other three func-
tions may be treated similarly.
41. Restriction to a single branch. The trigonometric
functions are one-valued : to a given value of the argu-
ment there corresponds one and but one value of the func-
tion. The inverse trigono-
Y\
metric functions, on the other
hand, are infinitely many-val- / 2ii
2-K-
ued : corresponding to a given
value of the variable there
are infinitely many values of
the function. Geometrically
this line x = Xq,
means that a
if itmeets the curve at all^
meets it in infinitely many 7'
± -X -10

points ; the truth of this state-

ment is

at Figs. 20-22.
evident from a glance
X
Following
o the rule of 5
" 5, y = arcsin x
we shall cohfine our attention fij,. 20
52 CALCULUS

y = arctan x
Fig. 22

to a single branch of each of these functions the branch ;

chosen is the one drawn full in each figure. Thus in our

future work the f anction arcsin x, for example, is restricted
to the interval

—< arcsin x <—

2= =2
This means that

arcsin (-1) = _|,

not -— ; etc. Similarly,

- —<
2= arctan x <—
=2 ;

therefore

arctan (— 1) = — ^, arctan (— oo) = 2'

etc.
 ; ; ;

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 53

EXERCISES
In the following, the restrictions laid down in § 41 are assumed to
hold.

1. Find (a) arosiu ^, (6) arcsin (— I), (c) arctan (— VS), (rf) arc-
tan oo, (e) arccos (— J), (/) arccos (— 1).

2. Show that arcsin x + arcsin (— x) = ,0.

3. Show that arccos x + arccos (— x)= tt.

4. Show that

(a) arccos x =—— arcsin x

(b) arccot x =—— arctan x = arctan -

1 1
,
(c)
.
arcsec x = arccos- = TT .

arcsin -
X 2 X

{fl) aiccosec x = arcsin -

X

42. Differentiation of the inverse trigonometric functions.

To differentiate the function
y = arcsin x,

let us pass to the direct form

sin y = x.
Differentiating by the rule for finding the derivative of an
implicit function (§ 25), we find

cos«/-^ = l,
dx
hence
dy

or
 54 CALCULUS

In a similar way we find

d
= -1
-arccos x
dx s/l-a?

-— arctan x =
dx l + x'
L By formula (5) of Chapter III we find that if « is any
lO function of z,
^ du

—d
arcsm u
dx
dx Vl — 1/2

du
d dx
II
arccos «=
- —
dx Vl — w

J
(11) I-
dx
arctan « = ^
l
du

+ u2
While in the above discussion we confine our attention
to a single branch of the function, it appears from Figs.
20-22 that if we know the slope at every point of one
branch, we can at once find the slope at every point of any
other branch.

EXERCISES
Find the derivatives of the following functions.

1. j^ = arcsin 1x. 2. y = arccos--

Z. y = arctan (1 + 2 x). 4. y = arcsin Vs.

h. y = arccot (2 a; + 5)^. 6. y = arccosec — •

7. s = t arcsin 3 ^ 8. ;; = Vl — arcsin v.

9. 2/= (arcsin x)2. Ans. 2a^5E£.

, . Vl-a;2
10. w= i .. 11. ^= arctan ±.
arctan x x
 .

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 55

12. * = Vl — 2 ( ai'coos v^. t3. y = x arctan 4 x.

= ^ -4ns.
14. y arcsin

15. y = <2 arcsin-- 16. y = — •

2 Varcsin 2 x
17. y = arcsin a; + arccos x. Explain the meaning of the result.
18. If y'sinx + y = arctan x, find y'.

19. Find tangents to the curve y = arctan x perpendicular to the

line 4 X + y = 0.

20. Obtain — arccos x from the relation

dx
arccos x = arcsin x.
2
21. Show that

arctan x = arcsin
Vl+i^
and obtain —
dx
arctan x from this fact.

22. lty= arcsin a;, find ^, ^.

dx^ dx^

23. liy = arctan x, find ^, ^

24. Show that
d
dx
d
 : :

56 CALCULUS

•Let Xq be any given irrational number. It can be shown

that when x approaches through rational values,
x^ passing
the function a^ approaches a definite limit. This limit is
denoted by a"^'
lim a'^ — a'".
The function a'' thus becomes defined for all values of x.
This function is one-valued and continuous, and obeys the
ordinary laws of exponents, viz.

(1) a^ •= a^+S
a'

(a^y = ai'K
The inverse of the exponential function is the logarithm,
defined by the statement that
^.^ y = logaX if x=ay («>!*)•
This function is one-valued and continuous for all pogitive

values of x. The number a is called the base of the sys-

tem of logarithms.
The graph of the function
?/ = e%
where e= 2.718... (see §46), is shown in Fig. 23; the
graph of its inverse
y = log^
is shown in Fig. 24.

Fig. 23 Fig. 24

* The assumption a > 1 is introduced for simplicity ; this condition is

satisfied in all cases of practical importance.

 :

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 57

44. Properties of logarithms. For convenient reference

we recall the fundamental properties of logarithms :

) logaa;y = log„a; + log,,?/,

(2) log„ - = log„a; - log^y,
y
(3) log^a;" = n log^a;,
(4) log^a^ = X,
(5) a'°V=a;,
(6) log^a; = logjz . log„J,

(7) logfta = -•
log„5
To prove (1), let
log^xy = p, log„a; = m, \ng„y = n. :

'

then we must show that -^"^^i t>^ ~ > T

^= »w + n. O
Passing to the direct form, we have
xy = a", X = a", y = a",

so that
a" = a" a"-

Hence, by (1) of § 43,

^= m + w.
Formulas (2) and (3) may be proved in a similar way.
Formula (4) is merely a restatement of the definition of
the logarithm formula (5) is the converse. To prove
;

(5), set

and take logarithms to the base a on each side

log„a; = log,.«,
whence
t = x.
To prove (6), let m = log^a; and n = logja; ; then
x= a"' = 6".
If we take logarithms to the base a on each side of the
equation
«»" = 6",
58 CALCULUS

it appears that
m = log^x = n logj) = logjs; • log„6.

As a special case take x= a: the formula gives (7),

1
logiU =
losJ>

EXERCISES
1. Find x, if (o) logma; = 2, (J) logi„a; =- i, (c) logjX = 4, (d)
Iogi„3;' = 4, (e) log„a; = 0, (/) log„a; = 1.

2. Simplify (a) a'oss,

(6) a-'°s3, (c) a^os', (rf) o""?', (e) a'+ios"^,

(/) a"'-i'°s», the logarithms being taken to the base a in each case.
Ans. (6) J.
3. Prove formulas (2) and (3) of § 44.

4. Show that negative numbers have no (real) logarithms.

5. Show that numbers between and 1 have negative logarithms;
numbers greater than 1, positive logarithms.

6. Show that
lim logaX = — (» .

7. Find the inverse of the function

a' — a~
a« + a"*

8. For what two values of x is a" = (cc)' 1

45. The derivative of the logarithm. To obtain the de-

rivative of the logarithm we proceed by the general method
of § 15 :

= log„a;,
y
y + At/ = log„(a; + Aa;),
Ay = log„(a; + Ax) - log^x = log,, S±A^

by property (2) of § 44. Hence,

 ,

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 59

Let us multiply and divide by x and then make use of (3),

§44:
A^ __ 1 _5C_
(\ A. ^^ \
Aa: a; Aa; "V x J

= llog„(l + ^f-
X \ X J
Hence,

(1) f= limf2' = l limlogyi+^Y^^

ax Aic->K) Aa; x ^-^o \ x J

(2) =hogJlim(l+^fAt
It will appear in the next article that the limit

lim ( 1 +— ] exists and is a number lying between 2 and 3.

n->oo \ nj
This number is denoted by the letter e ; we shall find
later (Ex. 4, p. 280) that

e= lim ("! + -)"= 2.71828- •.

Now, in the limit occurring in (1), let us put —= n.

Since x is supposed to be different from 0, it follows that

when Aa; approaches 0, n becomes infinite, and

lim ri+^7^=iimfi+iY=e.
Hence, assuming for the moment the existence of e, we
have from (2)

(8) -— log„a; = -log„e.

ax X
In case the base a of the system of logarithms is the
number e, the numerical factor log^e in formula (3) re-
duces to unity, and the formula takes a particularly simple
form. For that reason logarithms to the base e are used
almost exclusively in the calculus.
60 CALCULUS

Logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithms^ or

Napierian logarithms. In our future work the symbol log a;,
in which no base is indicated, will be understood to mean
the natural logarithm oi x. Thus we have from (3)

—
d
dx
log X =-
1

X
1

By formula (5) of Chapter III, if m is any function of a;,

du
—
d
ax
log„M = —
1 dx
u
^
-log^e,

(12)
 : )

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 61

When w is a positive integer, we can expand the quantity

1\"
1 + - by the binomial theorem
I

nj

n(n — 1) • (w. — —
?/ 1 /IV'
n ! \nj

1_1 (l-^\(lS^
n \ n/\ nJ
^
= i + i+^7r+
^
1-\
+
-1 J- \ / ^ 1^ —1
4)-('

As n increases the number of terms in the expansion in-

creases, and every term (except the first two) becomes
larger. Hence the quantity [1 + -] steadily increases
with n.
On always less than 3.
the other hand, this quantity is

For, the w + 1 terms in the expansion (1) are each less

than (or, for the first two terms, equal to) the correspond-
ing terms of the series

Remembering that, by elementary algebra, the sum of the

geometric progression (cf. § 7)

1 + 1 + 1+.. .+J_
2"~i
2 2^

is 2 — -—-, we find

1 -h "T < 3 - J-
2"-i
< 3.
n)
 '

62 CALCULUS

We have now shown that f 1 +- ]

steadily increases

with w, but never becomes greater than 3. It follows by

theorem IV, § 8, that as n increases the quantity f 1 +- j

approaches a limit e which is not greater than 3.

Since, in (1), the sum of the first two terms is 2 and the
succeeding terms are all positive, it follows that e > 2.

Hence e lies between 2 and 3.

As already stated, we shall see later that

e = 2.71828 •..

47. Differentiation of the exponential function. The de-

rivative of the exponential function a^ may be found as
follows.
If
«/ = «%
then
(1) \og^y = x.
Differentiating (1) by the rule for implicit functions
(§ 25), we find ^
^
--/log„e = l,
y ax

, = —-^— = y \oge *»
ax logo ^

by (7), § 44 ; hence
-— a^ = a^ log, a.
ax
For the case a = e, this formula becomes simply

-^ e^ = e-.
dx
If M is a function of x, we have
|-a«=a"log.a.f^.
dx dx
This formula, too, becomes simpler when a= e:
(13) Ae» = e«^.
 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 63

EXERCISES
\
1. Show that common logarithms are transformed into natural
logarithms by the formula
logioa; = logi„e-log.K
= 0.4343 log. X.
N 2. Show that
log.i: :
2.8026 logi„x.

^ 3. By means of a table of common logarithms, show that

log 2 = 0.693, log 3 = 1.099, log 5 = 1.609.

^ 4. Using the results of Ex. 8, find logi log V3, log 6, log 0.1,
log \^9.

Find the derivatives of the following functions.

6.
 64 CALCULUS

-^•
41. Given log (x + y)=x^ + y% find
42. If y = log a;, find y", y'", ••, «/(">.

43. If y = 6"^ find y", y'", , 2/(">. Ans. ?/<"' = a»e"'.

44. Find the inverse of the function y = e""'.

45. Find the inverse of the function y = log cos 2 x.

46. Find the tangent and normal to the curve y = log x at

(a) y = ; (*) y =- i ;
(c) a; = e^.

s 47. Show that the curve y = e" has a constant subtangent. Hence
devise a simple geometric construction for drawing the tangent to
=i e=^ at any point.

'48. Show how to draw the tangent to the curve y = log x.

49. Find the maximum and minimum points on the curve

y = X log X. Trace the curve.
X
50. Trace the curve y = e ' .

51. If y = xe", find y", y'", , !/<"'.

52. Trace the curve y = xe^.

63. Find the equation of a tangent to the curve y =k log x parallel

to the line S x — 2y = 5.

54. In passing from (1) to (2), § 45, we make use of the principle
that
lim (log ar) = log (lim x) .

From which one of our assumptions concerning the logarithm does

this principle follow ?

48. Hjrperbolic functions. A class of exponential func-

tions of frequent occurrence in some applications are
known as hyperholic functions. They are denoted by the
symbols sinh x (read hyperbolic sine of x), cosh x, and
tanh a;, and are defined as follows :

e~^
•

sinh X
-1

= e^ —

cosh X

tanh X -
 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 65

The reciprocals of these are cosech x, sech a;, and coth x

respectively. Tables of hyperbolic functions have been
computed ; see, for example, Peirce's Short Table of In-
tegrals (Ginn and Co.).
The inverses of the hyperbolic functions are called anti-
Jiyperholic functions :

y = sinh~^a; if a; = sinh «/, etc.

The fundamental properties of the hyperbolic functions

are easily obtained from the definitions ; their derivation
is left to the student in the exercises below.

EXERCISES
1. Show that
cosh^ X — sinh^ x = 1,

1 — tanh^ X = sech^ x,
sinh 2 X = 2 sinh x cosh x,
cosh 2 X = cosh^ x + sinh^x.
2. Show that

-— sinh X
(IX
= cosh x, — cosh x = sinh x
ax
3. Show that
sinh-i X = log (x + Vl + x^).

Fundamental Differentiation Formulas

d dv du
^_v
(3)
^ ^
^uv=u^ + v—.,
dx
dx dx -

(3')
66 CALCULUS

^^ dxv tfldx'

- dydy du
^"^ dx du' dx'

(6)
^ -^
^a» = na"-i^,
dx dx
du

(6') |-V^ = -^,

(7) A.,n„=co,„| = sin(« + |)*

(8)
 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 67

11. cos* 2 a;. 12 (3 ^^-4)'

x2 + 1

13. arcsin :
14. taii2(l - x).

16.
VS-ix 16.

17. log log cos X. 18.

(i-'>
19. 2^. 20. Vsin x'.

21. X log \/l — X. 22. (e'" - ly.

23. sin X cos 2 x. 24. ai'ccos log x.
2 2 3
26. 26. (a' - 3;'^)2.
a:Va;2 +1
27.
(^ - 1)° 2g sipg 2 ^
(x^ + 3x+ 3y (l-cos2e/
29. log(e2* + 1). 30. logtan(|+|y

Find y' in the following cases.

31. sin (x + y) = cos (i — !/). e'l' = + y. a;

33. 2-' +--1 = 3. 34. x — y = tan(a: — y").

a;^ a;

36. Find y", if ay^ = a:8. 36. Find y'", if x^ - y^ = a?:

Find the slope of each of the following curves at the point indicated.

37. (x - y)2 = 3 X + 4 y - 14 at (2, 2).

38. y = log X at the point where y = — 2.
39. y = e» (a) at the point where y =2; (b) at the point where
X = log 3.

40. arcsin x + xy = 0, at the point x =— 1.

 CHAPTER VI
THE DIFFERENTIAL

49. Order of infinitesimals. We have found that in the

problem of differentiation the increments Ax and Ay are in-

finitesimals, with Ax as the principal infinitesimal (§ 10).

An idea of fundamental importance in the study of in-
finitesimals is that of order. Let an infinitesimal v be de-
fined as a function of a principal infinitesimal u. If

where k=^0, then u and v are said to be infinitesimal of

the same order ; if
lim ^ =
"-^ u
V is said to be of higher order than u. More precisely, if

a number n can be found such that

where k=^0,v\s said to be infinitesimal of the n-th order

with respect to u.
If u and V are of the same order, we may write
V = ku + eu,
where e is an infinitesimal. It is clear that when u ap-
proaches 0, the term eu approaches more rapidly than
does ku, so that for sniall values of u the term ku is

numerically the larger. For this reason the term ku is

called the principal part of v.

Sample : When the side ? of a square increases by an

amount Al, the area increases by an amount
AA = (l + Aiy- P = 2 ZAZ + A'f.
 THE DIFFERENTIAI §9

If Al approaches 0, AA does also.

lAl
The two infinitesimals are of the
same order, since

^^ ^= ^'"^ (2Z+AZ) = 2Z.

The principal part of AA is 2 ZAZ.

The figure illustrates the fact that
AA consists of a term of the first
and a term of the second order.
 7® CALCULUS

the segment of Ay cut off by the tangent at P. For, the

slope at P is
^ PQ Ax'
so that
QB = i/'Az.

The principal part of Ay (the

length QR in Fig. 26) is called

the differential * of y and is writ-

ten dy :
Fig. 26
dy = y' Ax.

.Hence the increment Ay consists in general of the differ-

-, ential dy plus an infinitesimal of higher order. This is

illustrated by the example of § 49.

In particular, let «/ = a; then t/' = 1, and ;

dy = dx = Ax-;
i.e. the differential of the independent variable is the incre-
ment of the variable. We may therefore write
dy=y'dx.
Thus the differential of any function is equal to its derivative
multiplied by the differential of the independent variable.
The derivative of y with respect to x may now be thought
of as a quotient — the differential y divided by theof
differential of x. This is the reason for using the symbol

-^ to denote the derivative. The symbol -^ may thus be

dx dx
considered as representing an actual division — the ratio
dy -i- dx. It must be kept clearly in mind, however, that
the derivative is a certain limit, viz.

^= lim 4^.
dx Aa>->o Aa;

If y = f(x)^ instead of writing

* In case j/' =?t 0. If y' = 0, then dy = 0.

 ; : '

THE DIFPBEENTTAL 71

we may, and often do, write

dy=f'(x)dx.
Thus the fundamental foi'mulas of differentiation are
often written in this so-called differential notation ; e.g.

d{x'*^ = nx^'^dx, dQog m) = —

du
, etc.
u
Examples: (a) If y = sin 2 0, then
di/=2cos2edd.
(6) Find an approximate formula for the area of a
narrow circular ring.
The area of a circle of radius r is

^= 7rr2.

If the radius be increased by an amount Ar, the area is

'increased by an amount AA whose principal part is

dA = 2 7rr dr.

Hence the area A^, of a narrow circular ring is approxi-

mately the product of the circumference * by the width w
A^=2 irrw.

EXERCISES
Find the differential of each of the following functions.

1. (a) a:»; (i) cosd; (c) fi-l; (d) logx;

—
(e) arcsinjr; (/) tan 2 a; (g)
V
^-—yl
1
W sin^"-

Ans. (a) 2xdx; (6) —sin Odd.

2. (b) log (1 - cos 2 e) ;
(c) ue"
X
72 CALCULUS

n
9. r —[T—-
= COS 9 ,
10.
„ ,
i/=e-'^3Uikx.
. ,

11. F=|irr''. 12. x = <sina<.

13. y = (1 + a^) arctan a. 14. y = cos^ 2 1.

15. Find the difEerence between dy and A^, if y = x'. Draw the
figure.

16. Proceed as in Ex. 15 for the function y = x* — x^.

17. If y = 4:X, find A^ and dy and show geometrically why they

are equal.

18. If s=16fi+2ot, find the difference between As and ds when

t = 12 and At = .02.

19. Draw figures to show that dy may be equal to, greater than, or
less than Ay.
20. Show that the error committed in using the approximate
formula of example (6), § 50, is irw^. When r = 10 ft., what is the
greatest allowable value of zv if accuracy to within 5% is required?
Ans. About 1 ft.

21. If A is the area of a rectangle one of whose sides is twice the

other, draw a figure showing the difEerence between dA and AA
when the length of the side changes (cf. Fig. 25).

22. If F is the volume of a cube, draw a figure showing the differ-

ence between dV and AF when the length of the edge of the cube
changes.
23. Find an approximate formula for the volume of a thin cylin-
drical shell of thickness ^. Ans. 2-rrht.

24. Find an approximate formula for the volume of a thin spheri-

cal shell. What is the greatest allowable thickness for a radius of
5 ft. if accuracy to 1 % is required? Ans. About 0.6 in.
Find approximately the volume of wood required
25. to make a
covered cubical box of edge 3 ft., using half-inch boards.
Ans. 2^ cu. ft.

26. Work Ex. 25 if the dimensions of the box are 6, 4, and 2 ft.

h
is
51. Parametric equations
frequently not
implicit functions. curve
determined by an equation between x
; A
and but by two equations giving x and «/ in terms of a
y,
third variable, or parameter. These equations are called
parametric equations of the curve.
 THE DIFFEREXTIAL 73

For instance, the coordinates of a point moving in a

plane are functions of the time :

These two equations may be considered as parametric

equations of the path. Again, the equations of an ellipse
in terms of the eccentric angle are <f)

z = a cos (f>s 1/ =b sin <f).

While it may be possible to eliminate the parameter,

thus obtaining the ordinary cartesian equation of the
curve, it is often more convenient not to do so.
When dealing with pai-ametric equations, it is conven-
ient to use differentials in finding derivatives, particu-
larly the derivatives of higher order. The method is

illustrated by example (a) below.

Differentials can also be iised conveniently in finding
derivatives when the relation between the variables is an
implicit one.

Examples : ((7) Find ^

dx
and —^ when
di^

We have
dx=Sdt,dv=-2tdU^='^-
ax b

To find '—-. put (for convenience) '^ = y' . Then

dx- dx
di/' = ^dt
hence

»
dx^ dx Sdt

(A) Find y* and y" when 3^ + tf^=a'.

Differentiating both sides of the equation, we get

•2x dx + 2 ;/ dy = 0. j^ = — -:
if
 ; . ; ;

74 CALCULUS

, , y dx— X dy

dy
,, -y +^-f- -y --
a?

yii = m. ^
dx y"^
^= y^
y.

_ — y^ — a;" _ _ a^

EXERCISES

Find -^ and ^ — in the following cases.

dx dx^
1. (a) X = = _3
<2, J,
t ;
(J) I = «2 + 1, = iS. J,

(c) X= COS 2 6, = sin 2 5 2/ ;

(rf) x = a cos^ $, y= a sin' fl

(e) = e^', y = e' + 1

j;

(/) r = a (cos 6 + 6 sin 5), y = a (sin 6 — 6 cos ^)

4ns. (o) ^=-J_.

2. (a)j(2 = 4aa;; (J) r" _-j,2 =l ;
(c) xi + i/i = ai
(tZ) xt + ys = a^ ;
(e) x-y' = y^; (/) a;' + ^8 = 3 azj^.
^„,. („)^=_i±^
Find -^, using differentials,
cfa;

3. Zx^^ — xy + x^ — y — 5 = 0. 4. y = cos (a; — ^).

6. e'«'+>'' = xy. 6. 2^^ + ^^ ^ 5.

X + y
7. log Vx2 + 2^2 = a;. ^„s. (^.y _ a° + y^ - a:

da; y
B.'xy- xh)^ + 5y = 5. 9. x* - S x^ + xy^ - y^ = 0.

\
 CHAPTER VII

CURVATURE
52. Differential of arc. Let s denote the length of the
arc of the plane curve

counted from some initial

point Pq up to the point
P : (x, ?/), and suppose for
definiteness that 8 increases
as X increases. arc s can The
be regarded as a function of

X. Its derivative — may be Fia. 27

found as follows :

A« As PF As yJAcd + A/
Are PP Ax Pp' Ax
As
Tp'
where As is the length of the arc, the length of the PP
chord, from P
(x, y) to P' {x + Ax, y + Ay).
: Since, as
:

pointed out in § 38,

lim As _ ..

we have
*= lim ^: A
(1)

If s increases as x decreases, then

HI
As As
Ax PP'
75
76 CALCULUS

and
2

(2) g = -Vl+(f
dx ^ \dxj
After squaring and clearing of fractions, equation (1)
(or (2)), becomes

i.e. da is the hypotenuse of the right triangle whose sides

are dx and dy.
If the tangent to the curve at P makes an angle a with
OX, then
dx dy
cos « = -— , sin a. = -f--
ds ds
53. Curvature. We say in ordinary language that a
curve whose direction changes rapidly has great curvature,
or is sharply curved. Thus a circular arc is said to have
greater curvature when the radius is small than when it is

large. This somewhat vague idea may be made precise as

follows.
Consider, two points P, P' on a circle, and denote
first,

the arc PP' by A«, the angle between the tangents at P,

P' by Aa. The quotient — is evidently the change in

the direction of the curve, per unit of arc* ; it is called the

curvature of the circle.
If now the curve in question is

not a circle, the direction of the

curve no longer changes uniformly,

__^ and the quotient — represents

Fig. 28 merely the average curvature of the

arc As. But if P' be made to ap-
proach P along the curve, so that As and Aa approach 0,

the quantity —
As
in general approaches a limit —
ds
, which

* It is easily seen that, in the case of the circle, this quotient is constant.
 , :

CURVATURE 77

is called the curvature at the point P

K= Ag-^o
lim ^
As
= ^.
ds

The definition is of course independent of the particular

coordinate system used ; the angle a is the anjgle made by
the tangent at P with any fixed line in the plane of the
curve. When the equation of the curve is given in car-
tesian coordinates, it is convenient to take a as the slope-
angle of the tangent — i.e. the angle between the tangent
and the a;-axis. The curvature k is then easily expressed
in terms of the coordinates. For,

tan a = -f- = y',

ax
a = arctan y'

1+/2 1 + ^2
Also, by § 52,
= -\/l+y'^dx.
Hence
K=
da_ y"
(1)
ds (l+y'2)t

It is customary to consider k as essentially positive, so

that, strictly speaking, we should write
da _ \y" I

(1 + y'^y
where the symbol |
a \
means the absolute or numerical
value of a.

It should be noted that when y' = 0, formula (1) re-

duces to

Thus the value of the second derivative at any point is

equal to the curvature at that point when the coordinate

axes are so chosen that the first derivative is 0.
 :

78 CALCULUS

54. Radius of curvature. The reciprocal of the curva-

ture is called the radius of curvature, and is denoted by p

1 ds^(l+j^
P =K,

da y"
This quantity is also to be considered as essentially
positive.
If a length equal to the radius of curvature p at the
point P be laid off on the normal from P toward the con-
cave side of the curve,
the extremity Q of this
segment is called the
center of curvature. It
can be shown that the
circle with radius p and
center Q represents the
curve near P .more
closely than any other
circle. This circle is

called the osculating cir-

cle, or circle of curvature.
Fig. 29
In general, the circle
of curvature crosses the curve at P, as is the case in
Fig. 29.
EXERCISES
1. Show that the curvature of a straight line is everywhere 0.

2. Show that the radius of curvature of a circle is the radius of

the circle.
Find the radius of curvature of the following curves.
3. y = x^ (a) at any point ;
(J) at the vertex.

y^= i ax. (4 0"+ y")^

4. Ans.
4a2
6. The equilateral hyperbola 2xy = a^ at (a, I a). Ans. I V5 a.

6. y = x^+5x^+ 6a: at (0,0). Ans. 22.51.

7. The eUipse ^ + ^1=1. Ans. (gy + b*x'')^

a*6*
 CURVATURE 79

8. The hyperbola E!_y^= i.

9. The hypocycloid 2* + y* = a^. Ans. S(axyy.

10. The ellipse x = a cos y = b sin <ft,
<^'.

11. The curve x = t% y = 1 — t*.

12. The curve x = Sfi, y = 3t- i'. Ans. f (1 + fiy.

13. The catenary y ^^ye" + e V at the point (0, a). Ans. a.

14. Show that the curvature at a point of inflection is 0.

16. Find the point of maximum curvature on the curve y = e".

Ans. (-0.347,0.707).
16. At what points of the curve y = x" is the curvature greatest?

17. Plot the parabola a;^ = 4 2/ accurately, on a large scale, in the

interval from x = — ^ to = a; |, and draw the osculating circles at the
points X = 0, X = I, X = 1.
-V.
 :: ' :

CHAPTER VIII

APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE IN MECHANICS

55. Velocity and acceleration in rectilinear motion. If a

point P moving in a straight line describes equal spaces
in equal times, its motion is said to be uniform. Its dis-
tance X from the starting point is evidently proportional
to the time
X = Vff.

The constant factor v^ is called the velocity of the moving

point ; it is equal to the space passed over per unit time.
If the motion is not uniform, we introduce the idea of
velocity at a point or instant. Suppose that a distance A.x
including the point P is described

p in time M : then the quotient

Fig. 30 . .

is the average velocity during that

interval of time. If now At approaches in such a way that
P always remains in Ax, the quotient — approaches a limit

'
which is called the velocity at the point P- This limit is

of course the derivative of x with respect to t

j,^ lim A5 = ^

Thus the velocity is the time-rate of change of space

described (cf. § 6).
The rate of change of the velocity is called the
acceleration
.^dv^dhc
^ dt dt^
80
 APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 81

If the acceleration y is constant, the motion is said to be

uniformly accelerated. Animportant case of uniformly
accelerated motion is that of a body falling toward the
earth from a point near the earth's surface, all resistances
being neglected. The attraction of the earth gives the
body an acceleration g, called the acceleration of gravity,
equal to 32 ft. per second per second approximately.
In any problem,
it is instructive to draw the graphs of

X, V,and j as functions of t. In doing this, it should be

remembered that the graph of v is the first derived curve
(§ 35), the graph of J is the second derived curve, cor-
responding to the graph of x.

EXERCISES *

1. A stone is thrown upward with a velocity of 64 ft. per second.

The distance from the starting point at the time i (in seconds) is

y=16fi -64: t,

the positive sense being downward. Find the velocity and the
acceleration. How high will the stone rise and for how long a time ?
Where is the stone and what is its velocity after 5 seconds of motion ?
What distance is covered in the sixth second V
2. In Ex. 1, draw the graphs of y, v, andy.
3. A particle slides down an inclined plane. The distance from
the starting point at any time t is

X = 4:fi-20 t.

Discuss the motion.

4. A point moves according to the law x = 6 cos 2 t. Discuss the
motion. Draw the graphs of x, v, and/.
6. A point moves according to the law x = 32 (1 — e-'). Discuss
the motion.
6. A point moves according to the law x = log (1 + 2 t). Discuss
the motion. Draw the graphs of x, i; and/.
7. A point moves according to the law x = e-' sin 2 1. Discuss the
motion.

* The types of motion considered here will be discussed more in detail

in Chapter XXVII.
G
 : :

82 CALCULUS
8. The positions of a point at the ends of successive seconds are
observed as follows
i\0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x\0 -1 4 7 ¥
Draw the graphs of v and j, and find an approximate expression for
V andy in terms of t.

56. Vectors. A right line segment of definite length,

direction, and sense is called a vector. Vectors are of great
importance in physics because they can be used to repre-
sent velocities, accelerations, forces, and other fundamental
quantities.
The resultant of two vectors AB, AO is the diagonal
AD of the parallelogram having AB, AC as adjacent sides.
0^ __j Two forces acting on the same par-
ticle are equivalent to a single force,
their resultant; similarly for other
vectors. This is the parallelogram
Fig. 31
law. The operation of finding the
resultant by the parallelogram law is called geometric
addition.
The original vectors AB, AO are called components of
AB. It is evident that any vector may be resolved into
components in an infinite number of ways.
57. Velocity in curvilinear motion. If a moving point
describes a plane curve, its coordinates are functions of
the time

The distance s passed over along the

curve is also a function of the time.
The velocity at any point P is

defined as the vector, laid off on

the tangent to the path from P, of
magnitude

y^ lim
'^*->o
^^^
Af dt
 APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 83

The components of the velocity parallel to the coordi-

nate axes are
v^ = v cos a, v^= V sin a,

where « is the angle between OX and the tangent at P.

By §52,
V cos «
ds
=— - .
ds dy _ dy
dt dt ds dt
84 CALCULUS

Since ds=r dO, where r is the radius of the circle, it

follows that the linear velocity v —

= ds and the angular

velocity a are connected by the relation

I V = (or.

The rate of change of the angular velocity is called the

angular acceleration, and is denoted by a :

EXERCISES
1. A man can row a boat 5 mi. per hour. If he pulls at right
angles to the course of a river 2 mi. wide having a current of 3 mi.
per hour, where and when will he reach the opposite shore ?

2. In Ex. 1, if the man wishes to land directly opposite his start-

ing point, in what direction must he row and how long will it take
him to cross? An&. 30 min.

3. A steamship is moving at the rate of 12 mi. per hour. A man

walks across the deck at right angles to the ship's course, at the rate
of 5 mi. per hour. If the deck is 40 ft. wide, how far is he finally
from his starting point ?
4. If a point moves so that
X = a cos t, y = a sin t,

find the total velocity in magnitude and direction at the time t.

What is the path described?

5. Find the path and discuss the motion of a point whose co-
ordiuates are
X = 3 (, y = — ? 7.

6. The equations of the path of a moving body in terms of the

time are
a; = 20 (, 2/ = 16 fi.

Find the position of the body, its distance from the starting point,
and the magnitude and direction of the velocity when t = 2.
7. A flywheel 2 ft. in diameter makes 100 revolutions per minute.
Find its angular velocity in radians per second, and the linear velocity
of a point on the rim. What constant angular retardation (negative
acceleration) would bring it to rest in 10 seconds?
 APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 85

8. A point moves in a circle in such a way that

Find (0 and a, and draw the graphs of 6, o), and a as functions of t.

9. Find the angular velocity in Ex. 4.

10. In Ex. 8, find u, and u„ when < = 1 if the radius of the circle is

10 ft. Ans. v^ =- 42.1, Vy = 27.0 ft. per sec.

59. Acceleration in curvilinear motion. Suppose the

velocity of the moving point P at the time t is v, at the
time t + At is v' = V + Av, where Av is the vector which,
geometrically added
to v, produces ii' . If
V and v' be laid off
from a common ori-

W
gin 0, the third side

(Fig. 35)
of the triangle
is evi-
dently Av. Now as
A* approaches 0, Av
does likewise ; but Fig. 34

in general the ratio

— approaches a definite limit, and the direction of Av ap-

proaches 'a definite limiting
direction.
The vector of length

T Av
3 = lira -TT'
Ac
A«->-0

laid off in the limiting direc-

tion of Av, is called the ac-
celeration of P at the time t.

It is the so-called geometric

derivative, or vector deriva-
FiQ. 36
tive, of V with respect to t.

To find an expression for j in terms of the coordinates

of P, we may resolve J into components J^ and jy parallel
 .

86 CALCULUS

to the coordinate axes. Denoting by <f>'

the angle between
Aw and the x-axis, let us project the triangle iTF' on OX :

Av cos </)' = vj — v^ = Av^.

Dividing by At, we get

—
Av
At
cos
J,
d)'
^
—5,
= Av.
At
whence, in the limit when At approaches 0,

dv- cPx

where 0, the limiting value of (f>',

is the angle between J
and the a;-axis. Similarly
;
.

•'
.

sin (p
^
,
—" = d^x
= dv,,
dt
—
dt^
Thus
. _dv^_d2x
——
Jx
dt dt^'

Jy
dvy _ d^y
dt dt^
The total acceleration j is

inclined to the a;-axis at an angle

<j) = arctan"^.

It is often more conven-

ient to resolve j into
components jf and j„ along
the tangent and the nor-
mal to the curve at P.
These components can be
found directly from the
Fig. 37 definition of j ; for vari-
ety, however, we will find
them by projecting the components y, and j\ on the
tangent and normal.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 87

If the tangent at P makes an angle a with the a;-axis,

then
jt = jx cos a + jy sin a
_ dv^ dx dv^ dy
_

dt ds dt ds
dv^ dx dvy
dt dt dt
88 CALCULUS

with respect to «, we find

dv„ dv^

1=-
 APPLICATIONS 9F THE DERIVATIVE «9

differentiatingwith respect to the time. Frequently,

however, the problem is solved by expressing the quantity
in question in terms of another quantity whose rate of
change is known, and then differentiating the equation
connecting them. The method is best explained by an
Example: Water is flowing into a conical reservoir
20 ft. deep and 10 ft. across the top, at the rate of 15 cu.

ft. per minute. Find how fast the surface is rising when
the water is 8 ft. deep.
The volume of water is
 ?

90 CALCULUS

3. Water is flowing into an inverted conical tank 32 ft. deep

and 12 ft. across at the bottom, at the rate of 4 cu. ft. per second.

How fast is the surface rising ?

4. Two trains start from the same point at the same time, one

going due east at the rate of 40 mi. per hour, the other north 60 mi.
per hour. At what rate do they separate? Ans. 72.1 mi. per hour.
^ 5. Two railroad tracks intersect at right angles. At noon there
is a train on each track approaching the crossing at 40 mi. per hour,
one being 100 mi., the other 200 mi. distant. Find (a) how fast
they are approaching each other, (J) when they will be the nearest
together, and (c) what will be their minimum distance apart.
Ans. (b) 3 45 p.m. (c) 70.7 mi. :
;

6. A ladder 20 ft. long leans against a vertical wall. If the

lower end is being moved away from the wall at the rate of 2 ft. per
second, how fast is the top descending when the lower end is 12 ft.
from the wall?
^ 7. A man 6 ft. tall walks away from a lamp-post 10 ft. high at the
rate of 4 mi. per hour, (a) How fast is the further end of his shadow
moving? (6) How fast is the shadow lengthening
8. A man on a wharf 20 ft. above the water pulls in a rope, to
which a boat is attached, at the rate of 4 ft. per second. At what
rate is the boat approaching the shore when there is 25 ft. of rope
out?
- 9. A kite is 120 ft. high, with 130 ft. of cord out. If the kite
moves horizontally 4 mi. per hour directly away from the boy flying
it, how fast is the cord being paid out ?

10. A stone dropped into a pond sends out a series of concentric

ripples. If the radius of the outer ripple increases steadily at the
rate of 6 ft. per second, how fast is the disturbed area increasing at
the end of 2 seconds? Ans. 452 sq. ft. per sec.
* H. The path traced by a moving point the parabola y
is = x^
+ 2 a; + 3. If u,. = 3 ft. per second, find Vy and the total velocity v.

Ans. Vy = 6 X + 6.

12. A point moves on the hyperbola x^ — y^ = 144 with v^ = 15 ft.

per second. Find v at the point (13, 5).

" 13. As a man walks across a bridge at the rate of 5 ft. per second,
a boat passes directly beneath him at 10 ft. per second. If the bridge
is 30 ft. above the water, how fast are the man and the boat separat-
ing 3 seconds later? Ans. 8|^ ft. per sec.
 APPLICATIONS OF T^ DERIVATIVE 91

14. A on the ground 30 ft. from a building. A

light is placed
man 6 walks from the light toward the building, at the rate of
ft. tall

5 ft. per second. Find the rate at which his shadow on the wall is
shortening when he is 15 ft. from the building. Ans. i ft. per sec.
^ 16. Solve Ex. 14 if the light is 8 ft. above the ground.
16. An elevated train on a track 30 ft. above the ground crosses *
street at the rate of 20 per second, at the instant that an auto-
ft.

mobile, approaching at the rate of 30 ft. per second, is 40 ft. up the

street. Find how fast the train and the automobile are separating
2 seconds later.
17. In Ex. 16, find when the train and the automobile are nearest
together. ,4ns. ^f sec.

18. A ft. from a building.

light stands 60 A man walks along a
path 20 from the building, at the rate of
ft. 5 ft. per second. How
'

fast does his shadow move on the' building ?

^ 19. An arc light hangs at a height of 30 ft. above the center of a,
street 60 ft. wide. A man 6 ft. tall walks along the sidewalk at the

rate of 4 ft. per second. How fast is his shadow^ lengthening when
he is 40 ft. up the street? Ans. 0.8 ft. per sec.

20. In Ex. 19, how fast is the tip of the shadow moving ?
^ 21. A light stands 30 ft. from a house, and 20 ft. from the path
leading from the house to the street. A man walks along the path at
5 ft. per second. How fast does his shadow move on the wall when
he is 20 ft. from the house ?
 CHAPTER IX

CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES

I. Algebraic Curves

61. Introduction. In Chapter IV we learned how to

trace simple curves whose equations are given in the ex-
plicit form

and for which y^ y', and y" are one-valued and continuous.
In the present chapter we shall attempt a more general
treatment of the subject of curve tracing.
In §§ 62-67 we confine our attention to algebraic curves
— i.e. curves for which the ordinate y is an algebraic func-

tion of X.
62. Singular points. If y is defined implicitly as a
function of x by the equation

JTa;, 2/)=0,
the derivative in general takes the form of a fraction
whose numerator and denominator are functions of both
X and y say :

^
,
^ ACx,y)
B(x, y)

If A(x, y) and B(x, y) both vanish at the point (x, y) P :

on the curve, the slope at that point assumes the inde-

terminate form ~. A point at which the derivative takes

the form - is called a singular point.

To find the singular points of a curve we must therefore

92
 CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 93

find the values of x and y that satisfy the three equations

Bix, z/)=0.
As we have but two unknowns x and y to satisfy three
equations, it appears that a curve will have singular
points only under certain conditions.
It will be sufficient to consider an algebraic curve
having a singular point at the origin. If a singularity
occurs at any other point (A, A), the origin may be trans-
ferred to that point by the substitutions
x= x^ + h,
=
y y^ + k.
63. Determination of tangents by inspection. Let the
equation of the curve be written in the form

F(x, y')=aQ + \x + b^y + c^x^ + c^xy + c^y^ +•••+ ^„y" = 0.

Differentiating, we find

(Jo + 2c^ + c^y + —')dx+ (Sj + e^a; + 2 e^y + -•')dy = 0,

%— Jq + 2 g^a: + gi,y -I

b^ + c^x+2c^y+ •
_

dx
The origin is on the curve only if a^ = 0. In that case
the equation of the tangent at (0, 0) is found by the
usual method (§ 27) to be

*o* + hy = 0)
provided Jq and h^ are not both ; i.e. the equation of the
tangent at the origin may be found by simply equating to
the group of terms of the first degree.
In case a^, h^ and b^ are all 0, the origin is on the curve
and the derivative is indeterminate at that point; hence the
originis a singular point. In this case the equation of
the curve evidently contains no terms of lower degree
than the second.
94 CALCULUS

For convenience let us put*

c^a?' + G^xy + c^y'^ =oJy'^-\- ^xy + ^xA

\ c^ c^ J
= c^(,y- m^x) (y - m^x) .

Then

The
^C^^ y) = Hiy - ^1^) iy - ™^^^ + ^o^
abscissas of the points of intersection of the line
-i —= o-

y = mx
with this curve are given by the equation

c^x\m—m{)(m — wig) + «^(<^o + •.) + ••• =0.

Two roots of this equation are : every line y = mx inter-
sects the curve intwo coincident points at the origin.
But the above equation in x also shows that if we let m
approach either m-^ or m^, the coefficient of a^ approaches ;

i.e. a third point of intersection of the curve with the line

y — mx approaches the origin, and the lines

y=myx, y = m^x
are both tangent to the curve at the singular point. These
lines may of course be real and distinct, real and coincident,
or imaginary.
Since

Hiy - "^i^) iy - '"a^) = ''o^ + "i^y + '^^y^-'

we see that the equations of the two tangents are obtained

by equating the second degree terms to 0, and factoring the
left member of the resulting equation.
The argument we have used can be extended to show
that F{x, y) has no terms of degree lower than the Ath,
if

any line through the origin meets the curve there in h

points, and the k tangents to the curve at the origin are
obtained by equating the group of terms of lowest degree
to 0.

* The argument is readily modified to take care of the case C2 = 0.

 CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 95

Kinds of singular points. A point at which there

64.
are two tangents (whether distinct, coincident, or imagi-
nary) is called a double point one at which there are :

three tangents is a triple point ; etc. It follows from § 63

that the origin is a double point if the equation F(^x, //) =
has terms of the second, but none of lower, degree; a triple
point if the equation has terms of the third but none of
lower degree ; etc.

If the tangents at a double point

are real and different, the point is
called a node : two branches of the
curve cross each other, as in Fig. 39.
If the tangents are imaginary, the
point is called an isolated or cot{!U(fate point : there are no
other points of the curve in its vicinity. Such a point is

P in Fig. 40.
If the tangents are real and coincident,
there are several possibilities. The simplest
singularity in this case is the cn^p of the
first kind : two branches of the curve touch
each other, coming up on opposite sides of
Fig. 40
' t^^^ cuspidal tangent., as in Fig. -11. At a
cusp of the second kind the two branches lie

on the same side of the tangent, as in Fig. 42. Fre-

quently the point is a double cusp, or point of osculation,

FiQ. 41 Fig. 42 Fio. 43

the commonest form of which is shown in Fig. 43. And

in some cases the point may be an isolated point.
96 CALCULUS

Example : Examine the curve i/^ = x^ — a;^ for singular

points.
Since there are no terms of lower than the second degree,
the curve has a singular point at the origin. The tangents
at that point are given by the equation

i.e. they are the lines

'
y = ix,
y = — ix.
These lines are imaginary, and the origin is an isolated
point.
There are no other singular points. For,
3a^-22:
y
,
=-^ '

and the coordinates of the singular point must satisfy the

three equations
3a;2-2a; = 0,

y^ = 3?— x^.

The first two equations are satisfied by the coordinates

(0, 0), (|, 0), but the second pair do not satisfy the last
equation. (See also Ex. 20 below.)

EXERCISES
Show that the origin is a singular point for each of the following
curves, write the equations of the tangents there, and determine the
nature of the singularity.
1. The folium x' + y' = S axy. Ans. Node.
2. a;y = a\x^+y'^). ^

Z. y =
x+ y
4. The cissoid y2 =^ ^m. Cusp of the first kind.
2a — X
6. y* = 2 ax'^ — a;'.

6. + y2) = aV.
y2(a;2 Ans. Double cusp.
7. yXx^ - a?) = X*. Ans. Isolated point.
 ^ CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 97
I

/ 8. (_y — = x^.
x^y Ans. Cusp of the second kind.
9. y^= + x^.
X*

10. x' — xy^ = y*. Ans. Triple point.

11. The lemniscate (x^+y^y = a^(x^ - y^).
12. Show that the conchoid x^y^ = (a + yy{b^ — y^) has a node at
(0, - a) if 6 > a.
13. Show that the curve a(y — xy=(x — aY has a cusp at (a, a).

Find the singular points of the following curves.

14. y^ =x(x - 1)2.

16. y^ = x{2x+ 1)2.

16. 2/2 _ x(x^ - 1). Ans. None.
17. ay^ = x\x - ay. Ans. Cusps at (0, 0), (a, 0).

18. 2/» + y2 = _ 1)2.(•a;2

19. xy^ + x^y = a'.

20. Prove that a cubic curve cannot have more than one singular
point.

21. Prove that the graph of a one-valued algebraic function

y =f{x)
cannot have any singular points.

65. Asymptotes. As the point of contact of a tangent

to a curve recedes indefinitely from the origin, the tan-
gent may or may not approach a limiting position. If it
does, the line approached is called an asymptote.
For example, the hyperbola

has the lines

?±| =
a

as asymptotes. On the other hand, the parabola has no

asymptotes, since as the point of tangency recedes the
tangent does not approach any limiting position.
Although general methods for finding asymptotes exist,

they are frequently difficult to apply. The following

tests are sufficient in ordinary cases.
98 CALCULUS

(a) To find the conditions that must be satisfied in or-

der that the line
y = mx + Tc

shall be an asymptote to the algebraic curve

(1) Kx, y) = a^x"- + a^x^-^y + +a„y" + &oa;"-i ...

+ \x^-^y + = 0, ...

let us substitute tux + Tz for y in the equation of the curve.

This gives an equation of the mth degree in x whose roots
are the abscissas of the n (real or imaginary) points of in-
tersection of the line with the curve.
It is shown in algebra that one root of the equation

A^x" + J.i2;"-i + ^a;''-^ + • . + ^=

becomes infinite if A^ approaches ; two roots become in-
finite if both Aq and A^ approach ; etc. Hence if we
equate to the coefficients of a:" and 7^~\ we shall in gen-
eral determine values of m and k such that the line
y = 7nx -1- Ti

will intersect the curve in two infinitely distant points.

Such a an asymptote. Of course if the
line is in general
coefficients of a;" and x^~^ cannot both vanish, there are no
asymptotes (except such as may be given by (5) below).
Example : (a) Find the asymptotes of the hyperbola
2:2_/_22;-2y-|-l=0.
Substituting y = mx -|-i, we get
3? - {mx + ky- -Ix- i(rnx H- A) -I- 1 = 0,
or
(1- m2-)a^4-(- 2 TO* -2m- 2)* -h ••• = 0.

Equating to the coefficients of the two highest powers of

x, we find
- 7n2 =
1 0,
— 2 mk — 2m — 2 = 0.

Whence
m = 1, k =— 2,
m = — 1, k = 0,
 CURVE rRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 99

and the asymptotes are

y = -x.
The curve is shown in Fig. 44.
(5) Asymptotes parallel to the
y-axis are not given by test (a),
since their equations cannot be writ-
Fig. 44
ten in the slope form.
Let us arrange the equation of the curve in descending
powers of y:

Fix, y) = a^- + (a^x + ^Oy"-^

+ ia^ + ^^ + 72)r"^ + - = 0.
If the term in y" is present, every value of x gives n finite
(real or imaginary) values of y, and no line x= k can in-
tersect the curve in infinitely distant points. But if

Kq = 0, then every line x = k intersects the curve in one

infinitely distant point. If now the coefficient of y^-^
involves x (i.e. if a^ #= 0), that coefficient equated to
gives us the equation of a line parallel to the y-axis
which intersects the curve in two infinitely distant points,
and is an asymptote.
This result can be extended to the case when the co-
efficient of the highest power of ^ is a polynomial of higher
degree in x. By equating this polynomial to we find
an asymptote parallel to OT corresponding to each real
linear factor of the polynomial.
Similarly, asymptotes parallel to may be found by OX
equating to the coefiicient of the highest power of x.
Such asymptotes are detected in general by test (a), but
it may be easier to find them by the present method.

JExample : (S) Test the curve (x^ — V)y'^ = 3^ for

asymptotes.
Equating to the coefficient of the highest power of y,
 . :

100 CALCULUS

we find the lines

Q^~ 1 = 0, i.e. X = ±1
as asymptotes parallel to OY. The coefficient of the
highest power of x cannot be equated to 0, so there are no
asymptotes parallel to OX.
To test for asymptotes oblique to the axes, p\iti/ = mx+k
(a;2 - l)(mV + 2 mkx + F) = a^.
Equating to the coefficients of the two highest powers of
X, we find
m2 = 0,
2mk=l.
These equations are incompatible ; hence there are no
oblique asymptotes.

EXERCISES
Test the following curves for asymptotes
1. xy + X = o.
2. x^ + y' = l. Ans. x + y = 0.

3. y'> = ax^ + x'>. 4. The cissoid y^ = —^— X

2 a
6. x'' + 7xy + 12y^ + x + iy -16 =0.
l = 0, x + iy = 0.
Ans. x + dy +
6. x^ —
xy + + 5x =y^0. Ans. None.
7. xY = a^x'' + y^). 8. The folium x' + y' = 3 axy.

9. xh/'^ +Ax'^+y^ + x = 10. x^y + xy'^ = a^.

(i.

11. x' - 4 xj/2 - 3 x2 + 12 xy - 12y= + 8 X + 2 + 4 = 0. 2/

Ans. 2;+.3=0, X -2y = x + 2y=6. (i,

12. xy^ — ay^ = 3^ + ax^ + a'. Ans. x = a, x ± y a = 0. -\-

13. ay^ = x^ xy^.

-\-

14. Prove that a parabola has no asymptotes, but that every line
parallel to the axis meets the curve in one infinitely distant point.

15. Prove that every line parallel to an asymptote meets the curve
in one infinitely distant point.

16. In example (h), § 65, prove that every line parallel to the
X-axis meets the curve in one infinitely distant point.
 CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 101

17. Show that a curve of the n-th degree cannot have more than n
asymptotes.
18. Show that the curve
3, = P(x),
where P(x) is any polynomial in x, has no asymptotes.

66. Exceptioneil cases. Exceptions may arise to the

theory of § 65. For instance, it may happen that the co-
efficient of a;""^ vanishes identically for some value of m for
which the term in a;" disappears, so that all lines having
this value of m
as their slope meet the curve in two points
at infinity. In this case there are in general two or more
parallel asymptotes having the given slope, and the values
of k are determined by equating to the coefficient of the
highest power of x that does not disappear identically.
The exceptional cases are rare and unimportant in
elementary work, and a fuller discussion of them is un-
necessary.
EXERCISES
^ 1. Show that the curve
{x + y)\x'^ + + f) = a'y^ + a\x -
xy y)
has the pair of parallel asymptotes x + y = ±a.
•— 2. Show that every line parallel to the a;-axis meets the curve
y* = x"^ + X
in two infinitely distant points, but that the curve has no asymptotes.

\ 67. General directions for tracing algebraic curves. The

following questions should be answered as fully as possible
before tr3'ing to trace an algebraic curve. ^
(1) Is the cur^e symmetric with respect to the coordinate
axes? (It is symmetric with respect to OYii the equation
isunchanged when x is changed to — a; etc.) ;

(2) Where does it intersect the axes f ^J

(3) Mas it any asymptotes? If so, locate each of the
points where the curve intersects its asymptotes.
(4) Is it possible to determine certain regions of the plane
within which the curve must lie?
 .

102 CALCULUS

(5) Has the curve any singular points ? If so, determine

the tangents at each point, and the nature of the singu-
larity draw the tangents if they are real.
;

(6) Has it any maximum and minimum points ?

The above is only a general outline of the process to be

followed ; other steps will often suggest themselves. In
many cases the points of inflection should be found and
the inflectional tangents drawn, but this is not worth while
if the second derivative is complicated. Translation or
rotation of axes is occasionally useful. The elementary
method of tracing the curve by plotting points is too la-
borious to be used extensively, but it is frequently advis-
able to plot a few points, merely as a check on the analysis.

Examples : (a) Trace the curve ^=3 aa? — a^.

(1) The curve is not symmetric with respect to either
axis.

(2) When x = 0, y = ; when y = 0, x = or S a.

(3) By § 65, the line

y =a —X
is an asymptote. Substituting a — x for y in the equa-
tion of the curve, we find

a' — 3 a^x + 3 az? — x^ = 3 ax?— a^.

The highest powers of x drop out, as they should, and

we find that the curve crosses its asymptote at a; = -.

o
(4) Writing the equation in the form
y^ = a;^(3 a — a;),

we see that y>Oiix<Sa, y<0 ifa;>3a. Hence the

curve is above the a>axis at the left of = 3 a, below at a;

the right of that point.

(5) Since there are no terms of lower than the second
degree, the origin is a singular point. The tangents are
given by the equation
3 aar^ = :
 CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 103

they coincide in the y-axis. Since, by (4), the curve

near the origin cannot go below OX, the point is a cusp.
For small values of x on either side of 0, y is real, hence
there is a branch on each side of OY, and the origin is a
cusp of the first kind.
Since the curve is a cubic, there can be no other singu-
lar points (Ex. 20, p. 97).
(6) The derivative is

Qax —3 a;^

dx 37
The numerator vanishes when a; = or 2 a. Rejecting
the value a; = 0, which gives the singular point, we
have a; = 2 a as the only critical value. It will appear
presently that the point (2 a, V-i a) is a maximum point.
To trace the curve, let us begin at the extreme left.
In that region, the curve must be just below its asymp-
tote, since it has to pass through the origin and can cross

the asymptote only at a; =- . It comes down to the

o
origin tangent to the ?/-axis, turns back on the other
fa 2 a'^
side, and crosses the asymptote at It IS now
3 3
clear that the critical value
a; = 2 a corresponds to a
maximum point. Return-
ing from the maximum, the
curve crosses OX at (3 a, 0)
and again approaches the
asymptote.
The curve is shown in
the figure.
(J) Trace the curve
cfiy^ = o^(c^ — ^').
Fio. 45
(1) The curve is symmet-
ric with respect to both axes
104 CALCULUS

(2) When a; = 0, ?/ = ; when y = 0, a; = 0, ±a.

(3) There are no asymptotes.
(4) When x is numerically greater than a, y^ is negative
and y is imaginary. Hence, the curve lies entirely be-

tween the lines x = ±a.

(5) The origin is a singular point. The tangents are
real and different,

hence the point is a node. There are no other singular

points.
(6) The first derivative is

dy ^ 1a^x-\x^ ^ x{a^ - 2 a;")

dx ^y y
This vanishes when
a^-1:^=0,x=± —
V2
-

Corresponding to each of these values the curve has, on

account of its symmetry, a maximum y =-^ and a mini-

Li
a
mum y
^ =
2
The student may draw the curve.

EXERCISES
Trace the following curves.

VI- y = \^^- 2. y = x(,x-\y.

1 +
 :

CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 105

16. 2/2(^2 + y2)=av 16. yz :^

^'(^' - "')

17. (y - xy = x8. 18. (x^ - a^)y^ = ax\

1Q „ (2-x)8

21. a;y _ (j2(-2.2

^ j,2). 22. s^y^ = (^ + a)2(4 a^ - a;^).

23. (x= - 2/^) (a; - 3 y) = a. 24. {y - x^y = x\

25. y^ = Aji^ .
26. aa' = (x^ _ a^y.

27. x»y = a\x + a) 2. 28. .v

= *^
(x + 1)2

II. Transcendental Curves

68. Tracing of transcendental curves. In tracing tran-
scendental curves, we follow much the same procedure as
in § 67, except in the matter of as3'mptotes and singular
points. While the definitions of §§ 62-65 hold for all
curves, the tests there given apply only to algebraic
curves.
We shall in this article confine our attention to tran-
scendental curves having no singular points. To find
asymptotes, the following rule may be used
In general, if x approaches a definite
y becomes infinite as
limit a, the line x=
an asymptote ; if x becomes infinite
a is

as y approaches 6, the line y = h is an asymptote.

In rare instances, the derivative may behave in such a
way that although the conditions of the rule are satisfied,
the tangent does not approach any limiting position, and
hence there is no asymptote but the rule holds in all ;

cases that are apt to arise in practice.

Example : Trace the curve y = xe'.

(1) There is no symmetry.

(2) The curve crosses the axes at (0, 0).
(3) As x becomes large and negative, y approaches * ;

* This statement is easily made plausible ; a strict proof will be given

later (§ 140).
106 CALCULUS

hence the negative a;-axis is an asymptote. When x is

large and positive, y is large and positive.

(4) Since e" is always positive, y has always the same

sign as x : the curve lies in the first and third quadrants.
(5) Since y' = xe" + e*, the only
critical point is [
— 1, The slope
J.
^-^
at (0, 0) is 1. ^

(6) y=a;e^+ 2e*. There is a

point of inflection at — 2, — -5) the

X ( ;

slope of the inflectional tangent is

Fig. 46
— e -2 _ .

0.14.
The curve is shown in Fig. 46.

EXERCISES
Trace the following curves.
1. y = e-'. Z. y = xe-'^- 3. y = tan x.
- loea; =
4. y = sec X. 6. 2, = _6_. 6. y e''.

n X
7. y = sin^ x. 8. y^ = sin X.
logs;
log
10. y^:
a:
11. y^ = log X. 12. y = ?l.
X

13. y = -
14. y = e~' sin x. 16. y = X log X.
log a;

16. Show that

then show that the curve

2 + sin x^

furnishes an exception to the rule of § 68.

69. Curve tracing by composition of ordinates. The

curve
«/ = /(«)
can be traced very readily if /(a;) has the form
CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 107

where
y = <^i(«). y = <^2(^)
are curves whose form is easily obtained. We have only
to add the ordinates of the two latter curves to obtain the
required curve.
Less frequently curves may be conveniently traced by
multiplying or dividing ordinates in a similar way.

^
EXERCISES
Trace the following curves.
1. y = X + log X. 2. y = X + -•
X
Z. y = e" — X. 4. y = sin x + cos x.
5. y = X -\- sva. X. 6. y = sinh x = •

7. 2/ = SHL£. 8. 3, = £5i^.
X X
9. The catenary is the curve in which a homogeneous cord or chain

hangs when suspended from two of its points under its own weight.
The equation is

jf = acosh- = |Ls+ e~j.

Trace the curve.
70. Graphic solution of equations. The roots of the
equation

are the abscissas of the points where the curve y=f(x')

crosses the a;-axis. Hence if we trace the curve y=f(£)
and measure its intercepts on OX, we have a graphic
solution of the equation /(a;) = 0. It is usually best to
get the general form of the curve by the methods of the
preceding articles, and then plot it carefully, on a large
scale, in the neighborhood of each of its ^-intersections.

The roots of the equation

(1) f{x) = ^{x)
are the abscissas of the points of intersection of the curves

y = ^(x).
108 CALCULUS

In case these two curves are easily traced, we thus ob-

tain with little labor a graphic solution of (1). This
method is frequently preferable to the first one mentioned
above.
Such methods may be useful in various ways. If no
high degree of approximation is required, the graphical
result may be sufficient in itself; it may be used as a
rough check on a more accurate result obtained in some
other way it gives a first approximation that may be
;

needed as a starting point for more elaborate methods,

or it may suggest some value of the variable which by
substitution is found to satisfy the equation exactly.

EXERCISES
Solve the following equations graphically.
1. x*-3x' + 3=0. 2. 3a;*-2a;8-21a;2_ 42;+ 11 =0.
3. a: + 10"^ = 0. 4. x + 2 cos x = 0.

5. X + logio X = 0. 6. x + cos X = 1.

7. Trace the curve y = x sin x, locating maxima and minima

graphically.

8. Solve the equation x log x = 1.

9. A gutter whose cross-section is an arc of a circle is to be made

by bending into shape a strip of tin of width 8 inches. Find the
radius of the cross-section when the can-ying capacity of the gutter
is a maximum. Ans. 2.55 in.

71. The cycloid. In the remainder of this chapter we

consider several special tran-
Y
scendental curves.
The path traced by any point
A on the rim of a wheel that rolls
without slipping along a straight
track is called a cycloid.
Let the circle of radius a roll
along the 2;-axis, and take the
initial position of A as origin.
Then, if (a;, y) are the coordinates of A,
CUm^ TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 109

Fig. 48

OB = arc AB^aO,
r= OB - AC = ad - a sin e = a(e - sin 6),
y = BO' - Ca = a-a cos ^= a(l - cos ^).
These are the parametric equations of the cycloid in terms
of the angle d through which the circle has rolled. The
coordinates of the center of the rolling circle are (a^, a).
The rate at which the center is advancing is

d ,. /i^ dO
ir ^ dt

where w is the angular velocity.

The curve is shown in Fig. 48.

72. The epicycloid. If a circle Tolls without slipping

on the outside of a fixed
circle, a point on the
circumference of the roll-
ing circle generates an
epici/cloid.
Let a and b be the
radius of the fixed circle
and that of the rolling
circle respectively, and
suppose the point A was
originally at i". Then
arc AL = arc -Ci,
or
b<f) = aO. Fig. 49

The equations of the path of .1 in terms of the param-

110 CALCULUS

eter may be obtained as follows :

x= 0M= OF+FM=- OF+DA

= + cos d + h sm\(l>-(^- e\
(^01
1-)
I

= (a + l~)cos6 — h cos (6 + 4>}

= (a + J) cos - 5 cos (0 + ^0)
b

= (^a + b') cos — b cos 1"

;

y = MA = FD = FO'-DO'
= (a + J) sin ^ — S cos <f>
2

= (a + 6) sin 0-i sin ^±^(9.

73. The hypocycloid. A point on the circumference

of a circle that rolls on the inside of a fixed circle gener-
ates a hypocycloid.
Its equations are obtained in the same manner as those
of the epicycloid. They are
~
a; = (a — 6) cos + b cos 0,
b
"~
y =(a —b^ sin — b sin 0.

EXERCISES
1. Show that the tangent to the cycloid passes through the highest
point of the rolling circle.

2. A wheel of radius 2 ft. rolls on a straight track with a velocity

of 6 ft. per second. Find j^, jy, j, jt, and y„ at the points 6=0, 6 =j ,

= TT.

3. The highest point on an arch of the cycloid is called its vertex.

Show that by taking the origin at the vertex and replacing 6 by
6' =6 — IT, the equations of the cycloid become
i' = a(e' + sine'),
y=- 0(1 -cos 6'),
CURVE TRACING IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 111

or, if we change the sense of the y-axis and drop subscripts,

X = a(0 + sin 6),
y = a(l — cos 5).
4. Sketch the epicycloid for which the rolling circle and the fixed

circle have the same radius. If -r- =— radians per second, find v and

J, and also find between what limits these quantities will vary.

5. Show that the hypocycloid for which b =- is a diameter of the

fixed circle.

6. Show that the equations of the hypocycloid of four cusps, for

which b = -, may be written

X = a cos' 0,
• y = a sin' 6.
Hence find its cartesian equation. Trace the curve.
7. Give the cartesian equation of the cycloid.
8. Find the radius of curvature of the cycloid. Ans. 4 a sin |^-

9. Trace the epicycloid for which h = - •

 CHAPTER X
CURVE TRACING IN POLAR COORDINATES
74. Slope of a curve in polar coordinates. We have
seen that in sketching a curve it is helpful to know the
direction of the curve at any point.
In cartesian coordinates the direc-
tion at the point P^ (^Xq, y^ is most
:

easily determined by giving the in-

clination of the curve to the straight
line y = y^ —
i.e. the "slope" of
the curve —
since this is found by
a mere differentiation. Similarly,
given the equation of a curve in
Fig. 50
polar coordinates, the direction at
the point Pq : (j-^, d^ is best found
by means of the inclination to the curve r = j-g, which is
of course a circlethrough P^ with center at 0. For this
reason the quantity tan ^, where ^
is the angle between the curve and

the circle just mentioned, will be

called the polar slope.
To find the polar slope we proceed
as follows. Consider a fixed point
P : (r, 0} and a neighboring point
P' .{r + Ar, + A0) on the curve
(Fig. 51), and drop a perpendicu-
lar PUT from P upon OP'. Let
Fio. 51
<!>' = ZIfPP'. Then

tan ^'
iVT' OP' - ON
PN PN
112
 CURVE TRACING IN POLAR COORDINATES 113

But
OP' =r + Ar, 0W= r cos A^, PN= r sin A(9.
Hence
tan ^' = r + Ar — r cos A6
r sin A0
_ Ar + ^Cl — cos A^)
r sin A^
^ Ar + 2 r sin^ j Ag
r sin A^
4 A^
Ar
^
A^
H
,
r sin
—
;—fTi
iA^
. ,
sin i
.
A^
/i

Ad
» sin :;—
A6'

When P' approaches P along the curve, <^' approaches

</>. By §38,
sin a
-,.
lim = -,

1.

Hence
dr
dO
tan ^ = lim tan </>' =
ii*->0

or

tan<|)=
rde'

The formula for tan ^ may be

remembered as follows. Strike
through P a circular arc PM with
center at (Fig. 52). Then
arc PM = rti^,
iHfP' = dr (approximately),
and
= MP'
tan rf)

arc PM^ (approximately).

This at once suggests the formula. Fig. 52
114 CALCULUS

75. Maxima and minima. When -- = 0, (^ = 0, and in

dv
general r is a maximum or a minimum, as at A and B,
Fig. 53. Just as in cartesian coordinates, there is a pos-
sible exception the curve may have
:

the form shown at C. However, the

exceptional case is rare in the simpler
curves.
76. Curve tracing. Before sketch-
ing a curve whose equation is given
in polar coordinates, the following
questions should be considered* :

(1) is the curve symmetric with

respect to the initial line? (It is, if
'°'
the equation is unchanged when 6 is

replaced by — ^; other tests may frequently be used.)

(2) Is it possible to determine any particular regions of
the plane within which the curve must lie ?

(3) At what points is the polar slope 0? Is the radius

vector amaximum or a minimum at each of these points ?
The above discussion is frequently insufficient to deter-
mine the general form of the curve, in which case addi-
tional points must be plotted.
Example : Trace the lemniscate r^ = a" cos 2 6.
(1) The curve is symmetric about the initial line.
(2) cos 2 ^ is negative, and r is imaginary, when

|<2^<T'^"-^-i<^<T
also when
5^<2e<I^,or^<0<If.
2 2 4 4
Hence the curve lies entirely within the sectors AOB,
OOB (Fig. 54).
* For brevity, the discussion of singular points and asymptotes is

omitted.
 : ,

CURVE TRACING IN POLAR COORDINATES 115

(3) Since

- a2 sin 2 6 = -
tan(^ tan 2 6.
cfi cos 2 6

From this the direction of the curve at any point may be

found.
When
tan (f>
= — tan 2^ = 0,
2 = 0, 2 3 TT, TT, TT,

and
^=0,5, TT,^.

Only the values afld tt give

real values of r ; at each of these
points r is a Maximum, viz. r= a.

The curve passes through the

origin whenever r=0; i.e.

when cos 2 5 = 0, or ^ = — —— ,

4 4
etc. The curve is shown in Fig. 54.

EXERCISES
Trace the* folio-wing curves.

1. r = 2 a cos ^. 2. The spiral of Archimedes r = a9.

3. r = o sec ^. 4. r =a cos 2 0.

6. r^ = a^ sin 0. 6. r =a cos 3 6.

7. r^ sin 2 5 = a^

8. The lima9on r = 6 - a cos ^, (a) when 6 =2a ; (6) when

: a ;
(c) when = ft ^ a.
I
9. The conic r = where e is the eccentricity, (a) if
:
1 — e cos 6
« <1 ;
(ft) if e = 1 ;
(c) if e > 1.
10. The logarithmic spiral r = e". Show that tan <^ is constant.

11. What is the form of the curve r = a cos nO, (a) when n. is

even ;
(ft) when n is odd ?
 CHAPTER XI
THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL

77. Integration. We
have been occupied up to this
point with the problem Given a function, to find its de-
:

rivative. Many of the most important applications of the

calculus lead to the inverse problem Given the derivative
:

of a function, to find the function. The required function

iscalled an integral of the given (ferivative, or integrand,
and the process of finding it is called integration.
If fix) is a given function and -F(a;) is a function
whose derivative is f(x), the relation between them is ex-
pressed by writing

where the " integral sign " j indicates that we are to per-

form the operation of integration upon f(x)dx. For

reasons that will appear later, it is customary to write
after the integral sign the differential f(x) dx, rather than
the derivative /(a;).
Examples: (a) Find the equation of a curve whose
slope at every point is equal to twice the abscissa of the
point.
We have to find a function y such that

-^ = 2x, ov dy=2xdx;
dx
hence

/^2 xdx.
116
 THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 117

It appears at once that 2 a; is the derivative of a?. Thus a

curve having the desired property is the parabola

But it is clear that if

(1) y = x'^+C,
where C is any constant whatever, we still have
dy = 2xdx,
and our data are satisfied by any
one of the family of parabolas rep-
resented by (1). In order to obtain
a unique answer to our problem, we
must have some additional informa-
tion about the curve. Thus, if it is

.to pass through the point P :

(1, ^),
we substitute these coordinates in
(1) =

1=1+ (7, C- 3

and the answer is

Fig. 55

y = x^+l.
(by Find the velocity of a body falling freely under
gravity at the end of 5 seconds, if the initial velocity is

20 ft. per second upward.

Taking motion downward as positive, we have to find v
from the relation (see § 55)

dv

Hence
V = \ g dt = gt + O.

Making use of the fact that w =— 20 when i = 0, we get

- 20 = + (7,

and the velocity at the time t is

y=^«-20.
118 CALCULUS

At the end of 5 seconds we have, taking g= 32,

V = 140 ft. per second.

(c) Find the space covered in the fifth second of the
motion in (6).
Here

dt

X = ("(32 t - 20}dt =16t^-20t+O.

No data are given for determining 0. But if we denote

by Xt the space covered in t seconds, the space described
in the fifth second is

a;^ - a:^ = (16 25 -

• 20 • 5 + <7) - (16 . 16 - 20 . 4 + (7)
= 124 ft.,
the unknown constant having disappeared. In fact, is

merely x^, the distance of the starting point from some

arbitrarily chosen origin, so that the distance passed over
between any two instants must necessarily be independent
of C.
78. Integration an indirect process. Differentiation is a
direct process by means of the fundamental formulas
;

the derivative of any elementary function may be found.

On the other hand, to find an integral of a given function,
we must be able to discover a function whose derivative
is the given integrand, and this always in the last is

analysis a matter of trial. The problem can by no means

always be solved in fact, there are many comparatively
;

simple functions whose integrals cannot be expressed in

terms of elementary functions*.
79. In each of the examples
Constant of integration.
of § 77, an arbitrary constant presented itself. It is clear
that this will be the case in general i.e. a function whose ;

* It will be shown in § 81 that for every continuous function an integral

exists, although it may not be an elementary function.
 ; .

^ THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 119

derivative is given is not completely determined, since it

contains an arbitrary additive constant, the constant of

integration.
On account of the presence of this undetermined con-
stant, the function jf(x')dx is called the indefinite integral

oifix).
80. Functions having the same derivative. In § 79 it

was assumed that if the derivative of a function is

tacitly
given, the function is determined aside from an additive
constant. That this is true follows from the
Theoeem : Two functions having the same derivative
differ only hy a constant.
The theorem is almost self-evident. Let ^(x) and ^(x)
be the two functions, and place
y = 4>(x)-^^{x').
By hypothesis,

dx
The rate of change of y with respect to x is everywhere 0,

hence y is constant.

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals, checking the answer in each case
by differentiation.

\.{a)^x^dx; (h)
^ (2 x - x^)dx {c)^ (1 -U*)dt;

id)^{X+yydy; Wjf; ^-^^

I( ^ " ^) ''''•

2.-1"^. 3. ^smOdO. 4. ^siniOdO.

6. (y/x + l dx. 6. JVl ^ xdx. 7. (e'^dx.

8. ^{l + 2xfdx. 9. ^xVcfi + x-^dx. Ans. \{cfl + x^y + C

10. Find the equation of the family of curves whose slope at every
point is equal to the square of the abscissa of the point. Exhibit
graphically.
 .

120 \ ',
CALCULUS

11. Find the equation of that one of the curves of Ex. 10 that

passes through the point (3, - S) Ans. y = — - 14,,

12. A body falls from rest under gravity. Find the velocity at
the end of 3 seconds, and the distance traveled in that time.
13. Find the equation of the curve for which y" = i at every,
point, if the curve touches the line y = S x a,t (2, 6).
'-'-'
~ Ans. y = 2x'^— 5x + S.
I
_

14. A body moves under an acceleration numerically equal to the

'time. If the initial velocity is 10 ft. per second in the direction of the
acceleration, find v and x at the end of 4 seconds, x being measured^
from the starting point.
15. In Ex. 14, find the initial velocity if the body moves 10 ft. in
the first second.

16. Find the equation of the curve for which y" = , if the
x"^
curve makes an angle of 45° with OX at the point (1,0).

17. Find the equation of the curve through (1, 2) and (2, 3)

(a) if 2/" = 0; (ft) if y" = 6x; (c) if y" =— . Trace the curve in,

each case. Ans. (ft) y = xfi — 6 x + 7.^'

81. Geometric interpretation of an integral. Consider'

the area A bounded by the curve y =/(a;), the a;-axis, the
fixed ordinate x = a, and a vari-
able ordinate x = x. This area
is evidently a function of x.

We proceed to find the deriva-

tive of A
with respect to x.
When X is increased by an
assumes an in- amount Ax, A
crement AA, the area KLBN
Fig. 56
in Fig. 56. It appears from the
figure that AA is greater than the area f(x)Ax of the
inscribed rectangle KLMN, and less than the area
f(x+ Ax')Ax of the circumscribed rectangle*:
f(x')Ax< AA<f(x + Aa;)Aa;.
* The argument is readily modified to fit the case when f{x) is a decreas-
ing function.
 :

THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 121

Hence

Ax
If now Ax approaches 0, f(x + Ax) approaches /(a;), and
AA
——
since always lies betweeu/(2;) and /(a; + Ax}, it must

also approach /(a;). Thus

dA
—— = T AA J,, V
lim -—- =f(x).
ax A^->o Ax
Since the derivative of A is /(a;), it follows by the defi-
nition of the integral that

-^ = Cfix}dx.

In case the position of the fixed ordinate x = ais given,

the constant of integration may be determined by the fact
that A = Q when x= a.
We have thus proved the following result

The indefinite integral ifQx'ydx represents the area bounded

by the curve y =/(a;), the x-axis, a fixed ordinate, and a
variable ordinate.
It is evident that if /(a;) is continuous, this area always
exists ; hence every continuous function has an integral
(cf._§78).
Since
«/=/(a'),

the formula for the area under the curve is frequently

written
A= i y dx.

Example: Find the area bounded by the parabola

y = 0^, the and the lines x = l, x = 4.
a;-axis,

The area from a; = 1 to any variable ordinate is

A= j
ydx= j x^dx— — + C.
 122 CALCULUS

Since ^= when x=l, we have

or

In particular, the area from a; =1 to a; =4 is

EXERCISES
In the following, find the area bounded by the a;-axis, the given
curve, and the indicated ordinates. Check roughly by drawing the
figure on coordinate paper and estimating the area.

1. y = x^, a; = 0, x =4 . Ans. 64.

2. The parabola ^^ = 4 and its

a; latus rectum.

3. The hyperbola 2/
=i, x=\, x = 3. Ans. 1.099.
X
4. Find the area of one arch of the sine curve. Ans. 2.

y 6. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = \ — x^ and the r-axis.

'
82. Variable of integration. In the last article we had
occasion to use the symbol iydx. In order that such a
symbol have any meaning, y must be directly or
shall
indirectly a function of x. The variable whose differential
occurs is called the variable of integration, any other
variables appearing under the integral sign must be
functions of the variable of integration, and their values
in terms of that variable must be introduced before the
integral can be evaluated.
The fact that the differential occurring tells us which
variable is the variable of integration is one of the reasons
for using the notation i fQcydx rather than the notation

83. Change of the variable of integration. If x is so re-

lated to y that

(1) (}>(x')dx = ^(y)dy,

 THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 123

we may replace C^(x}dx by j

i/^(«/)dy. For, let

'^
Now

The two functions therefore have the same derivative, by

(1) and hence differ only by a constant. Since each
function contains a constant of integration, these constants
may be so chosen that

The device of replacing a given integral by an equiva-

lent integral in a different variable is very useful in many
problems.
^ 84. Integration by substitution. A change of variable
is usually brought about by means of an explicit substitu-
tion
X= </)(«),

dx — <f)'
(u')du.

The process is and is

called integration by substitution,
highly important. remembered
It is to be that not merely
X, but dx as well, must be replaced by the proper value in

terms of the new variable.

Example : Evaluate j xVl — x dx.

Let us put
l — x = u,
so that
x= I — u, dx = — du.
124 CALCULUS

Then

fa; Vi — X dx=— \(\ — u)u^ du=— C(u^ — u^)du

EXERCISES
1. Work the above example by placing 1 — i = u^.

2. Evaluate (x(S - 2 x^)dx by substituting 3 — 2 x^ = „. Check

by expanding the given integrand and integrating directly.

Evaluate the following integrals by means of the indicated sub-

stitution, and check the results by differentiation.

3. ( Va + bx dx, a -)- hx = u.

4. fsin^ e cos e dd, sin 6 = u.

'^^
2x =
5.
h(• ,
'

X dx
C ^^^Jtj^^ _
g <
1 x2 = «.

,j
rsecW^
s ec" 6 d 6
•

l + tan6 = «.
J 1 + tan e

xdx

9. If the velocity of a point moving in a straight line is given as

a function of the time, show that the distance covered may be found
*
by the formula .

X = \vdt.

Given w = 10 < + 20, find x in terms of t by substituting the value of

V in the above integTal ; also find x in terms of v by substituting for
dt. Show that the two values of x are equivalent.

10. Given x =: fi, y = Bi, find

-
jydx
as a function of t by substituting for y and dx their values in terms
of t. Ans. A =2fl+ C.
 THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 125

11. In 9s. 10, find y in terms of x by eliminating t. Then express

^ as a function of x by substituting for y and integrating with re-
3
spect to X. Ans. A = 2 x^ + C.

12. In Ex. 11, find .4 as a function of y by substituting for dx.

Ans. A = j\y' + C.
13. Show that the three values of A found in Exs. 10-12 are
equivalent.

14. By the formula

A =^ydx,
find the area under the curve y^ = x from x = to x = 4, (a) by sub-
stituting for y in terms of x ;
(b) by substituting for dx in terms of
y and dy.
16. Proceed as in Ex. 14 for the area under the curve y = e" from
a; = to X = 1.

16. Proceed as in Ex. 14 for the area of half an arch of the curve
y = \ sin 4x. Ans. -f^.
 CHAPTER XII

STANDARD FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION

85. Standard formulas. If we were to try at present to

solve any but the simplest applied problems involving
integration, we must fail through inability to evaluate
the indefinite integrals involved. We shall therefore
devote this and the following chapter to the technique of
integration — the formal evaluation of indefinite integrals
— after which the question applications will be treated
of
at some length.
As the first step toward facility in integration, the
student must become thoroughly familiar with the fol-

lowing

Fundamental Integration Fokmulas

(1) Jdu=u + C,
(2) f(:du + dv) =Jdu +j'dv,
(3) Ccdu = cCdu,

(4) fu'^du=^ + C, (n^-1)

•^
n+1

(5) f^ = logu+C
(6) Ce^du = e» + C,
(7) J cos u du = sin u + C= cos f u — z-)+ C,
126
 STANDARD FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION 127

(8) jsinudu = -cosu + C=sinfu-'^j+ C,

(9) Jsec^ udu = tan u + C

+ tr a a

(12) ) udv=uv— (vdu.

reconimendea that each of the

strongly rec(5nimendea
It IS stronglj' formulas
be written out by the student in words, and memorized in
that form.
The test of the correctness of an integral is that its

derivative must be the given integrand. The above

formulas may be verified at once by differentiation.

86. Formulas (l)-(3). Formula (1) merely embodies

the definition of an integral.
Formula (2) is readily extended to the case of any
number of terms. The formula shows that if the inte-
grand consists of a sum of terms each term may be inte-
grated separately.
Formula (3) says that if the integrand contains a con-
stant factor, that factor may be written before the integral
sign. As a corollary, we may introduce a constant factor
into the integrand, provided we place its reciprocal before
the integral sign. But the student must beware of intro-
ducing variable factors by this rule.

87. Formula (4) : Powers. This formula evidently

fails when n = — 1. The exceptional case (

^ u
— is taken

care of by formula (5).

 :

128 CALCULUS

Examples

(a) ffs 0^+1 + -:^dx = 3j*2^ dx -irjdx + ^j^"^ dx

= —- + x — -x i
+ t7
4 2
3^^ 1 , ^
4 2a;

(J) J'aiCl + 2:2)2 ^^ =f(x +2a^ + x^}dx

2 2 6
A method
better Introducing a factor 2 after the
:

integral sign and its reciprocal in front, we have

fxCl + 2;2)2 dx = IfO- + ^^y '2'Xdx.

Since 2x dx is the differential of 1 + a?, formula (4)

applies with m =1+ a;^, « = 2. Hence
i fci + x^y .2xdx = \ ^'^
+ '''^' + a = 1 (1 + a:2)3 + C.
2J 2 3 (5

In substance we have introduced a new variable m= 1 + a;^,

as in § 84. But with a little practice one is able to think

of the quantity 1 + a;^ directly as the variable of integra-
tion, without writing out a formal substitution, thus
effecting a great saving of time.
The student should compare the two answers that have
been obtained in this example.

(c) j Va +hx dx= J 1 Va + bx -hdx

b ^

= A («+6a;)f+(7.
o
Here the quantity a + Ja; is taken as the variable of inte-
gration, the factor b is introduced to give the proper
differential, and (4) then applies with n = \.
 : 1

STANDARD FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION 129

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals; check the results by differen-
tiation.

("'' + x' + 1 r
3. 3 ^-^-dx. 4. ji(.r + l)^ ,/.,-.

6. (1 - L' xYdx. 6. ('(.r + !)(.( + 2) rfj;.

I

7.
J-^^. 8. |,,-:(1-.,-^),/.,..

9. r.r%a^^7^,/a-. 10. fji^.

•^ -^ ^ 1 - //3

11. ^((1^ - .c-)^ ,/.(. 12. j'v(r+iv7''/?-

13. j e" vT+^ rf^. 14. ("(j + 1)(.('^ + 2 .(•

+ 6) rfi-.

16. ]"(«»- x')*^. .4m-. -3(al_,,.1)l+e.

t dx .!
17. 1^4^^,
19.
's~4^
V o - 4 .

21.
^f-^^.
(1 - 0"

88. Formulas (5)-(6) : Logarithms and exponentials.

/,, J..

a^ + j-2

If the factor 2 be inserted under the integral sign, the

numerator becomes the differential of the denominator,
and (5) applies

/xdx 1 C-xdi 1, ^ 2 , _2N , /Y

(?' + .
i- -•^' «' + J-* _

m Evaluate
•^
f:?—
+
i-
^ rf j:.
'
 :

130 CALCULUS

By division we find

=x—Z+ -

x+ 1 x+1
Whence ,

C^JZ±dx=f(x-2 + ^)dx
^ x+1 -'V x + lj

= ^-2x + 2\og(x + r)-{-0.

(e) Evaluate \ ^ dx.

If the factor 3 be inserted, this is integrable by (6) :

(e^ dx = I J'eS^ Z dx = \e^ + C.

In (6) we have used a device that finds frequent

application
A% the first step toward integrating a rational fraction,
carry out the indicated division until the numerator is of

lower degree than the denominator.

EXERCISES
Eyaluate the following integrals ; check the results.

1. f^- t.

dx
3 -x
3dz
4x
- I x^dx
J:VI + ufi

8. {ta.a6d6.

9. ( ue"'-Hu.

11. I^hz±l)ldx.
J i
 —
STANDARD FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION 131

-„ fx^ — x^ + 2 X — 1 j^ ^siaxdx
r'-^'+'^-^dx. ^^
14. r
J 1 + x^ J cos^a;

dx.
J Vl + tan (^
'
-^ 3 a; - 4
''"'^'^
*
17. 18.
J^. J (1 - e2»')2

19. Find the equation of a curve through (1, 1), if the slope at
every point is inversely proportional to the abscissa of the point

(i.e. it y =^).

89. Formulas (7)-(9) : Trigonometric functions.

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.

1. (sm2xdx. 2. fsec^-^^.

3. (xsinx^dx. 4. j cos ktdt.

, C n \dx ft
fcosxrfa;
6. lcos(logK) 6. )-T-T

7. Ctan^erfa .4ns. tan^-^+C.

g r_siu2£rf^_ 9 fe'cose-dx.
^a + 5 cos 2 a;
•'

10. Tsin' u du. -A-ns. - cos « + i

cos' u -\- C.

11. r ^^—- 12. fsin^coserf^.

J 1 + sin e J

13. ("fi™"" sin aids. 14. ftanSirfi.

sin^c^g
15. \ sec^zrfz. 16.
I '
s6

17. If the acceleration of a moving particle is

—= df^
-^2oosfe,

the particle has simple harmonic motion (§ 229). Find v and a; in

terms of < if « = and x = 1 when t = 0. Show that x vanishes
periodically, hence the particle oscillates about the origin. Find the
maximum velocity.
132 CALCULUS

90. Formulas (lO)-(ll) : Inverse trigonometric functions.

Example :

/dx C dx l,a;+l,^
EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.

Jxdx
V 1 -.X*
,
A7U.
1
- arctan
6
^+ C
9
3
j-

Ana. Arctan (22 - 1)+ C.

s. r^i
g I
Hj II 3 a: rfx

+ cos^ 3 X

10

'^^
12.
J" .r(l + log^x)

^^^
14 C
'

J (1 + X2;)2

91. Formula (12) : Integration by parts. From the form-

ula for the differential of a product,
d^uv) = udv + V du,
we find, integrating both sides,

uv = ludv + { V du.

Transposing, we obtain formula (12) :

ludv — uv — \v du.

Integration by this formula is called integration hy

parts. The use of the formula will be explained by the
following
Examples : (a) Evaluate ixe'^dx.
 STANDARD FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION 133

Let
u = X, dv — e'' dx,
whence
du = dx, V = I e'^dx = e^

Then |
xe'^dx = xe' — I e'^dx = xe^ — e'' + O.

(J) Evaluate j
log x dx.

Let
u = log X, dv = dx.
whence
J
du =—
dx
, V = X.

Then

j log xdx = X log X — \x • — — X log X —X \- Q.

Integration by parts is highly important, as it succeeds

in many cases when the methods of the preceding articles
fail. The success of the method depends as a rule on our

ability to choose u and dv so that the integral j vdu is

easier to evaluate than the given one. No general direc-

tions can be given for choosing u and dv ; if the new
integral is no simpler than the original, we should begin
over again with a different choice of u and dv.

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.

1. ^xe^^'dx. 2. (tAntdt.

3. (x^e-^dx. Ans. ix^e^-ixe^ + ie^+ C.

4. farcsin a; rfa:. Ans. a; arosin z + Vl - a;^ + C

6. fx31ogxt.a; Ans. ji^og': -^) + C.

6. juVl — udu. 7. I a; arcsin X c/j;.

134 CALCULUS

8.
C
xxtau^xdx. Arts, itan a; ——
x^
+ logcosa; + C
9. ixWa'^-x'^dx. Am. - \x\a^ - x^)^ - ^^(ffi - x^)^ + C.

t 10. (xWa^-x^dx. 11. Ccos^logsin^cfft X^o*^

16. f 2^°^y
Ans. - y\a^ ~ y^)^ - i{a^ - y^)^ + C.

92. Integration by substitution.* An integral that can-

not be reduced directly to one of the standard forms may
often be evaluated by the formal substitution of -a new
variable. If the integrand is algebraic, and rational ex-
cept for the presence of a single radical, it may frequently
be integrated by placing the radical equal to a new vari-
able. In general, if any simple furiction is especially
conspicuous in the integrand, substitution of a new vari-
able for that function is worth trying. However, no
general rules can be laid down ; skill in the use of sub-
stitutions comes only with practice.

Examples: (a) Evaluate j .

Let
y/x = u, x = u\ dx = 2u du.
Then

= 2 M — 2 arctan u+ O
= 2Vx — 2 arctan VS -|- G.

(6) Evaluate fm^m^J^.

•^ 1-1- sin X

* At this point the student should re-read § 84.

 — X

STANDARD FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION 135

Let
sin x = u, cos xdx = du,
whence
sin X COB X dx _ C udu _ Cf^ _ 1 \j
J 1 + sina; J \-\-u »^V 1 + uJ
= u — \og(l + u)+0
= sin — log (1 + sin x')+
a; 0.

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.

1.
f^^. 2.
f
^ + 3 dx.
-'l-Vi -^^1 + 22:

3. r ^^^ .
4. feS^sine'di.

^ 5. fx^Va^- x^dx. 6. (x'e'^dx.

x'rfx 8. fsinv^dx.
7 C
J (a2 + x2^2- J
/. ,_ in C Bec^Otan^ 6 d9
J -^
Vl + tan ^

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.

1. (cot Odd.
J
2. C—E^.
-^
Va2 + x''

3 C
^' ~ ^
(f
* |a;cos3xrfx.

7.
j (l+cos^y Bin id6. 8. j"x(l - x*)dx.

9. 1 xc'dx. 10. f sin" 2 x cos 2 x rfx.

Jl - tan2fl' J 1 + e-

13. C(l - ^Ydy. 14.

Jx(4 - x2)«rfx.

dx ^'^^^
15. (• 16. f .
 —
136 CALCULUS

17. r "^ 18. I cot X log sin X dj.

Jx''+8x+20 J
dx
xMx
20. j"
19.
JC X
_

log" a;

21. le^-Vl-e^-rfi. \22. jcos|(?3;.

23. re«''-'«sec2((/(. 24. C

^° + x"^ + x
^^_

25. f(a^-,^)3% 26. ri£+_E!)^.

-' •'
v'4 — X*

(• x^dx 28.
27 f3;sec-^a:c/a;.
J (1 _ a;2-)2
J

29. farctanxcZa;. 30. f ^yctana: ^^

J J I + x^

31. Jg-^rfa;. 32. ^yU-^J-Ydy.

33- ^^-
J f-;^ 34. fe-^l + e-"^)=da;.

35. ('^(l±£!lrf^. 36. Csec2 6ltaii=0(/9.

J 1 + 0,- J

37. i{l-x^ydx. 38. j'(a-x)^rfx.

39. j"x(a-x)*dx. 40. j^^-^L..

41. f_^? 42. fe* log(l
^ + e"^)^^.
'
-^ X log X J
MO C x^dx 44. i
—
45 f '^^
46. (:^l±^i^dx.
J (3 X - 4)2 -^ I
(/x
47. riog^xdx. 48.
j ^xQ. + x)

rx°e--''rfx. 50. 1-5"'^^

49
3x8

51. Using the formula cos 2 x = 1 — 2 sin" x, show that

j sin" JT dx = 1 j: - Isin 2 x + C,

j cos" X dx = ^x + ^sm2 X + C.

52. By putting x = a sin 5, show that

- = I Va" - + arcsin ^
J Va" dx +
;«"
| a"
;«: j:" C.
 CHAPTER XIII

INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS

93. Preliminary step. In dealing with the integral of

a rational fraction, or quotient of two polynomials, the
first step (of. § 88) is to carry out the indicated di-
vision until the numerator is of lower degree than the
denominator.
94. Partial fractions. If the denominator is of the
first degree, or of the second degree with complex roots,*
the integration can be performed by the fundamental
formulas. Many examples have already arisen : e.g.

Exs. 17, 33, 35, 40, p. 186. In other cases the integral
may sometimes be evaluated either directly or after a
suitable substitution, as in Exs. 15, 16, 27, 50, p. 135.
In general, however, we must resort to the method of
" partial fractions. " The first step (after the numerator
has been made of lower degree than the denominator) is

to resolve the denominator into real linear or quadratic

factors. f If this can be done, the given fraction can then
be expressed as a sum of partial fractions whose denomi-
nators are the factors of the original denominator. We
proceed to show how to do this.
95. Distinct linear factors. The simplest case is that
in which the denominator can be broken up into real

* That is, the denominator of the form ax^ + 6a; + c with V^—^ ac < 0.
t The term " quadratic factor " means here a factor of the second
degree whose linear factors are imaginary ; i.e. a factor of the form
ax2 + hx + c with 6^ - 4 ac 0. <
137
138 CALCULUS

linear factors,none of which are repeated. The process

will be explained by an
/a^ + 2
-r dx.

By division we find

a? —X a? — X
The factors of the denominator are x, a; + 1, x—1.
Assume

3? —X X X+1 X—1
where A, B, O are constants td be determined. Clearing
of fractions, we find

x + 2 = A(x'^ _ 1) + 5a;(a; _ 1) + OxQx + 1).

Since this relation is an identity, it must hold for all values
of x. Hence, (

putting a; = 0, we find A = — 2,
x = -l, 5 = i,
x^l, C = f.
Thus
C 3^ +2 ,
Cf^ 2 ,
1 1,3 1 \.

= - 2 loga; + i log(2; + 1) + I log(a; - 1)+ C.

a;

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.
C dx „ r dx
1
Jl-x^' '
Jx^-x
Jx^dx
— 7
x^-i
— •
.
Ans. X — , x+2
log ±:l±
^ x-2
^
+ C.
,

C (2x' + x-l)dx
Jx^+x^ — 'kx — i
Ans. 2x + ii log (x-2)- i^ log(a; + 2) + f log(i + 1) + C.
C xdx g r x'dx
J\-x^' '
Jx'^ + Zx + 'i'
 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS 139

^ r 3*dx
J J^ -^ 1x^-1-2
Ans. |_o^ + liog(:t-l)-|log(z+l) + ^log(2: + 2)+C.
8. fcosecedfl. (Note: cosec ^ = -1- = g3^ = "°^. -1
-'
V sine sin^e l-cos^^/
1 ,_„ 1 -cosg
Ans. - log ^+ C.
- 1 + cos^
'

9.
J
i
-
^ • 10.
JI
sec ax dx.
1 e^

96. Repeated linear factors. If the denominator con-

tains a factor {x — «)", the above method fails, since there
would be r partial fractions with denominator x — and a.,

these could be combined into a single one. We can ob-

tain the desired result in this case by assuming, corre-
sponding to the factor {x — ay, r partial fractions

(^x — a/ (x — ay '
X —a
— rT;<^^
x(^x + ly
Assume
2^3-1 ^A £ C B
x(^x + 1)3 ~^ + iy x + v{x + iy <ix

3?-l = A(^x+iy + Bx+ Cx(x + 1} + Bx^x + 1)2.

Put x=0:A=-l,
x=-l :B=2.
To find and D, we may assign any two other values to x,
say x = l and x=2, thus obtaining two simultaneous equa-
tions to solve for O and D
or we may equate the coefficients
;

of like powers of x in the two members of the identity.

Equate coefficients of a^ A + D = 1, D = 2. :

Equate coefficients ofa^: SA+O+2I>=0,C=-l.

Whence
r x^—i Cf '^ 2 1 2\,
J^o^TTy -^ l-^
+ c^Tl)^" (^Tiy^ + ^:^J^"
= -logx-—^--, +
(^x + iy X +1
+ 2\og(:x+l)+a ^
140 CALCULUS

-EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.

1 c
dx 2 r_—^^_
'
Jx^-x^' '
J{l-x)

3 f ^dx 4 -\)dx
r ix^-l)a
'
J (I- xy J x{x - 2)

dx
h ^
+
Ans. logx-hog(x+l)-f log(x-l)- — 1)
C.
4 4 2(x
x'^dx
Jx4
X* + 12 xii + 52 x2 + 96 a; +^4

7.
r — rfx
^ 1 e-^ - ? +1 log (6=^ - 2) + C.

97. Quadratic factors. Corresponding to a factor in the

denominator of the form * ax^ +bx + c where J^ — 4 ac < 0,

we assume
,,
the terms
,
^
— + b)^H
A(2ax
—
ax^ + ox +
; ,

ax^
—+B ;

ox +c
The case in which the denominator has repeated quad-
ratic factors is of less importance, and will be omitted.

Example:
^ Evaluate (
—
Ja?+2x^ + bx
—-— — dx.
Assume
+ l(i ^A B(2x+2-)
3?+'^x
5'
a^+2x^ + Bx X x^+2x + b + 22; + 2:^

+ 4 + 10 = A(x^ + 2 + 5) + Bx(2 + 2) + Cx.

a;2 a; a; 2;

Put x = 0: 5 J. = 10, ^ = 2.
Equate coefficients of J. + 2 5 = 1, ^ = — a;^ : -|.

Equate coefficients of 2 J. + 2 S + C = 4, (7 = 1. 2; :

* Of course such a factor might be broken up into complex linear fac-

tors, after which the process of § 95 would apply. The present method
has the advantage of avoiding imaginaries.
 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS" 141

Whence
a;2 + 4a;+10
dx
/;a? + 2x^+5x

'r-^ —f \dx

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.

1-
r
^''/^
— r- ^ns. x + 21og(x2_4x+5)+3arctan(z-2) + C.

"
-^ 1 + a:^' J a;3 + 4 a;2 + 8 a'

4. — Ans. -—log ——
arotan - + C
4aa-a;2a
I •

-'a*-a^ a

J x' + X^ + 4:X + 4:'

Ans. ^
10
log (z2 + 4) - 1 log
5
(a; + 1) +?
5
arctan -
2
+ C.

•^
(1 + a;2)2 J x^ -2x + 2
arctan x , << r arctanzrfx
10
J x»
'
J x^(l + x2)

12 •
V ^ns. i^ + ilog (sine + cos ^)+C.
f 1,
•^ + l*^
tan fl

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.

!dx
'-'
'
J (a + 6z)2'
> '
J a + 6a;

xdx . C x^dx
3
J (a + x)2" -^ (a + x)2'
/• zda: r Jiix
6. g '

J (a + x)2(6 + x) J {a^ + x^y

 "

142 ^. < ^ CALCULUS

^7. i:-±±^d,.i:,jj^ 8. r_ dx

J a^ - x^ \^ J a* + a;* 0-—*

11.

13.

15. f^.
^1-e'
r ,.^
^X^^ 16.
C dj
\-^ . 4\ •' tan e- cote
17. C(x--2)>F.^v ,;^(,vv(./-^> f^iilJ_rf,
Jl + 62;-s« i •^ -'(1 + ^2)2
 CHAPTER XIV
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

98. The definite integral. Let/(a;) be a given function,

F(^xy an integral of f(x), and x=a anda;=6 two given
values of x. The change in the value of the integral #(a;)
as X changes from a to 5 is called the definite integral of
fix) between the " limits " a and b, or simply the definite
integral from a to b, and is denoted by the symbol

J f(x')dx. Its value is evidently JP(i) — J'(a).

This change in the value of the integral between two
values of the variable is required in many important

problems. It is called the definite integral because its

value is independent of the constant of integration.
To evaluate a definite integral, we have merely to find
the indefinite integral, and then subtract its value at the
"upper limit" b from its value at the "lower limit" a.

It is customary to use the symbol Fix) as meaning

F(b) - F(a). Thus -«

yj(x)dx = F{x-)\= F(b-) - Fia).

Since the constant of integration disappears, there is no
object in writing it at all.

Examples: (a) In (c), § 77, we have for the space in

the fifth second
j^ (32 - 20')dt = 16 <2 _ 20 tT
t

= 300 - 176 = 124.

^A^ rV , 1^5^ ix+iyi^ 64 1 21

143
 :

144 CALCULUS

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following definite integrals.
dx
1. rx%x + 2)dx. Ans. \\ 2.
J^^r-^ A ns. log 2.

Am. a;rfa;
3. f 'cos -de.
Jo 2
2
'f ^0 4 + a;2
Ans. i log 2.

r» _dx
6. Ans. 8. I "sin d<j>. 4 ns. 2.
J-n <f>

dx
7. Ans. 8. i xe°^ dx.
I
9.
r dx
dx 10. f£!^^. 4n.5. 1.568.
Joi+l
C l_cos 5 rf^ 12. arcsinzrfx. Ans. --1.
11. Ans. \
Jo 1 + sin2 ^ Jo 2
'^^^ logs
13.

15.
£
A
X sin 2 1

body falls
rfx.

from rest
14.

under gravity.
\
X'
e^dx.

Find the
4.ns. 4.

velocity at
the end of 3 seconds, and the space described in the third second.
16. A flywheel, starting from rest, rotates under an angular
acceleration of ^ radians per second per second. Find the number
of revolutions made in the fourth second of motion.
17. A point describes a plane curve, the components of its velocity
at the time ( being
v^ = 5, Vy = 2i- 32 1.

Find the distance of the point from its original position at the end
of 2 seconds. Ans. 18.9 ft.

99. Geometric interpretation of a definite integral. It

was shown in § 81 that the indefinite integral if(jx)dx

represents the area under the

curve y =/(a;) between a cer-
tain fixed ordinate and a vari-
able ordinate x = x. In par-
ticular, the change in this area
as X changes from a to 6 is

X the definite integral | f(x)dx.

Fig. 57 Hence
 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 145

The definite integral I f(x')dx may he interpreted as the

area hounded hy the curve y =/(«), the x-axis, and the lines
x = a, x=h.
EXERCISES
1. Find the area bounded by the parabola j^^ = 4 ax, the a;-axis,
and the lines a; = 4 a, x = 9 a. Ans. ^ a^.
2. Find the area between the curve y = i. — x^'&nA the x-axis.
3. Find the area bounded by the curve y = log x, the x-axis, and
the line x = 2. >

4. Find the area of one arch of the sine curve. *

^J OV\ \r^*~-^

100. Interchanging limits. The effect of interchanging

the limits in a definite integral is to change the sign of"
the integral. For, J''

DJixyx = F(h^-F(ia-),

jlfix')dx = F(a} - F(:h) ;

'.

i.e. I f(^x)dx=— 1 f(x)dx.

101. Change of limits corresponding to a change of

variable. In the definite integral |

f(x)dx it is of course

implied that a and h are the limiting values of the variable

of integration x. If we change the variable by a sub-
stitution
a; =^(3),
we must either return to the original variable before substi-
tuting the limits, or change the limits to correspond with
the change of variable. The latter method is usually
preferable.
The new limits are found, of course, from the equation
of substitution

X = (/)(2),
 '

146 CALCULUS

as in the following

Example : Evaluate j 2; Vl — x dx.

Let
1 — = 3, = 1 — 3, dx= — dz.
a; a;

When
x= — l, 3 = 2;
when ^
a;=l, 2=0.
Hence

J_
a:Vl — 2; cZa; =— j (1 — s)z* (?iz

EXERCISES
1. Work the above example, putting 1 — a; = i'.
Evaluate the following integrals.

2- \, ,-
Ans. if. 3. 1 sVi^ - 1 rfx. Ans. ^y/Z.

4 C "^^
_ • ^ns. 1.802. 6.
f'"*
Vi^^i^. rf^;. Ans. 2 -^
Jo I +Vx "' IT

J21-X* » Jo -r-T
10. The area bounded by the parabola y^ = 4 ax, the x-axis, and
the latus rectum is, by § 99,

^=£y dx.
Evaluate this integral (a) by substituting for y ;
(ft) by substituting
for dx and changing limits.

11. Find the area under the curve y = e' from a; = to a; = 1 by

the two methods of Ex. 10.

12. Find the area of half an arch of the cosine curve by the two

methods of Ex. 10. ^^\Jio 0^

 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 147

13. Given y = sin x, evaluate I xdy in two ways.

14. The velocity of a point moving in a straight line is

v =i cos - •

2
Find in two ways the distance from the starting point at the end of
- seconds.
2
 CHAPTER XV
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS THE LIMIT OF A SUM

102. Area under a curve. We have seen ia § 99 that the

area ABQD bounded by the plane curve y —fQc), the a;-axis,
and the lines x=a,x = h is given by the definite inte-
gral I
f(x)dx. We will now obtain a new expression for
the same area.
In what follows, the function /(a;) is assumed to be one-
valued and continuous, and to have only a finite number
of maxima and minima in the interval from a; =a to a; = J;
in fact, we may suppose for definiteness that the curve
rises throughout the interval. The argument is readily
modified to fit the case when the curve steadily falls,

or rises and falls alternately.

We may evidently get an approximate expression for

the area by dividing the A
base AB into n equal inter-
vals Aa;, erecting the ordi-
riates at the points of di-
vision, and taking the sum
of the inscribed rectangles
AEFD, etc. The areas of
these rectangles are respec-
Fig. 58
tively

f(x{)^x, f{x^ti,x, ..., fix^t^x,

where
ccj= a,
x^ = a-\- Ax,
x, = a+ 2 Ax,

Xn= a -\- {n — V)Ax = b — Ax.

148
 ;

DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 149

Hence, approximately.

+f(xJAx==^f(ix,:)A2

Now it is geometrically evident that this sum of rect-

angles may be made to represent the area A with an error
less than any preassigned constant however small, by
taking n sufficiently large. Hence, by the definition of
§ 14, we have exactly

(1) A= \im^f(x,~)Ax.
i=i

A formal proof of this state-

ment may be given as follows.
Let J.J denote the sum of the
inscribed rectangles, A^ the sum
of the circumscribed rectangles
(Fig. 69). Then for all values
of n
A^< A< A^. Fig. 59

Now the difference between A^ and A^ is the sum of the

shaded rectangles. Sliding all these across into the last
column, we see that
A^-A^ = IO.Ax^ [/(J) -Ka~)-\Ax.

As n increases indefinitely Ax approaches 0, so that

A^— Aj^ also approaches 0. Since A always lies between
A^ and A^, it follows that A^ and A^ approach A as their
common limit. Hence we have formula (1).*
The rectangles f{x^Ax are called elements of area. As
n increases indefinitely, each of the elements approaches :

i.e. they are infinitesimals.

* The n parts Into which AB

is divided need not be taken all equal

thesame limit is obtained provided the width of each rectangle approaches

as the number of divisions is indefinitely increased. Further, it is clear
that we may take the limit of the sum of either the inscribed or the cir-
cumscribed rectangles, or of any set intermediate between these two.
150 CALCULUS

Questions like that of the present article, in which we

have to deal with the limit of a sum of infinitesimal ele-
ments, will arise many times in this and later chapters.
As in every case the existence of the limit will be evident
by geometric intuition, we shall in future omit formal
proofs.

103. Evaluation of the limit. Equating the values of A

found in §§ 99 and 102, we find

A = hm y^f(x>)Lx = I f{x)dx.

Thus the limit occurring in § 102 can always be evaluated

by a definite integration.*
The fact that the quantity f{x)dx appearing under the
integral sign represents the area of a rectangle of altitude
f{x) and base dx — Lx, and thus suggests the sum from
which the integral was derived, is the chief reason for
using the notation |
f(£)dx (see § 77). In fact, the inte-

gral sign
I
is historically a somewhat conventionalized '/S*,

meaning sum.
104. The fundamental theorem. In § 102 we have ex-
pressed the area under a plane curve as the limit of a sum
of rectangles ; in § 99 we have found the same area as a
definite integral. It is clear that the arguments used
will hold no matter what may he the geometric or physical
meaning of the given function, for any function whatever
may be interpreted as the ordinate of a point on a plane
curve. We therefore have at once the following
Fundamental "Theorem for Definite Integrals :

Criven a function f(x), continuous in the interval from

x = a to X = h, divide this interval into n equal parts Ax,

* More precisely, the limit can always be expressed, as a definite inte-

gral; the actual evaluation of the integral is often impossible (see § 78).
 ;

DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 151

and form the sum 2)/(a",)Aa;, where ajj = a, x^ = a + Aa;,

1 a;„
-"n = a+(n— l)Aa;. Then

iii:/(^i)A^=JV(r)dr.
"
1=1

Hence, if in any problem an arbitrarily close approxima-

tion * to the required quantity can be found by adding up
terms of the type /(x) Aa; from x = a to x = b, that quantity

18 given exactly by the definite integral I f(x')dx.

We have now presented the definite integral in two

distinct aspects : as the change in the value of the
first,

indefinite integral between two values of the variable

second, as the limit of a sum of infinitesimal elements. The
great advantage of this latter point of view will become
apparent as we proceed.
It may
be remarked that if
the function /(«) has a finite
number of finite discontinuities
in the interval from a to 6, as
in Fig. 60, it can still be inte-
grated. For it will be con-
tinuous in a number of sub- ^'°' ^
intervals such as AO, CD, DB, to each of which the
fundamental theorem can be applied and the results added.
105. Plane areas in cartesian coordinates. Not only the
area considered in § 102, but any plane area bounded by
curves whose equations are given in cartesian coordinates,
can be found as follows. Imagine inscribed in the area a
set of n elementary rectangles of altitude h^ and width AZ,
n
in such a way that the sum V AjAZ may be made to repre-
* That is, an approximation in which the error may be. made less than
any preassigned constant.
152 CALCULUS

sent the area to any desired degree of approximation by-

increasing n. Then at once, by the fundamental theorem,

lim

the limits being chosen in such a way as to extend the

integration over the whole area. Of course in any par-
ticular problem h and dl must be ex-
pressed in terms of .the coordinates.
In every problem the student should
make a sketch of the area to be found,
draw an element in a general position,
and obtain the area of the element directly
from the figure, as in the following
Examples: (a) Find the area in the
\ first quadrant bounded by the parabola

^2 = 4 dx^ the a;-axis, and the line x=a.

An arbitrarily close approximation to
Fig. 61
this area can be found by forming a sum
of rectangles of altitude y, base dx, and area y dx, as
shown in Fig. 61. Hence, we have exactly

=2
— = -2
C '\ax/ 2
- = -a^
y dx I dx Cax')
J""
(5) Find the area in the first quadrant
between the parabolas
(1) y^=^4.ax,
(2) / = 8a2;-4fl2.
Let us take as the element a rectangle
parallel* to OX. The area of the rect-
angle is evidently (x^ — x-^dy, where x-^

and x^ are the abscissas of the points on

the curves (1) and (2) respectively. The Pig. 62

* That is, with its finite side parallel to OX.

 DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 153

curves are found to intersect at (a, 2 a). Hence

^0 "^o \8 a 2 4 aj

2 2
= -a''.
^

J^ VJ 8«/ -^
L2 24aJ„

EXERCISES
1. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x^ and (a) the lines
y = 0, X = 2, (b) the lines x = Q, y = 1.

2. Solve example (a), § 105, taking the element parallel to OX.

Evaluate the integral in two ways.

3. Find the area bounded by the curve ay'' = x" and the line
X = ia. Ans. i|^ a^.

4. Find the area of a circle (see Ex. 52, p. 136).

6. Find the area of an ellipse, using the cartesian equation ; check

by using the equations x = a cos (f>, y = b sin <^ (see Ex. 51, p. 136).
Ans. irab.

6. Find the area of half an arch of the curve y = \ cos 2 x.

7. Find the area between the parabolas y^ = iax and x^ = 4 ay.

Ans. Jj^ a^.

8. Show that the area bounded by a parabola and any chord

perpendicular to the axis is two thirds of the circumscribing

rectangle.
9. Find in two ways the area bounded by the parabola y = x^, the
y-axis, and the lines y = 1, y = i-
10. Find the area bounded by the curve y = log x, the axes, and the
line y + 1 = 0.

11. Find the area bounded by the curve y — log x, the x-axis, and
the line x = 2. Ans. 0.386.
a I ' —-\
12. Find the area under the catenary y =-(««+ e a), from

x = — atox = a. Ans. a'^ie j.

13. Find the area between the curve x^ = 4 a^ — a^ and the x-axis,
taking the element (a) parallel to OF; (ft) parallel to OX.
14. Find the area bounded by the parabola x* + j/^ = a^ and the
coordinate axes, Ans. \a^.
154 CALCULUS

15. Find the area of a circular segment of height h. Check by

putting h = 2r.
16. Find the area of one arch of the cycloid x = a(d — sin 6),
y = a(l — cos B). Ans. 3 ira?'.
17. Find the area bounded by the curves y = x, y = 2 x, y = x^.

Ans. ^.

18. Find in two ways the area in the first quadrant bounded by the
curves y = x^, x^ =2 — y, y = 0.

19. Find in two ways the area bounded by the curve y=(l — x''y
and the s-axis.

20. Find the area bounded by the curve y =(x — i)\x — 2) and
the s-axis.
9
21. Find the area bounded by the curve y = —^ X , its asymptote,
and the maximum ordinate. Ans. 0.693.
22. Trace the curve + a^) = a^x'', and find the area bounded
y'^{x^

by the curve and the = a. line x Ans. 0.83 a^.

23. Trace the curve ay^ = ax^ + x', and find the area of the loop.
24. Find the area bounded by the curve y" = x^(l + x) and the
a:-axis. Why is the answer negative ?

26. Trace the curve y = — 2x and

3
, find the area under the curve
from = - 2 to X = 0. * + x^
a; ^^^ ^ ^^^

26. Find in two ways the area bounded by the coordinate axes and
the curve y^ = 1 — 2 x — xy.

27. Find the area of the circle x = a sin 2 0, y = a cos 2 6.

28. Find the area bounded by the curve y = —£— , the x-axis, and
the maximum ordinate. Ans. ^.

y^ =
X-
29. Find the area in the first quadrant under the curve
X-V
between the minimum ordinate and the ordinate at x = 3 a. Ans. 2.05.
30. Trace the curve y^ = x*(x + i), and find the area inclosed by it.
2i»
Ans.
105

106. Plane areas in polar coordinates. Given the equa-

tion

of a plane curve in polar coordinates, let us try to find the

area bounded by the curve and the radii vectores corre-
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 155

spending to 6 = a, = ^. We can obtain an arbitrarily

close approximation to the area by inscribing in it n circu-
lar sectors of radius r^ and angle A^,
hence of area* | rt^Ad, and forming
n
the sum Vl r,^A.6. Hence, by the

fundamental theorem,

^=i^it'-''^^=ir^'^«-
By means theorem to be
of a ^^°- ^

proved in § 109, it can be shown that this result may

also be obtained by choosing as the element a triangle
of altitude r^, base r^A^, and area ^ rfA^.

EXERCISES
1. Find the area swept out by the radius vector of the spiral of
Archimedes r=a6, in the interval from 6 = 0to6 = 2 7r.
2. Solve Ex. 1 for the logarithmic spiral log r = ad.

3. Find by integration the area of the triangle bounded by the lines

r = asec 6,6=0, e = --
4
4. Find the area inside the lemniscate r^ = a^ cos 2 6. Ans. a^.

6. Find the area of the curve r^ = a^ cos 6.

6. Find the entire area of the cardioidr = a(l + cos 6). Ans.\ira^.

7. Find the area between the parabola r = a sec^- and its latus

rectum. Anx. f a^.

8. Find the area of the curve r = a sin 2 6. Ans. \ tto^.

9. Show that the area of one loop of the curve r = a cos nO is

^^, hence the total area inside the cui've is one fourth or one half the
4n
area of tbe circumscribed circle, according as n is odd or even.

* By elementary geometry, the area of a circular sector of radius r

and angle a, is
156 CALCULUS

107. Volumes of revolution. The volume of a solid of

revolution may be found very readily by the fundamental
theorem.
Suppose the volume
is generated by revolv-
ing the area ABOB
about the line AB. If
we inscribe in the re-
volving area a set of
n rectangles of alti-

tude r,- and base AA,

each rectangle will gen-
erate in its rotation a
circular disk, or cyl-
inder, of radius ?•<, alti-

tude A^, and volume

TTV^Ah. Further, as n
increases the sum of
these cylindrical vol-
umes approaches as its
Fig. 64
limit the required vol-
ume. Hence, by the fundamental theorem,

^ = hm y ^r^^^jt = TT I
r^dft,

the limits being chosen so as to include the whole volume.

Of course in any problem both r and dh must be expressed
in terms of the coordinates.
When the axis of revolution does not form part of
the boundary of the revolving area, we may choose as
elements a set of circular rings, as in example (6)
below.
Examples : (a) The area in example (a), § 105, revolves
about OX. Find the volume generttted.
Dividing the area into elements as in Fig. 61, we see
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 157

that each rectangle generates a cylindrical volume-element

of radius y, altitude dx, and volume iryHx. Hence

V=ir\ y^dx = 4:Tral xdx=2Tra^.

(6) The above area rotates about OY.

Find the volume generated.
If we divide the area into elements as
in the figure, each element generates a
circular ring of outer radius a, inner
radius x, thickness dy, and volume
7r(a2 — x^ydy. Further, the limit of the
sum of these volumes is the required
volume. Hence Fig. 65

L SOa^Jo 5

This result could have been obtained equally well by

finding the volume generated by rotating the area 0£0
about OY, and subtracting this from the volume of the
cylinder formed by revolving the rectangle OABO.
But in case it is possible to simplify the integral before
integrating, as often happens, the first method is to be
preferred.
108. Volumes of revolution: second method. The fol-

lowing method for finding volumes of solids of revolution

is often preferable to that of § 107.
Let us take as an element of the area ABQ (Fig. 66) a
rectangle of length hi parallel to the axis of revolution AB,
and of width Ar. This rectangle generates by its rotation
a cylindrical shell of inner radius r^, altitude Aj, and thick-
ness Ar. The volume of the shell is evidently

7r(»-< + Aryhi — irr^hi — 2 irr^iLr -f- "jrhi/^r^,

and the limit of the sum of these elementary shells is evi-

158 CALCULUS

dently the required volume. Now it will be shown in the

next article that, in passing to the limit, we may neglect
the infinitesimal of higher
order* TrhfAr^ Hence, by
the fundamental theorem,
n
V= lim 2) 2 irriAiAr

= 2Tr Crh dr,

the integration being ex-

tended through the whole
region.
This result is easily re-
membered from the fact
that the integrand is the
differential of volume of
a right circular cylinder, the altitude being constant:
V=7rr% dV=2-7rrhdr.
Example : Solve example (6), § 107, by the present
method.
Divide the rotating area into rectangles parallel to OY,
as in Fig. 61. Each rectangle generates a cylindrical
shell of radius x, altitude y, and thickness dx. Hence

F=2 7r| x7/dz = 4:7ra^ \ x^ dx= ^ira^.

109. A theorem on infinitesimals. It often happens, as
in the preceding article, that in applying the fundamental
n
* This is easily shown directly.
J>
The quantity neglected is ^
4=1
irfeiAr^.

This may he written irAr ^ hiAr. When Ar approaches 0, the sum

\^ hiAr approaches a finite limit, viz. the generating area, so that the

whole quantity approaches 0.

 :

DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 159

theorem we have to replace the element as originally

chosen by another element differing from the first one by
an infinitesimal of higher order. That this is allowable
appears from the following
Theorem: The limit of a sum of positive infinitesimals
is unchanged when each infinitesimal is replaced by another
that differs from hy an infinitesimal of higher order.
it

It follows that, in taking thu limit of such a sum, all in-

finitesimals of higher order may be neglected, as was done in
§108.
In this connection it should perhaps be mentioned ex-
plicitly that two from each other by
infinitesimals differ
an infinitesimal of higher order whenever tho limit of their
ratio is 1, and conversely.
To prove the theorem, let Mj, Wj, •••, m„ be a set of posi-
n

tive infinitesimals such that lim Vm^ exists; and let z)j,

Vj, ••., Vn be another set such that Vi differs from m^ by an

infinitesimal of higher order

Vi = M,- + WiUi,
where Wt is infinitesimal. Then
n n n,

lim '^Vi= lim 2^Ui-\- lim ^ w.-m^.

Denoting by w the absolute value of the largest of tiie w's,

we have
w
<=1

Since the and third of these quantities both approach

first

0, the second must do likewise. Hence

n n
lim 2f j = lim V U{,

and the theorem is proved.

160 CALCULUS

-^ •
EXERCISES
1. Find the volume of a sphere.

2. Find the volume of a right circular cone.

3. The hyperbola x^
Find the volume of a segment of height a of the hyperboloid gen-
erated. Ans. \ iraK
4. Find the volume generated by revolving the four-cusped hypo-
2 2 2_
cycloid x^ + y^ = a^ about OX. Ans. j^jira^.
Find the volume generated by revolving the area under the
5.

curve y = e^ from x = to x = 1 (a) about OX; (b) about 0¥; (c)

about the line x = 1. Ans. (c) 2 ir e.

The area under one arch of the sine-curve

6. revolves (a) about
OX; (i) about OF. Find the volume generated.
Am. (a) ^; (6) 2 tt^.

7. Find the volume obtained by revolving about OX the area

X X

under the catenary y = -^ (e° + e '), from x = — atox = a.

Ans. —r :(.... -J),

4
8. The area OBC of Fig. 65 revolves (a) about the line CB;
(6) about AB. Find the volume generated; check by solving in
two ways.
9. Find the volume of an oblate spheroid, using (a) the ordinary
equation of the ellipse; (6) the parametric equations a; = acos<^,
y = b sin ^. Solve each part in two ways. Ans. ^Tra%.

10. The area in example (J), § 105, revolves about OX. Find the
vol ume generated.

11. Find the volume of a spherical segment of height h. Check

by putting A = 2 r.
12. Trace the curve a^^ = x*(2 a — x), and find the vblume gen-
erated by revolving the curve about the x-axis.
13. Find the volume generated by revolving (a) about OX, (b)
about OY, the area between the curves 2y = x^, y = x^. Check the
results by solving in two ways.

14. Trace the curve (a — 4 d)y^ = ax(x — 3 a), and find the
closed volume generated by revolving it about the z-axis.
Ans. 6.12 a8.
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 161

16. The cui-ve y'^ = x(x — 1) (x — 2) rotates about the x-axis.

Find the closed volume generated. Ans. -

16. Find the volume generated by revolving one arch of the cy-
cloid X = a(6 — sin 0), y = — cos Q) about the x-axis.
a(l Ans. 5 Tfia?.

17. Trace the curve ^(x^ + y^) = a(x^ — y^), and find the volume
generated by revolving the loop about OY. Ans. 0.053 •n-a'.

18. Find the volume of a torus. Solve in two ways. Ans. 2 T^aPh.
19. The area bounded by the curve y = (1 — x^)^ and the x-axis
revolves about the 2/-axis. Find the volume generated, (a) by the
method of § 107 ; (6) by the method of § 108. In (a) evaluate the
integral in two ways, first by substituting for x^, next by substituting
for dy.
20. Trace the curve a'^y'^ = a^x* — x^, and find the volume gener-
ated by revolving one loop about OY. Ans. ^j ita^.
-'
21. A round hole of radius a is bored through the center of a
sphere of radius 2 o. Find the volume cut out.

22. Find the closed volume generated by revolving the curve

«2
"
=— ';;

- ia"
;
— -^ about the X-axis. Trace the curve. Ans. 0.072 tto^
x^
23. Find the volume inside the cylinder x^ -)- y^ = 2 a^ and outside
the hyperboloid x^ + y^ — z^ = a^- Ans. 1 7ra^
24. Find the closed volume generated by revolving the curve
y^ = x*(x -I- 4), (a) about the x-axis, (b) about the y-axis.
Find in two ways the
26.
volume generated by revolv-
ing about the y-axis the area

bounded by the curve y =

X
and the coordinate axes.

110. Other volumes.

The volume of any solid
can be expressed as a defi-
nite integral, provided we
know the area of every
plane section parallel to
some fixed plane. Let us
divide the volume into
Fig. 67
slices of thickness Ah by
162 CALCULUS

means of n planes parallel to this fixed plane. If on each

of these plane sections we erect a cylinder of altitude Ah
and base A, where A is the area of the section, the sum
of the n cylindrical volumes thus formed will be approxi-
mately the required volume, and the limit of this sum
will be exactly the volume. Hence
n
F= limXAiAh = fAdh,
with properly chosen limits.
Example: A woodsman chops
halfway through a tree 4 ft. in
diameter, one face of the cut
being horizontal, the other in-
clined at 45°. Find the volume
of wood cut out.
The figure shows one half of
the required volume. If we slice
up the volume by planes parallel
to the ys-plane, the element of
volume is a triangular pliite of
width y, altitude z, and thickness
dx. Hence
V= 2 PJ- yz dx.
But
z = y, and y = V4 — x\
so that

V= C{'k-x'')dx 5J cu. ft.

Jo
EXERCISES
1. Solve the above example in a difierent way.
2. Find the volume of a tetrahedron with three mutually perpen-
dicular faces. •
Ans. ^ abc.
3. Find the volume sliced off from a right circular cylinder by a
plane through a diameter of one base and tangent to the other base.
Ans. \a%.
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 163

4. Find the volume of a right pyramid with a square base.

5. Find the volume of an ellipsoid, using the answer to Ex. 5,

p. 153. Ans. f irabc.

6. Find the volume of an elliptic cone. Ans. | irabh.

7. Find the volume of a spheric&l wedge. Ans. | aa^.

8. Find the volume of a wedge cut from a right circular cone by
two planes through the axis. Ans. ^ aa'^h.

9. Obtain a formula for the volume of a wedge cut from any

solid of revolution by two planes through the axis.
10. A carpenter chisels a square hole of side 2 in. through a round
post of radius 2 in., the axis of the hole intersecting that of the post
at riglit_4ngles. Find the volume of wood cut out. Ans. 15.3 cij. in.
'''i.l. Find the volume cut from the cylinder x^ + y^ = a^ by the
planes z = mx, z = nx. Solve in two ways.
12. A right circular conoid is generated by a straight line which
moves always parallel to the a;y-plane and passes through the line y = h,

in the yz-plane and the circle x^ + z^ = a^ in the iz-plane. Find the

volume of the conoid. Ans. \Tra^h.

Find the volume in the first octant bounded by the hyperbolic

13.
paraboloid generated by a straight line moving always parallel to the
a;y-plane and passing through the* lines y + z = am the yz-plane and
a; = J in the sz-plane. Ans. \aV>.
14. A
banister cap is bounded by two equal cylinders of revolution
8 diameter, whose axes intersect at right angles in the plane of
in. in

the base of the cap. Find the volume of the cap in two ways.
15. Find the volume of a right pyramid whose base is a regular
hexagon.
16. Find the volume in the first octant under the plane z = x and
inside a cylinder standing on the parabola y = 4 — x^ as a base. Solve
in two ways.
17. Solve Ex. 12 if the line y = h\s replaced by the line y + z = h
(h>a). Ans. |7ra%.
18. Solve Ex. 13 if the line x = b is replaced by the line x = z.

19. Find the volume in the first octant bounded by the planes
X + z =a, x + 2y + 2z = 2a.

111. Line integrals. The ordinary definite integral

depends on all the values of a given function /(z) along
a straight line segment — the segment of the a;-axis from
 :

164 CALCULUS

X = a to X = b. It happens frequently that we have to

compute a quantity that depends in a similar way on the
values of a function F along a curvilinear arc 0. The
function F is in general dependent on both coordinates of
the point on the curve :

'

F=^F(x,yy
But since
y given as a function of x by the equation of
is

the curve, the function F(x, y~) reduces at once to a func-

tion of one variable.
Given a function F(x, y) de-
fined at all points of a plane
curve (7, let us inscribe in (7 a
broken line of n segments As/
having equal projections Aa; on
the a;-axis, multiply each seg-
Fig. 69
ment by the value of #(», y) at
the corresponding point of division* P< (Fig. 69), and form
n
the sum of these products, ^F^Xi-, y>) As/. The limit of

this sum, as the number of divisions becomes infinite, is

called the line integral of F{x^ y') along the arc C, and is

denoted by the symbol I F(^x^ y) d» :

!™.i^ ^(^^ 2/0 As/ =Sf(:x, y) ds.

112. Geometric interpretation of the line integral. The

existence of the limit last written may be made evident
geometrically. Let us interpret the function F(^x, y} as
the a-co6rdinate of a point on a surface in space

(1) z = F(x,y).
* It is of course merely for convenience that the broken-line segments
are drawn with equal projections on OX. The division may be made in
any manner provided in the limit every segment approaches 0. Further,
ASi' may be multiplied by the value of Fix, y) at either end-point of ASi'
or at any point on the subtended arc.
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 165

On the curve C as directrix erect a cylindrical sur-

face with generators perpendicular to the xy-plane.
Each of the quan-
tities F(xi,y^ ASi
represents the area
of a rectangle in-
scribed in this cyl-
inder, having a
base As/ and an al-
titude I'Qxi, ^j), and
the sum of these
rectangles evi-
dently approaches
as its limit that
part of the cylin-
Fig. 70
drical surface ly-
ing between the a;y-plane and the surface (1).
113. Fundamental theorem for line integrals. The
theorem of § 104 takes the following form for line in-
tegrals :

Given a function F(x, y) defined at all points of an arc

C, inscribe in the arc a broken line of n segments As/ having
n
equal projections on OX, and form the sum ^ F(xi, yi) As/,
where (xf, y^ is the i-th point of division on 0. Then

lim y Fix,, y,)AsJ = fF(x, y)ds.

Hence, if in any problem an arbitrarily close approxima-
tion to the required quantity can be found by adding up
terms of the type F(x, y')As', the quantity is given exactly

114. Evaluation of line integrals. To evaluate a line

integral, we have in general to express both F(x, y') and
ds in terms of x, y, or some other suitable variable, and
166 CALCULUS

then integrate between limits in such a way as to extend

the integration over the given arc.
Thus, if X is chosen as the variable of integration, we
replace ds by its value (§ 52)

'^*=Vi+(S'^^'
\dx)
and obtain

j^^Cre, y-)di=£Fix. y}yjl +[fjdx,

where a and b are the abscissas of the end points of (7,*
and where y must be replaced by its value in terms of x
from the equation of the curve, f

* It is assumed that no parallel to the y-axis can meet C in more than

one point. If this condition is not satisfied, C must consist of several
portions for each of which the condition holds, and each portion may be
considered separately.
t This transformation of the line integral into an ordinafy integral
may be justified by the theorem of § 109. have evidently We

Asi' = Va? + Ai^=\/l + ^ Ax.

Now the limit of the sum V J^(xj, 2^,)-\/l

cannot be ex- +^^ Ak
S
Ax' ^
pressed directly as a definite integral by the theorem of § 104, since the
summand depends not only on Xi but on Ax as well. But the infinitesi-

mals F{Xi, i/Oa/i +^=- Ax and F{Xi, yi) Vl + y''^ Ax differ from each
' Ax
other by an infinitesimal of higher order, since the limit of their ratio is

evidently 1, and hence the latter may be substituted for the former, by
§ 109. Therefore

( F{x, y)ds = lim V F{Xi, y,)Jl + ^Ax

'"' "^^ Sn
Ax

= lim "V F (Xi, yi)VTTy7^ Ax

= (''F(x,y)Vl + yi"'dx,
Ja
by the fundamental theorem of § 104.
 :

DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 167

To integrate with respect to y, we put

and express the entire integrand in terms of y.

If X and y are given in terms of a parameter t, we use

In the discussion of line integrals, we have spoken in

terms of cartesian coordinates, but the argument is evi-
dently independent of the particular coordinate system
used.
Some simple types of line integrals are considered in
the next three sections ; other examples will be met with
later.
115. Length of a curvilinear arc. To find the length of
an arc of a plane curve (7, we proceed as follows : Inscribe
in (7 a broken line of ti segments As/ as in § 111, and
n
form the sum V As/. This sum is of course the length of

the broken line, and its limit is the length s of the arc. It

is evidently the line integral I ds^ the given function in

this case being T'{x, y) =1

s = lim y As/ = I ds.
1=1

The process of finding the length of a curve is some

times called rectification of the curve.
Example : Find the circumference of the circle

ifi + y^= a^.

Here
dy _ _x
dx y
 +

168 CALCULUS

so that

«
=//« = 4XV1 +ST'^- = ^rvi i . (ia;

dx
= 4aC ^^1=^ = 4 a arcsin -X =
,
2 7ra.
Jo

EXERCISES
1. Find the circumference of the circle x = a cos 0, y = a sin ft

2. Rectify the semicubical parabola a?/^ = s' from k = to a; = 5 a.

Ans. W^a.
3. Trace the curve Qy^ — 4(1 + 2;^)', and find its length
~
from
= to a; = 2. Ans. if.

4. Rectify the catenary y = -le' + e ') from X = to 2; = a;.

Ans.

6. Find the length of the four-cusped hypocycloid x^

222
+ = y'^ aJ.

Ans. 6 a.

6. Rectify the curve x = fi, y = fi from < = to « = V5.

7. Find the length of the curve y = ^x^ between the origin and
the point x = 4. Ans. ^^(1 + eVS).
8. Find the length of one arch of the cycloid. Ans. 8 a.

Trace the curve

9.

9 ay^ = x(x - 3 a)2,

and iind the circumference of the
loop. Ans. 4aV3.
10. Find the length of the curve
'y = e" from x = to x = f log 2.

116. Surfaces of revolution.

The surface generated by the
rotation of a plane curve
about a line in its plane A£
is easily expressed as a line

integral.
Fia. Ti Let us inscribe in the curve
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 169

Ca broken line of n segments As,'. Each of the segments

As,' generates in the rotation the frustum of a right cir-
cular cone, tlie radii whose bases may be called r^ and
of
r< + Ar,-. The surface of this conical frustum is, by ele-
mentary geometry, the circumference of the middle sec-
tion multiplied by the slant height, or 2 7r(rj -|- 1^ Arj)As/.
n
The sum of these surfaces, X 2 7r(rj -|-
^ Ar<)As,', ap-

proaches as its limit the required surface of revolution.

Hence, by the theorems of § 113 and § 109, we have

S= lim '^ZirnAsi' =2ir j rds.

Example: Find the surface of a paraboloid of revolu-

tion bounded b}' a right section through the focus.
Given the equation of the generating parabola ?/^ = 4 ax,
we have

= ^ CyJi^A^dx =
-2 2 TT fV^^^ipT^ dx
Jo ^ «/ »^o

= 27r
Jq
r ^Ta^+Tcfi dx =—-hax
a o
+ a^')^
_
= |7ra2(2V5-l).
EXERCISES
1. Work the above example, using // as the variable of integration.

2. Find the surface of a sphere, using polar coordinates.

3. Find the surface of a sphere, using cartesian coordinates.
Evaluate the integi-al in various -vfays (cf. Ex. 10, p. 146).

4. Find the surface generated by revolving the cubical parabola

o^y = i8 about 0,Y, from i- = to I = a. Arts.
^ (IOa/IO - 1).

6. Find the surface generated by revolving (a) about OX, (b)

about OY, the arc of the curve y = ^^-^t— between tlie minimum point
6X
and the point x = 2. A m. (a) ^;
16
(6) ~(lo
4
+ i log 2).
 : :

170 CALCULUS

6. Trace the curve y —~ log x (cf. § 69), and obtain the sur-

face generated by revolving the curve about Y from = a; 1 to a; = 2.

Ans. 10.47.
7. Find the surface generated by revolving the catenary
at
y = 2 (e« +
—5
e »), (o) about OX, (V) about OY, from x = to a; = a.

Ans. (V) 27ra^{l~V\.

8. Find the surface generated by the revolution of an arch of the

cycloid about its base. Ans. |- ird'.

9. Find the surface of a torus. Ans. 4 ir^ah.

10. Find the entire surface generated by revolving the curve

8 ah/"^ = 2:2(a2 - x'^) about OX. Ans. \ wa^
11. Find the surface formed by revolving the four-cusped hypo-
2 2 2
cycloid x^ + y' = a^ about OX. Ans. ^ira^.
Find the surface cut from a sphere by a circular cone
12. of half-
angle a with its vertex at the center of the sphere.

117. Cylindrical
surfaces. Given a
cylinder whose di-
rectrix is a plane
curve O, the area of
any portion of the
cylinder may be
found as follows
Inscribe in (7 a
broken line of seg-
ments Asi', ••, As„',
and inscribe in the
„ required area a set
of rectangles of alti-

tude hi and base AaJ. The limit of the sum of these rect-
angular areas is the area on the cylinder

S= lim yAfAs<'= Chds.

 .

DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM 171

Example : Find the area on the cylinder x^ + z^ = a^

included between the planes y = 0, y = mx.
Denoting by the circular arc APB, we have

= 4 m fa; Vl + ^da;
z'

= 4 ma C^dX
4
I
Jo z

= — 4 ma j dz = 4 ma^.
Fig. 72

EXERCISES
1. In the above example, find the area of the section cut by the
plane y = mx.
2. Find the surface of the cap in Ex. 14, p. 163. Ans. 128 sq. in.

3. Find the surface of the cylinder x^ + y^ =a^ included between

the planes z = x, z = Sx.
4. Find me surface cut off on the cylinder x'' + y'' = a'^ by the
paraboloid of revolution x^ + y^ = hz. Ans. 2 ir—

6. Find the area, in the first octant, of the section of the cone
x^ —y^ + z^ = by the plane x + y = a.
6. The center of a sphere of radius 2 a is on the surface of a cyl-
inder of radius a. Find the surface of the cylinder intercepted by
the sphere. Ans. 16 aK
7. Find the surface on the cylinder z^ = 4 ax inside the cylinder
y'^ = ^ ax, from x = to a; = 3 a. Ana. -H^a^.
8. Work the example of § 117, using polar coordinates.
 CHAPTER XVI
INTEGRAL TABLES

118. Use of tables. In the solution of problems in-

volving integration, the work may frequently be much
shortened by the use of a table of integrals. Many such
tables have been prepared ; the references below are to
B. O. Peirce's Short Table of Integrals (Ginn & Go.).
The chief object in using a table is to save time. The
student is therefore not making the best use of the table
unless he is so familiar with its contents and arrange-
ment that he can tell at a glance whether the desired
formula is likely to be given and where it is to be
found. Further, it should be remembered that in many
cases the result may be found by the methods of Chap-
ter XII in less time than would be required if the table
were used.
/dx—
a;(l x^)
Let us use formula 55 of the table, with a = 1,

6 = -l:
^"^
. = ^log. ^
Si2;(1 - a;2) 2 ° 1-x^
^2 2
Qi?e'' dx.
J
This integral is not given explicitly in the table, but
it resembles formula 402. Making the substitution

a;2 = 2, 2xdx= dz,

we find

= iyze'dz = le'(z-r) i
J a^e^'dx e'+h
172
 INTEGRAL TABLES 173

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals, using a table whenever a saving
of time may be effected by so doing.

I 1..
Jl +{~^.
+ x x^
Ans. -2- arctan
v'3
2^ + 1+
V;5
C.

dx
J^' J w, , , -r ^"«- log (^'i- + x + x-' + x+\)+ C.

•^
(1+ a;-^)'i
^J^ J (1 - 2 x)2

6. (xVl + x'dx. „4 lA.^ I7 f '^^

J a\;iZ—' J (1 + 3a;)^'

8. jxVl-xrfj;. 9/,^^^^9- fsin'idx.

0- d—+^^COS 11- f^cosx^rfx. \X

v' 1 a; ,..~, J -»^ 1

2. ixVrfx. I5 — +"!?}"• )x%-»^rfx.

4. Jarcsinxrfx. <\9^Jt^i5. jlog^xrfx. y^i^ S|»«iA. .

Jiiii-

c?y

8.
J^i
VH+T'dt. Arts. VS - J log (2 + V3).
/•log 2
^ ^
19.
j^ Ve* - 1 dx. cu^>jrJ[/^);Ji-MA^ Ans.2--^-

20. Find the area bounded by the hyperbola x'^ — y'^ = a^ and the
line X = 2 a.
1 21. Find the length of the arc of a parabola from the vertex to the
end of the latus rectum. Ans. 2.29 a.

22.Find the surface generated by re'^olving the curve y = e' about

OX from X = to X = 1.
23. Find the area inside the four-cusped hypocycloid x = a cos' 0,

y = aavD^O. Ans. |7ra'.

24. Find the area of the ellipse r= -, where e is the

eccentricity.
.... 1 + e cos 5
174 CALCULUS

25. Find the volume generated by revolving one arch of the cycloid
about its base. Ans. 5 ir'^a'.

26. Find the surface generated by revolving the curve 3 a^x + y' =
about OF from y = to y = a.
27. Find the surface generated by revolving one arch of the sine

curve about the x-axis. Ans. 2 7r[V'2 + log (1 + VS)].

 CHAPTER XVII
IMPROPER INTEGRALS

119. Definitions. Definite integrals in which either or

both of the limits of integration are infinite, and also those
in which the integrand becomes infinite within the inter-
val of integration, are called improper integrals. Such in-
tegrals have no meaning under the definitions so far laid
down (see §§ 98, 102) ; we proceed to show how they may
arise, and to find under what conditions a meaning can be
assigned to them.
Examples : (a) The area under the curve y- from

a; = 1 to a; =6 is evidently

^1 x' XJ\

When h becomes infinite, the area approaches the limit 1.

This limit we define as the area " bounded " by the curve,
the a;-axis, and the line a; = 1, although it is not properly

a bounded area in the usual sense of the term. Symboli-

cally we write

Jl 3? x]l
175
176 CALCULUS

The first thought might be that the area in the figure

would increase indefinitely as the right-hand boundary
recedes. Our result shows that this is not the case the —
area is always less than 1.

(J) The area under the curve

xy^ = 1 from a; = a (a > 0) to a; = 1 is

A= P-^ = 2Vi]^= 2 - 2V^.

When a approaches 0, the initial ordi-
nate becomes infinite ; the area ap-
proaches the limit 2. This limit we
define as the area in the first quadrant
" bounded " by the curve, the axes,
and the line x= 1. For brevity, we
write merely

dx
i =2Vx 2,
^° y/z
Fig. 74
but it must be borne in mind that the
geometric interpretation is quite different from that of the
ordinary integral.

(c) Let us try to find the a,rea under the curve w =—

x^
from a; = — 1 to a; = 1. If we were to work carelessly,
without noticing that the integrand becomes infinite
within the interval, we might write

dx
= —2
*
-1

wbich is obviously absurd. But if we write

^ = hm
. ,. r-'"dx
I — , T
hm ndx
— I
-I-
a!~=H^'^-l ar a/'-X)^"" X^

= limr-11 "-1- limT-ll^

a)->oL *J-1 ""-^oL Xja"
 ;

IMPROPER INTEGRALS 177

it is clear that the limits do not exist, and the area-integral

has no meaning.
These examples suggest the following definitions :

/'b

X"f (x) dx = lim I

/ (2;) dx ;

I / {x) dx = lim i / (a;) dx,

provided the limits exist.
2. If /(») becomes infinite as x->b~,

Jl f{x')dx= lim I
f(^x)dx;

\.if{x) becomes infinite as x^af^,

Jf (x) dx=\im I / (x) dx,

provided the limits exist.
3. If /(a;) becomes infinite as x->c, where a < e < 6,

I
f{x)dx= lim I /(a;)c?a;+ lim j f{x)dx,

provided the limits exist.

120. Geometric interpfetation. It is obvious that an in-

tegral with an infinite limit may be interpreted in general
as the area under a curve which is asymptotic to the a>axis
an integral whose integrand becomes infinite may usually
be thought of as the area between a curve and a vertical
asymptote. Of course, as in example (c) of § 119, these
integrals may not have any meaning in a given case.

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals.

1. (a) ("" — ; (l) P— ;

(c) Ccosxdx;(d) C e^dx.

Ans. (a) J; (ft) meaningless; (c) meaningless; (rf) ^.

2 n dx
^^^^ ^ 3
ndx ^^^ Meaningless.
^-1 ,/i _ X'
».2 •'0 a;

""
4. C —__ Ans. 4. 5. C" ,
Ans. 2V2^.
^Vx -" V2a-t
178 CALCULUS

6. Trace the curve y = , and find the area between the

a;2 + 4 a^
curve and its asymptote. Ans. 4ira^.

7. Find the volume generated by revolving the area of Ex. 6

about the asymptote. Ans. 4:Tr^aK

8. Find the area in the' fourth quadrant bounded by the curve

xy'^ = (x— 1)^ and the coordinate axes.
9. Find the area in the second quadrant under the cxirve y = e*.

10. Find the volume generated by revolving (a) about OX,

(h) about OY, the area in the second quadrant under the curve y = e».

Ans. (a)
|; (6) 2,r.

11. The area in example (6), § 119, revolves about the ^-axis.
Find the volume generated.
12. Find the surface generated by revolving about OX that portion
of the curve y = e" which lies to the left of the ^-axis. Ans. 2.29 ir.
^\Z. Trace the curve x(x — yY = a^, and find the area bounded by
the curve, the jz-axis, and the line x = 4a. Ans. 2 a^.

14. Find the volume generated by revolving about OY the area

under the curve y = e~a"^. Check by solving in two ways.
 CHAPTER XVIII
CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA
I. Centeoids

121. Mass; density. The student is assumed to be

familiar with the idea of mass as introduced in physics.
Amass is said to be homogeneous if the masses contained
in any two equal volumes are equal. In all other cases
the mass is heterogeneous. In the present chapter we con-
fine our attention to homogeneous masses.
The density S of a homogeneous mass is the ratio of the
mass Mto the volume F'that it occupies :

That is, the density is the mass per unit volume.

Although every physical mass occupies a certain volume
or three-dimensional portion of space, nevertheless it is

frequently desirable to introduce the idea of the material

particle, or geometric point endowed with mass.* The
mass-point may be imagined as the limiting form ap-
proached by a body whose dimensions approach 0, while the
density increases in such a way that the mass remains
finite.

Similarly we may think of masses of one dimension and

of two dimensions — i.e. of material curves and surfaces.
Such masses are represented approximately, for example,
by slender wires and thin sheets of metal. In these cases
we define the density as "linear density," or mass per
unit length,

* This notion is fundamental in studying the motion of a rigid body.

179
180 CALCULUS

and "surface density," or mass per unit area,

^ = ^'
respectively.
122. Moment of mass. The product of a mass m, con-
centrated at a point P, by the distance I oi P from a given
point, line, or plane, is called the moment* of m with re-
spect to the point, line, or plane. Denoting this moment
by (t, we have
Gr= ml.
If a system of points Pj, P^, •••, P„, having masses nip
m^, •••, m„ respectively, be referred to cartesian coordinate
axes, the moments of the system with respect to the three
coordinate planes are respectively
n

1=1
n ^

1=1
n

^zy = X '^'^<-
i=l
In case the particles all lie in one of the coordinate
planes, themoments with respect to coordinate planes
reduce to moments with respect to coordinate axes.
The mass-moment may be extended to the case
idea of
of a continuous mass by thinking of the mass as composed
of an indefinitely large number of particles. A precise
definition will be laid down in § 187. The actual compu-
tation of such a moment is usually effected by means of
definite integrals; we return to this question presently.
123. Given any mass M^, let G-y^, Gr^„ Gr^y de-
Centroid.
note the moments of the mass with respect to the coordi-
nate planes. The point whose coordinates x, y, a, are
given by the formulas
Mx = G^,„ My = a,^, Mi = (?,„

* More precisely, the simple moment, or moment of first order.

 CENTROIDS. JMOiMENTS OF INERTIA 181

clearly has the property that the moment of the mass with
respect to each of the coordinate planes
, is the same as if

the Ayhole mass were concentrated at that point.

It is easily shown that this property holds for moments
with respect to any other plane. The proof for the gen-
eral case requires the use of multiple integrals (Chapter
XXIII); for a system of mass-particles the proof is as
follows. Let
(1) ax + hy + cz = p
be the equation of any plane in the normal form ; let

p, jDj, jSj' ••> Pn be the distances of the points C, P^, P^i "•»

P„ from this plane. Now

p„=ax„+h2/„ + cz^-p,
so that
n n n n n

t=l 1=1 1=1 .=1 !=1

= aMl- + IjMy + cMl - Mp
= M(ax + blj + oz — p)
= Mp.
That is, the moment of the system with respect to the
plane (1) is the same as if the whole mass were concen-
trated at C.
The point C is called the center of mass, or centroid * :
The centroid of a mass is a point such that the moment
of the mass mth respect to any plane is the same as if the
whole mass were concentrated at that point.
By § 122, the coordinates of the centroid of a system of
particles are given by the formulas
n 11 n
Mx='^ miXi, My=^ mij/i, Mz=^ mtZi-
1=1 1=1 i=l

* The centroid coincides witli the center of gravity, and is frequently

so-called but the term centroid is in some respects preferable.
;
 : :

182 CALCULUS

In the actual determination of centroids, the following

considerations are often useful (the first two apply only to
homogeneous masses)
(a) If the body has a geometrical center, that point is

the centroid.
(5) Any plane or line of symmetry must contain the
centroid.
(c) If the body consists of several portions for each of
which the centroid can be found, each portion may be
imagined concentrated at its centroid: the problem thus
reduces to the consideration of a set of particles.
124. Centroids of geometrical figures. It is clear that,
for ahomogeneous body of given size and shape, both the
mass and its moment with respect to any plane are pro-
portional to the density 8. Hence, in the formulas for ^,

y, ^, 8 cancels out from both members, leaving the co-

ordinates of the centroid independent of the density.
We may therefore without loss of generality take 8=1,
and are thus led to speak of centroids of geometrical
figures — volumes, areas, and lines — without reference to
the idea of mass.

EXERCISES
1. Find the centroid of the following plane systems of particles
(a) Equal particles at (0, 0), (4, 2), (3, - 5), (- 2, - 3).
(6) A mass of 2 units at (0, 1), one of 3 units at (3, — 3), one
of 6 units at (4, 1).
2. Four particles of mass 2, 4, 6, 8 units are placed at the points
(0, 0, 0), (0, 2, 2), (4, 1, 5), (- 3, 2, - 1) respectively. Find the
centroid.

3. Show that the centroid of two particles divides the line joining
them into segments inversely proportional to the masses.
4. Show that the centroid of three equal particles lies at the in-
tersection of the medians of the triangle having the three points as
vertices.

5. Equal particles are placed at five of the six vertices of a regular

hexagon. Find the centroid.
 mc
CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 183

6. Particles of mass 1, 2, ••, 8 units are placed at the successive

vertices of a regular octagon. Find the centroid.
7. Find the centroid of the cross section of an angle-iron, the sides
being 5 in. and 8 in., and the thickness of each flange 1 in.

8. Find the centroid of the T-iron section (a) of Fig. 75, (b) of
Fig. 76.
9. Find the centroid of a wire frame in the shape of the perimeter
(a) of Fig. 75, (b) of Fig. 76.

r 1

m
184 CALCULUS

m Chapter XV.* Let us choose, as in that chapter, a suit-

able geometrical element (of volume, area, or length), and
denote the mass contained in this element by Aw;. Let «<,
1/i, Zi be the
coordinates of the centroid-f of Aw;. Then the
sum ^Xi^nii represents approximately the moment of the
1=1
mass with respect to the yz-plane (or the y-axis, in the
case of a plane mass in the j-_y-plane), and the limit of
this sum as n becomes infinite is exactly the moment in
question. In this way we obtain the following formulas
for the coordinates of the centroid :

JIx = lim ^jA^i,

'i->a:i=l

n
M^ = lim ^ '/Atoj,

n
Mz = lira VzAw;.

Xow upon meaning of Xnif, we see that

recalling the
in any given ease the above limits may be expressed as
definite integrals by the fundamental theorem of § lO-l.
The result may be written in the following form:

(1) Mx= j X dm. My= iydm. Mz= izdm,

where i. y. z are the coordinates t of the centroid of the
mass-element. In any problem each integrand must be
expressed in terms of a single variable, and limits are to
be assigned in such a way as to extend the integration
over the whole mass.
In the next few articles we explain more in detail the
application of the above foi-mulas.

* Xerertieless the formiilas obtained are applicable, with proper

interpretation, to all masses, with no restriction whatever.

t It follows from the theorem of § 109 that in the espressions for

these coordinates, all in_linitesimals may he neglected.
X Apart from infinitesimals.
 CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 185

126. Centroids of plane areas.* To find the centroid of

a plane area (thin sheet of plate} we choose an element of
area as in § 10-0 (or § 100. if polar coor-
dinates are used^, and find the centroid
from the formulas

Ax = \
^ dA, Ay = \ y dA,

where x and y are the coordinates of the

centroid of the element.
Example : Find the centroid of the area
in the first quadrant bounded by the
parabola y^=Aax and its latus rectum.
With the element of area chosen as in
Fig. 61
Fig. Gl, we have
A= \ y dx = \a^-,

AH- = \
'
xy dx = 2 V« I
x^ dx= ^a?;

AJj =1
•^0
y ydx—'2.a\ xdx =<]?.
2 »A
Hence

We may also find y very easily by taking the element

parallel to OX. Thus

^y = I y^i"^
— ^^dy = 2 a) (a — x')dx = a?, etc.

EXEKCISES
Find the centroid of the foUowitfg areas. In each case, draw a
figureand estimate the coSrdinates of the centroid, thus obtaining
a rough check on the result.
1. An isosceles triangle.
2. A semicircular area. Evaluate the integral in two ways.

• The problem of this article is of particular importance in the theory

of the flexure or bending of beams.
 :

186 CALCULUS

3. One quadrant of an ellipse, using (a) the equation "5 +^ = 1

(6) the equations z = a cos <j>, y = b sin <^. Ans. ( —— , )•

4. Any triangle. ^ns. At the intersection of the medians.

6. Half an arch of the sine curve. Am. ( 1, - ).

6. The area between the curves 2 y = x', y = x^. Get each coor-
dinate in two ways.

7. A circular sector. Ans. x =-a^^^^-

3 a
8. One arch of the cycloid. Ans. (ira, | a).

9. A semicircular area, using polar coordinates.

10. A circular segment. Check by putting h = a.

11. A trapezoid.
12. One loop of the curve r = a cos 2 6.

13. The area under the curve y = e" from a: = to a; = 1.

14. The area bounded by the curve y = —S-£^ the a;-axis, and the
X
maximum ordinate.
15. The area bounded by the parabola y = x^, the x-axis, and the
line X = 3.

16. The area bounded by the curves y =^ x, y = 2 x, y = x'^.

17. The area bounded by the catenary y = q(e"+ e"), the axes,
and the line x = a.

18. The area swept out by the radius vector of the spiral of
Archimedes r = ad in the first revolution.

19. Half the area of the cardioid r = a(l — cos d).

20. The upper half of the loop of the curve ay^ = ax'^ — x'.

21. The area of Ex. 7, p. 153.

22. From one corner of a square of side a, a triangle of sides \ a,

J a is cut off. Find the centroid of the remaining area.

23. From a circle an inscribed isosceles right triangle is cut out.

Find the centroid of the remainder.
CmaJI'J-^'Uv-i/j
24. Prove the second proposition of Pappus
The volume of any solid of revolution is equalto the product of
the generating area into the circumference of the circle described by
the centroid of the area.
 CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 187

Solve the following by using the second proposition of Pappus.

26. Find the volume of a torus. Ans. 2 w^a^b.
' . 26. Find the centroid of, a right triangle.
27. Find the centroid of a semicircular area.

127. The centroid of a volume

Centroids of volumes.
of revolution evidently lies on the axis of revolution, so
that a single coordinate determines its position. Taking
the axis of revolution as axis of x, we have

Vx=^xdV,
where the element of volume is chosen as in § 107 or
§ 108, and where x is the a;-co6rdinate of the centroid of
the element.
In certain special cases the centroids of other solids
may be found by a simple integration, but in general we
must resort to multiple integrals.

EXERCISES
Find the centroid of the following volumes. Draw a figure in
each case and estimate the coordinates of the centroid.
1. A hemisphere.
, Solve in two ways. Ans. x = \a.
'^
_ 2. A right circular cone. Ans. x = \'h.

3. A paraboloid of revolution bounded by a right section through/r

the focus.
,' • 4. Half an ellipsoid of revolution. Solve in various ways. -^

6. A spherical segment of height h. Check by putting }i = r.

6. The volume generated by revolving (a) about OX, (6) about

OY, the area under the curve y = e" from a; = to x = 1.
p^ 7. The volume generated by revolving half an arch of the cycloid
about its base.

'.'
8. The volume formed by rotating the area under the parabola
y^ = ^ax from x = to x = a, (a) about the y-axis ;
(ft) about the
latus rectum ;
(c) about the line y = 2a.
9. The volume in Ea. 13, p. 163. Ans. Q b,^a,\ a)
10. The volume in Fig. 68. Check all three coordinates by solving
again with the element chosen in a different way.

)^ 11. An elliptic cone. Atis. x = \h.

 188 CALCULUS

X 12. One quarter of a right circular conoid (see Ex. 12, p. 163).

13. One quadrant of the banister cap in Ex. 14, p. 163.

14. A tetrahedron three of whose faces are mutually perpendicular,

Ans. Qa, JJ, Jc).
15. The volume of Ex. 16, p. 163. Solve in two ways.
X/^IG. Oue quarter of a right pyramid with a square base.
17. The volume of Ex. 18, p. 164. Solve in two ways.
18. The volume of Ex. 19, p. 161.

19. The volumes of Ex. 6, p. 160.

20. The volume formed by revolving about the y-axis the area

under the curve y = e - . Take as the element a cylindrical shell,

and evaluate the integrals in two ways.
21. Obtain formulas for the coordinates of the centroid of a wedge
cut from any solid of revolution by two planes through the axis.

128. In the case of an arc of a

Centroids of lines.
plane curve, the fundamental limits of § 125 may be
expressed at once as line integrals, by the theorem of
§113:
sx = j r ds, sy = I y I

where s is the length of the arc 0.

Example: Find the centroid of a semicircular wire.
Taking the bounding diameter as axis of y, we have

rx=lxds = 2£x^i+(^£dx
 : .

CENTROIDS. -MOMENTS OF INERTIA 189

129. Centroids of curved surfaces. The coordinates of

the centroid of a surface of revolution (§ 116), or of a
cylindrical surface (§ 117), may be expressed in terms of
line integrals.
The required integrals are easily built up in each
problem.

yx
EXERCISES
>— 1. In the example of § 128, evaluate the integral by expressing
' the integrand in terms of y.

Find the centroid of each of the following figures.

/— 2. A semicircular wire, using polar coordinates.

'v 3. The arc of the curve ay^ = x^, from i = to x = 5 a.

X

4. The arc of the catenary y =-^(_e'^+ e ") between two sym-

metric points.

6. The arc of the semicycloid (from cusp to vertex)

Ans. {^a,^a).

6. A hemispherical surface, using (a) cartesian, (V) polar co-

ordinates. Ans. X =\a.

/( T. The lateral surface of a right circular cone. Ans. x =\h.

y i. The total surface of a right circular cone.

9. The cylindrical surface in Fig. 72.

10. The area in Ex. 5, p. 171.

11. The surface in Ex. 7, p. 171.

y 12. The surface of a paraboloid of revolution bounded by a right

section through the focus.

13. Prove the first proposition of Pappus

The
surface of a solid of revolution is equal to the length of the
generating arc multiplied by the circumference of the circle described
by the centroid of the arc.

14. Find the surface of a torus. Ans. ^Tfiab.

15. Find the centroid of a semicircular wire by the first propo-

sition of Pappus.
190 CALCULUS

II. Moments of Inertia

130. Moment of inertia. The product of a mass m, con-
centrated at a point P, by the square of the distance r of
P from a fixed line, or axis, is called the moment of the
second order, or moment of inertia, of m with respect to
the given axis :

1= mr^.

The moment of inertia of a system of such masses is of

course the sum
n

If we think of a " continuous " mass as composed ulti-

mately of particles, the meaning of moment of inertia of

such a mass becomes clear. An analytic definition will be
given in § 187.
The moment of inertia of a homogeneous body is pro-
portional to the density. Taking S = 1, we may speak of
"moment of inertia" of areas, volumes, etc., no idea of
mass being involved.
131. Radius of gyration. The moment of inertia of any
mass Mma.y always be written in the form'

where the quantity R is called the radius of gyration, or

radius of inertia, of M with respect to the given axis of
moments. The meaning of the radius of gyration is

obvious : it is the distance from the axis at which a parti-

cle of mass M must be placed in order to have the same
moment of inertia as the original mass.

132. moment of inertia by integration.

Determination of
The moment of the second order
actual computation of the
of a continuous mass is effected by integration in much
the same way that the moment of the first order (§ 125)
is determined. In the general case, we must have re-
 :

CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 191

course to double or triple integrals (Chapter XXIII) ; but

for the simple cases of practical importance the result can
usually be found by a single integration.
For the present we consider only such bodies as were
studied in Chapter XV. Let us choose a geometrical ele-
ment (of volume, area, or length) in some suitable way,
and denote the mass of this element by Am,-. The element
must he so chosen that its radius' of gyration is known * ; let
r< denote this radius. Then the sum
n
y r^/^rui

isapproximately the moment of inertia of the mass with

respect to the given axis, and the limit of this sum is
exactly the required moment
n

I= lim 2^ r^Arrii.
n—>oD i=l

Now if we apply the fundamental theorem of § 104, the

above limit appears as tho definite integral

(1) I=fr'dm,

where r is the radius of gyration of the mass element with

respect to the axis of moments. Of course the integrand
must be expressed in terms of a single variable and the
integratioij. must be extended over the whole mass.
Just as,^n finding centroids, we must take an element
the positiqn of whose centroid is known, so here the
essential point is to choose an element whose radius of
gyration is known. Thus the moment of inertia of a
plane area (or of a thin sheet of mass) with respect to a
line in its plane may be found by taking as the element
a rectangle with its finite side parallel to the axis of

* In the expression for the radius of gyration, infinitesimals may as

usual be neglected.
192 CALCULUS

moments, since then the radius of gyration of the element

is simply its distance from the axis.

To find the moment of inertia of a volume of revolution

about the axis of revolution it is usually best to choose
the element as in § 108.
Hxam/ples : (oi) Find the moment of inertia, with re-
spect to the ^-axis, of the area bounded by the parabola
y^ = 4 ax, the a;-axis, and the latus rectum.
Taking the element parallel to OY, we find

I= Cx^y dx=1y/~a fV dx = I a*.

Since the mass, or area, is

M^^ydx: i'
we may write
i, = Ma\
f
which shows that the square of the radius
of gyration is
^2 = 1 a\
(J) The area in Fig. 61 revolves about
the «/-axis. Find the moment of inertia
of the volume generated, with respect to
the axis of revolution.
Take as element of volume the cylin-
drical shell generated by the rectangle
shown in Fig. 61, so that
dV= 2 TTxy dx.
Fig. 61 The radius of gyration of this shell about
the y-axis is evidently x. Hence

Zy = 2 TT I a^ -xy dx = 4: -n-Va I x^ dx

The mass, or volume, is

M= 2 7r \ xy dx = ^ Tra^,
whence -^s
= f -^« •
 CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 193

EXERCISES
Find the following moments of inertia.
1. A particle of mass 3 units at (0, 0), one of 4 units at (2, 2),
and one of 5 units at ( — 1, - 3), with respect to each of the coordi-
nate axes.
2. Equal particles at (0, 0, 0), (0, 5, 0), (3, 4, 3), with respect to
each coordinate axis.

3. Equal particles at each corner of a cube, (a) with respect to an

edge of the cube, (6) with respect to a diagonal of one face.

.•Ins. (a) il/«-; (6) ^ Ma\
4. A straight rod or wire with respect to a perpendicular through
one end. Ans. ^MIK
6. A rectangle about one side. Ans. J Ma'-.
6. A circular disk with respect to a diameter. Ans. ^Ma^
7. The area in the example of § 132 with respect to the x-axis,
(a) taking the element parallel to OX, (b) taking the element
parallel to OF and using the result of Ex. 5.

8. (a) An isosceles triangle, (6) any triangle, with respect to the

base.

9. A circular disk of radius 4 in. with a square of side 2 in. cut

out of the center, with respect to a diameter parallel to a side of the

square.

10. An ellipse with respect to each of its axes, using (a) the carte-
sian equation, (6) the equations x — a cos tf>, y = b sin <^.
11. The area bounded by the parabola y'^ = 4 ax, the !/-axis, and
the line y = '2a, with respect to each coordinate axis.
12. The area in Fig. 75, p. 183, (a) with respect to the base,
(J) with respect to the line of symmetry.
13. The area in Fig. 76, with respect to the base.

14. A sphere with respect to a diameter. Ans. | Jl/o'.

15. A cylinder of revolution, with respect to its axis. Ans. ^ Ma^.

16. A right circular cone with respect to its axis. Ans. -^ Ma\
17. A paraboloid of revolution bounded by the right section
through the focus, with respect to the axis.

-- 18. An ellipsoid generated by revolving an about its major

ellipse
axis, with respect to the axis of revolution. Use (a) the cartesian
equation of the ellipse, (A) the equations x = a cos <f>, y = h sin <^.

o
 194 CALCULUS

19. The volume formed by revolving the area of Fig. 61 about the
latus rectum, with respect to the axis of revolution.

,^^-'' 20. A circular disk about its axis — i.e. the line through the
^center of the disk perpendicular to its plane. Ans. \ M(fi.

(^ 21. A wire bent in the form of a square, with respect to (a) a side,

/(V) a diagonal.
^j.^ 22. A circular wire with respect to a diameter, using (a) polar
'"'
(6) cartesian coordinates.

23. The arc of the curve ay"^ = x% from a; = to x = 5a, with

respect to the 2/-axis.

^ 24. A spherical surface about a diameter, using (a) polar, (b)

/cartesian coordinates.

ci_^ 25. The lateral surface of a cone of revolution, about its axis.
/^ Ans. IMa^.
' / 26. A torus, with respect to its axis.

' 27. The surface of a torus, about its axis.

28. The surface of a paraboloid of revolution bounded by a right

section through the focus, with respect to the axis.

29. The surface in Ex. 5, p. 171, about the z-axis.

30. The surface in Ex. 7, p. 171, about the ^-axis.

31. arc of the curve ay'' = a;' from x =

The to x = a revolves
about OY. Find the moment of inertia of the surface generated,
with respect to the jz-axis.

32.Find the moment of inertia of the volumes in Exs. 14, 16, 17,
18, by using the result of Ex. 20.
33. The area under the curve y = e"*°^ revolves about the y-axis.
Find the moment of inertia of the volume generated, with respect to
the y^axis. Ans. 2 M.

^ J.S3. Moment of inertia with respect to a plane. In most

applications we are concerned with moment of inertia with
respect to a line. Nevertheless it is frequently useful, as
we shall see presently, to introduce the idea of moment
of inertia with respect to a plafhe. The definitions and
discussion of §§ 130-132 hold at once for the moment of
^ the second order with respect to a plane if we replace the

|~vv-^rd " lii^' (or " axis ") throughout by the word " plane."
 CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 195

Example : Find the moment of inertia of a sphere with

respect to a diametral plane.
Taking the plane of moments as ys-plane and choosing
as the element of volume a circular disk parallel to the
t/z-plane, we have

^yz = TT CxY dx = C 7r 0^(0,2 - x^-)dx = ^^ ira^ = ^ Ma^.

EXERCISES
Find the following moments of inertia.
1. The following system of particles, with respect to each of the
coordinate planes : 3 units at (0, 0, 2), 2 units at (4, 3, 2), 4 units at
(- 2, 2, 1), 1 unit at (3, - 3, 0).

2. A right circular cylinder with respect to the plane of the base.

3. A paraboloid of revolution bounded by a plane through the

focus at right angles to the axis, (a) for that plane ; (6) for the plane
tangent at the vertex.

4. A spherical surface for a diametral plane, using (a) cartesian,

(h) polar coordinates.

6. A right circular cone with respect to the plane of the base.

Ans. ^^Mh\
6. An ellipsoid of revolution with respect to the plane through
the center perpendicular to the axis.

7. The lateral surface of a right circular cone, for the plane

through the vertex at right angles to the axis.

8. The volume in Fig. 68, with respect to each coordinate plane.

9. The banister cap of Ex. 14, p. 163, with respect to the plane of
the base.

10. A right pyramid with a square base, with respect to the plane
of the base.

11. An ellipsoid with respect to the three principal planes.

134. General theorems on moments of inertia. We pro-

ceed to state certain theorems by means of which the
work of finding moments of inertia may in many cases
be greatly simplified.
196 CALCULUS

Theorem I : The moment of inertia of any mass with

respect to a line is equal to ^^^ *w* 'if *^^ moments with re-
spect to two perpendicular planes through the line.
For example,

Corollary: The moment of inertia of a plane mass

with respect to a line perpendicular to its plane is equal to

the sum of the moments with respect to two lines in the plane
intersecting at right angles in the foot of the perpendicular.
For example, for a mass in the xy-plane,
Iz = Ix + ly
Theorem II : The moment of inertia of any mass with
respect to a line (^or plane") is equal to the moment with
respect to the parallel centroidal line * {or plane) plus the
product of the mass by the square of the distance between the
lines {or planes).
That is, if I is any line, I the parallel centroidal line, d
the distance between them, then

Ii = Ir+Md^.
We shall prove these theorems at present only for a
system of particles, returning to the general case later
(§187).
To prove theorem I, let us take the two perpendicular
planes as the xy-'plane and the 2a;-plane. Then, for a
system of n particles,
n

Ix=X miiy? + z?),

1=1
n

1=1
n

hx=%'m(yl
Hence
^x xy *" ZX'

* That is, the parallel line through the centroid.

 ;

CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 197

The proof of the corollary is left to

the student.
To prove theorem II for any line I

and the parallel centroidal line 1, we

note that in Fig. 77, by the cosine law,

d,?=d,^ + d^-2dili cos(9i

= 5,2 + ^2 _ 2 ,7^, .,

where pf is the distance of Wj from the

plane through T perpendicular to the FiQ. 77

plane of I and I. Hence

r* II ti n

2) "'i'^i''^ = % '".''i^ + d^'^mi — 2d^ rriiPi.

1^1 1 = 1 i=l 1=1

But the quantity V ot^.^jj is the mass-moment of first

1=1

order of tlie system with respect to the plane through I

perpendicular to the plane determined by I and Z, and since

this perpendicular plane contains the centroid, the moment
in question is 0. Hence

The proof of theorem IJ for two parallel planes is still

simpler. It is left to the student.

EXERCISES
Find the following moments of inertia.
"^
1. A right circular cylinder with respect to (a) a plane through
the axis ;
(J) a generator ;
(c) a diameter of the middle section
(rf) a line tangent to the bnso.
V. 2. A cube with respect to (a) one face ; (6) an edge.
*- 3. A circular disk (a) for a tangent, (h) for a perpendicular
through a point in the circumference. Solve (6) in two ways.
4. An isosceles triangle about a line (a) parallel to the base
bisecting the altitude, (h) through the vertex perpeudiculai- to the
plane.
"^ 5. A sphere with respect to a tangent. Solve in two ways.
198 CALCULUS
"i 6. A square plate for a line perpendicular to its plane (a) through
a corner, (i) through the center.
^ 7. A right pyramid with a square base, with respect to the axis.

8. The area in Fig. 75 with respect to a line through the centroid

(a) parallel to the base, (h) perpendicular to the plane.

9. A wire frame in the shape of an isosceles triangle, with respect

to a line (a) through the centroid parallel to the base, (b) through
the vertex perpendicular to the plane.
>. 10. An ellipsoid of revolution about a diameter of the middle cross
section.

11. The area in Fig. 76 with respect to a line through the centroid
parallel to the base.

V 12. A right circular cone with respect to (a) a diameter of the base,
(6) a line through the vertex perpendicular to the axis, (c) a diameter
of the middle cross section.
Ans. (b)(ih^ + ^-^a^)M; (c) (^h^ -[ ^\a^)M.
13. The volume in Fig. 68, with respect to each coordinate axis.

14. An ellipse for a line through the center perpendicular to the

plane.

15. An ellipsoid for each of its axes.

135. Kinetic energy of a rotating body. The kinetic

energy of a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v is

defined as ,

If a particle at a distance r from a fixed line rotates

with an angular velocity w about that line as an axis, its
linear velocity is (§ 58)
V =<tir%

hence its kinetic energy is

The kinetic energy of a system of n particles rotating with

angular velocity &> is

1=1

where 1 is the moment of inertia of the system with respect

to the axis of rotation. Tbis formula holds in general.
 ,

CENTROIDS. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 199

A discussion of the various systems of units in actual

use is outside the scope of this book. In the exercises
below the so-calhid engineering system is used. In this
system the mass m is replaced by the value

m = w—
9
where w
the " weight " in pounds, and g the acceleration
is

of gravity C^it^ it. per second per second approximately).

If then V is cixpi'OHsed in feet per second, the energy is

measured in "foot-pounds."

EXERCISES
1. A straight rod 10 ft. long, weighing 20 lbs., rotates about a
perpendicular through one end at the rate of 2 R. P. S. Find its

kinetic energy. Ans. 1650 ft.-lbs.

2. A flywheel 12 ft. iu diameter whose rim weighs 10 tons makes

50 K. P. M. Neglecting the mass of the spokes, find the kinetic
energy of the whw^l. Ans. 156 ft.-tons.

3. A flywheel 1 ft. in diameter, weighing 50 lbs., makes 100 R. P. M.

If the wheel can be considered as a uniform circular disk, find its

kinetic energy.

4. A wheel 4 ft. in diameter has 8 spokes weighing 20 lbs. each.

The rim weighs 600 lbs. Find the kinetic energy of the wheel when
it is making 20 H. P. M.

6. The kinetic energy of a solid Hphen! 1 ft. in diameter making

60 R.P.M. about an axis through its center is 5 ft.-lbs. Find the
weight of the H]ili(',ri!. Ana. 80 lbs.

6. A hollow cast-iron sjihiire (sp. gr. 7.5) 4 ft. in diameter rotates

about an axis through its center at the rate of 1 radian per second.
Its kinetic energy is 375 ft.-lbs. Find the inner radius. Ans. 1 ft.

7. Find the inner radius in Ex. 6 if the kinetic energy is 200

ft.-lbs.
 ;

CHAPTER XIX
LAW OF THE MEAN. EVALUATION OF LIMITS

136. Let there be given a continuous,

Rolle's theorem.
one-valued, and differentiable function ^(2;), which van-
ishes at a; = a and 2; = 6. In
order that the function, start-
ing with the value at x = a,
shall assume again the value
at x = h, it must first increase
up to some point P, and then
begin to decrease, or vice versa.
At P there is either a maximum or a minimum, and the
derivative is at that point.
We have thus
Rolle's Theorem If ^(x) vanishes when 2; = a and
:

X = b, then (p' (x) vanishes for at least one value of x between

a and b.
If the fundamental assumptions of continuity and dif-
ferentiability are not satisfied, the theorem may not hold.
In Fig. 79 it fails be-
cause ^(a;) is discon-
tinuous at one point
in Fig. 80 it fails be-
cause the derivative
is undefined at one Fig. 80
point.
137. The law of the mean. Let /(a;) be a continuous,
one-valued, and differentiable function whose graph in
the interval x =a to x =b is shown in Fig. 81. It is

geometrically obvious that at some point P the tangent

200
 LAW OF THE MEAN 201

must be parallel to the secant

SQ. Now the slope of the
secant is

SR h-a '

the slope of the tangent at P

is /'(a^i), where a;j is the ab-
scissa of P. Hence Fig. 81

h-a ~^ ^^"^1^'

or
(1) /(b)-/(a) = (&-a)/'(xi), a<x-^<.b.
This relation is called the law of the mean.
138. Other forms of the law of the mean. It is often
necessary to apply formula (1) above with b = x, thus
making the length of the interval variable :

(X> f(p') = /(«) + (a; - «)/'C«i), a < a;i < a;.

It is to be noted that a;j is here a function of x.

Again, placing
a = a;, h = a + Ax,
and denoting by ^ a positive number less than unity, we
obtain
/(x + Ax-) = fix) + Axfix + eAx\ < < 1.
EXERCISES
For each of the following functions, show why Rolle's theorem
does not hold in the indicated interval.
1
1. y = \- - l<r<l.
2. (y + 4)3 = a;2, -8<x<8.
3. y = (1 — 2;^) a-rccot s, — l<r<l.
4. Draw curves showing that the law of the mean may fail when
/(x) is discontinuous or non-differentiable in the interval.
6. At what point on the parabola y = x^ is the tangent parallel to
the secant through the points a; = 0, x = 2 ?
202 CALCULUS
6. At what point on the curve i/ = x' - x is the tangent parallel to
the secant through (1, 0) and (2, 6)? Draw the figure.

7. Find the point on the curve y = log x where the tangent is paral-
lel to the secant through the points a; = 1, a; = 2.

139. The indeterminate forms -, ^- If two functions

f(x), F(x) both vanish at a; =a :

/(a)=0,^(a)=0,
"
their quotient -^ ^ assumes the " indeterminate form

- nt X = a, and is undefined at that point. Nevertheless

the limit lim -^

\
'
may
^ exist. This fact is illustrated in
x^a F(X)
the derivation of the fundamental differentiation formulas,
where in each case both numerator and denominator of

the difference quotient —^ approach 0, yet the derivative,

which is the limit of that quotient, exists.

In case the fraction •''^ ^ does approach a limit when

^^
F{x)
X approaches a, we lay down the following definition:

Fix),

The function "L^ ^ thus becomes continuous at the point

Fix-)
x = a^ by the definition of continuity (§ 12).
It may be possible to evaluate the limit by means of

more or less obvious transformations of ^M, as was done

F(xy
in deriving the differentiation formulas. In many cases
the limit may be obtained by a method that will now be
developed.
By the law of the mean, using the form (1) of § 138
 :

LAW OF THE MEAN 203

we may write
/(,) = /(a) + (.r-aV'(rri),

where x^ and .r^ lie between a and .r. But by hypothesis

/(a) = J'(a)=0.
Hence
/o-)^c -'--'0/'(^-i) ^/'(-'i)

As j; approaches a, .ij and j-j must do likewise, and we

have, by theorem III of § 8,

li--^= li-S^= lim-^ = /;(^,

T^FiX^ a>^F'(x.^) a:-X.F\x) -F'(a)

provided /'(a) and F\a) exist and F'{a')=f=0.

If /(.)) and ^(^.r) both increase indeiinitely as x ap-
proaches a
lim /(i-) = GO, lim -F(a;) = oo,
.i->o

the fraction •[} ^ is said to assume the indeterminate form

Fix)
^ &t x = a. Here again it may happen that lim -L} ex-

ists, and it can be shown that the same method may be

applied in this case as in the case just treated.

It may happen that the fraction ^—-^—

f'Cr')
takes the form

T^
Q
or ^
QO
. In tliis case we may
J differentiate numerator and

denominator again, and repeat as many times as necessary.

Finally, we may have a = 00: i.e.

^— approaches the

form- or ^ when x increases indefinitely. In this case

the rule holds also.

The results of this article may be summarized in the
following
 : .

204 CALCULUS

f(x)
Theorem :
If the fraction r^~- assumes the indetermi-
Fix)
nate •^form — or —
00
when x= a. then
Q
lim/(^=liin^,
a:^aF(x) x^aF'{x)
provided the latter limit exists.

Thus we may differentiate the numerator and the de-

nominator separately, and take the limit of the new
fraction thus formed. It must be borne clearly in mind,
however, that the theorem applies only to fractions in
which the numerator and the denominator hoth approach
or hoth increase indejinitely.

Example : Evaluate lim —— •

This fraction takes the form - when a; = 0, so that the

theorem applies
,. tan_£_ ,. sec^2;_
1
a:->0 X ar->0 1

140. The indeterminate forms . oo , oo — oo. Given

the product of two functions /(a;) • F(ic), suppose that as
X approaches a one function approaches while the other
increases indefinitely. The product is then said to take
the indeterminate form • oo

If we write

fix-).Fix)=^,
Fix)
it appears that the quotient last written assumes the

form _ or ^, and the theorem of § 139 may be applied.

If, two functions /(a;), Fix)

as X approaches a, each of

fix)— Fix) is said

increases indefinitely, their difference
to assume the indeterminate form oo — oo. Here also
 . :

LAW OF THE MEAN 205

we express /(a;) -J' (a:) as a fraction which takes the

form K or g , and then apply the theorem.

Example : Evaluate lim x log x.

x->0+
This takes the form • oo. If we write it in the form
-^, the theorem of § 139 becomes applicable

X 1

lim a; log a: = lim -2S^= Um -^ = Hm (-a;)= 0,

a; x2

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following limits, when they

1. lim .2£i£
exist.
" "
2.

2 2

3. lim -^-16
x-^4 x^ + X -20

6. lim sin^x
x->-0

7. lim a; log sin x.

9. lim 3 xii - 4 X
x->-» 2x^-3x + 1
11. lim
^-4^°.
!->« a:2 + 1

13. lim
^-a-rcsing
fl-»* sin' ^
Trace the following curves.
14. y = a; log a;.

1 a loa: X
x^

18. Find the area in the fourth quadrant bounded by the curve
y = log X and the coordinate axes.
19. Find the centroid of the area in the second quadrant under the
curve y = e'. Obtain each coordinate in two ways.
 —

206 CALCULUS
20. Find the moment of inertia of the area in Ex. 19, about each
coordinate axis.
21. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x log x and the a;-axis.

141. General remarks on evaluation of limits. While

the methods of §§ 139-140 are frequently very useful in
investigating the limit of a function at a point where the
function ceases to be defined, they are by no means
always applicable. In the first place, the function may
lose its meaning in some other way than by taking the

form 7^ or ^ (or a form reducible to one of these), so

that the theorem of § 139 cannot be brought into play,

yet it may be possible to show the existence of a limit by

other methods. Even when the function ^-—-^ does take

^^^^
the form ^ or ^ the theorem may fail to apply because

4;p - approaches no limit, yet the limit of the original

^\^) ...
quotient may exist. Again, the function -^ ^ may take

the form 7; or ^, and at the same time

f (x)
-r,,, \ may ap-
'^
F'(x)
proach a limit, yet it may be impossible to obtain anj''

result by the use of the theorem. Finally, there, is

always the possibility that a function undefined a.t x =a

may fail to approach any limit as x approaches a.
Each of these cases is illustrated by the following

Examples: (a) Evaluate lim

x-^x X
Here the denominator increases indefinitely, while the
numerator oscillates between — 1 and 1, without ap-

proaching any fixed value. Nevertheless, since is

never numerically greater than -, it clearly approaches 0.

X
 :

LAW OF THE MEAN 207

1
x^2 cos -

(6) Evaluate lim

^->-o sin X

Since cos - lies always between —1 and 1, the numer-

X
Q
ator approaches and the fraction takes the form -^•

Differentiating numerator and denominator separately,

I X C0S-+ sin-
we obtain a new fraction Tliis fraction
cos X

approaches no limit, since sin - oscillates between — 1

X
and 1, and the theorem is therefore inapplicable. But
the original fraction has a limit, which may be found
directly

1^ cos-
X X 1
lim '-
= lim •
•

lim x cos - = 0,
j-^o siu X j-->o sin X a:->-o x
X 1
since lim .
= 1 and lim x cos - = 0.
x->o Sin X j->o X
2t
(c) Evaluate lim ^•
This fraction takes the form ^- By § 139,

,. 2^
— = ,. 2^ log 2
—= ,. 2Mog2 2
^4-—=
lim lim lim ••.
x->.ot> 3^ a»oo 3^ log 3 .r->oc 3"^ log^ 3

No matter how many times we differentiate, we cannot

2^
get rid of the quotient — • Yet if the function be writ-

ten in the form (f)^ it is seen to approach the limit 0.

(c?) Evaluate lim

x-^x X
In this case no limit is approached. For no matter
how large x be taken, as x varies from rnr to (n + V)it
 ,

208 CALCULUS

the function tana;, and hence , ranges through all

X
possible values from — co to +30.

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following limits, when they exist.

1. lim—- Ans. 0. 2. lim sin rf> cot <A. Am. —\.

«->^

3. lim 55iZ Am. 0.

/ z->» X

5. Iiml2g(l±^.

„ , . tan X — X
 CHAPTER XX
INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM
I. Series of Constant Terms

142. Series of n terms. A series of n terms is an expres-

sion of the form
«1 + a2 + *8+ •••
^"'

where each term is formed from the preceding one by

some definite law. Examples are the arithmetic series
a-hla + d] + [a+2d;\+ + [a + (n-l)d],
in which each term is formed from the preceding by the
addition of a constant d, and the geometric series
a + ar+ ar^ + • •• + a?-"~\
in which each terin is equal to r times the one before it.

143. Infinite series. When the number of terms in-

creases indefinitely, a series of n terms becomes an infinite
series, denoted by the symbol
a^ + a^ + a^+ •••.

The series is defined by the law of formation of successive

terms, or, what amounts to the same thing, by the n-th or
general term.
The general term may frequently be written down by
inspection of the first few terms, as in the following
Examples : (a) In the series

the general term is — •

(J) In the geometric series

the general term is (— J)"~^.

p 209
 —

210 CALCULUS

(e) In the series

2 3 2-4 5 2-4-6 7 2-4 « 8 9

the general
^ term is -^ -^.
2"w! 2w +
•

144. Sum of an infinite series. It is shown in elemen-

tary algebra that the sum of a geometric series of n terms is

(1) ^„=^e^;
1— r
of an arithmetic series of n terms,

where I is the last term i.e.

Similarly the sum of any series of a finite number of terms

can be found.
On the other hand, an infinite series has no sum in the
ordinary sense of the term, since no matter how many
terms we might add up, there would always be an infinite
number left over. We may, however, give a meaning to
the term " sum " even in this case by laying down the fol-
lowing definition :
The sum of an infinite series is defined as the limit, as n
increases indefinitely, of the sum of the first n terms :

provided the limit exists.

Thus the " sum " of an infinite series is the limit of an

ordinary sum.
Example: By (1), the sum of the first n terms of the
infinite geometric series
a + ar + ar^ + -- 4- ar"~^ + •••

^^
o a — ar"
1 — r
 INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 211

Hence the sum of the series, if the sum exists, is

^^ Urn a-ar"

When r is numerically less than 1, the quantity ar" ap-

proaches as n increases, and

8=
1-r
When r is numerically greater than 1, the quantity ar" in-
creases indefinitely,and the above limit does not exist;
the series has no sum.
145. Convergence and divergence. If the series has a
sum S, i.e. if S^ approaches a limit when n increases, the
series is said to be convergent, or to converge to the value S;
if the limit does not exist, the series is divergent.
It follows from the above example that a geometric

series converges to the value if r < 1 ; it diverges

—r
I I

I
if |»'|>1-
A series may diverge, as in the case of a geometric
series for which r > 1, because S^ increases indefinitely as
n increases ; or it may diverge because S^ increases and
decreases alternately, or oscillates., without approaching
any limit. In the latter case the series is called oscillatory.

EXERCISES
1. Show that every infinite arithmetic series is divergent.

2. Find the sum of a geometric series of n terms for which r = 1,

(a) directly, (6) by applying the theorem of § 139 to formula (1),

§ 144.

3. Show that the infinite geometric series for which r = 1 is

divergent.
4. Show that the infinite geometric series for which r =— 1, viz.

a — a-^-a — a'\' «..,

is oscillatory.

146. Tests for convergence. In the elementary applica-

tions divergent series are of no importance. Before being
 :

212 CALCULUS

able to use a given series we must determine whether it

converges or diverges. If S„ can be expressed explicitly

as a function of n, as in the case of the arithmetic and
geometric series, we can in general determine the con-
vergence or divergence of the, series directly, and find the
sum if it exists but S„ cannot be so expressed in most
;

cases.
A necessary condition for convergence is that the gen-
eral term approach as its limit

lim a
B->a>
= 0.
For, when this condition is not satisfied, each term that is

added changes S^ by an amount that does not approach 0,

so that the difference between S^ and a fixed number S
obviously cannot become and remain arbitrarily small.
This condition, though necessary, is not sufficient; i.e.
if the condition is not satisfied, the series diverges, but if

it is satisfied, the series still may diverge. This is illus-

trated by the harmonic series

which will be shown in the next article to be divergent,

although
lim a„ = lim - = 0.
Many special tests for convergence have been devised,
applicable to more or less broad classes of series. Several
of the simplest are considered in the next few articles.

147. Cauchy's integral test. We will begin with an

Mxample : Prove that the harmonic series

(1) l + * + i + i+-
is divergent.
Here the general term is

«n =/(«) = -•
n
 :

INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 213

Let us draw the curve

X
erect the ordinates at a; = 1, '^ U '\Vl -V-
1 O 9 ^ •*
2, 3, •••, n, and complete the
circumscribed rec'tangles as
shown in the figure. Then
the areas of the rectangles Fia. 82

are, respectively,
1 1 1
1,
2' 3' n
so that the sum of these areas is the sum of the first n
terms of the series (1) :

Z 6 n
But the sum of the rectangles is clearly greater than the
area under the curve from x=l to x = n:
C" —
dx
J"^ ydx=\ = log w.
1 »^i a;

When n logw under the curve becomes

increases, the area
infinite, hence S^ does likewise and the series diverges.

This example illustrates Caiichy's integral test

Given a series of positive terms
(2) aj + 0^2 + «3 + •••'

If the function fCx) is defined not only for positive integral

values, hut for all positive values of x, and if fix) never in-
creases with X, then the series (2) converges or diverges ac-

fix) dx does or does not exist.

The proof of this test is easily written out by drawing

the curvey =f(x) and following the process suggested by
the above example. The details are left to the student.
* For the definition of this improper integral, see § 119.
214 CALCULUS

EXERCISES
1. Write out the proof of Cauchy's integral test.

In the statement of the integral test, why is it assumed that

2.

/(ar) never increases with a;? Show that it would be sufficient to

assume that/(i) never increases with x after some fixed point x = a;„.

3. Prove that the series

_1_ + J_+J_ + J_ + ...

l-22-,3 3-44.5
is convergent.

4. Prove that the series

1 + 1 + 1+1+...
2' 3" 4"

converges if jo > 1, diverges if p^L

Test the following series for convergence.

5. J- + -J- + J-+....
1.23.45.6

1+22 1+3= 1+42

7. 1-2+3-4+ ..

8. i-i + f-i+ •••

9. 1 + 1 + 1
+ 1 + ....

10. 1 + -^—
1
+ —i— + —
22^1 32^1
+ + +
^+
42
....

11. Test the geometric series for convergence by the integral test.

148. Comparison test. Let

Mi + M2 + "3+ •••

be a series of positive terms to be tested.

(a) If a series

of positive terms, known to he convergent, can be found such

that -

then the series to he tested is convergent.

(6) If a series
j^^j^^j^^...
 INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 215

of positive terms, known to be divergent, can be found such

that ^ On,
I
Un ^
then the series to be tested is divergent.

To prove (a), let S„(^u) be the sum of the first n terms

of the M-series, <S'„(a) the sum of the first n terms of the
a-series, and *8'(a) the sum of the a-series. Since all the
terms u„ are positive, S„(u') always increases with n. On
the other hand, we have

Since *S'„(w) always increases, but never exceeds the fixed

number approaches a limit, by theorem IV of § 8,
*S'(a), it

which is not greater than AS'(a).

The proof of (b) is left to the student.
The success of the test depends on our ability to find
a convergent series whose terms are greater than the
corresponding terms of the series to be tested, or a diver-
gent series whose terms are less than those of the series to
be tested. To show that the terms of the w-series are
greater than those of some convergent series, or less than
those of some divergent series, proves nothing.
It is clear that the convergence of a series is not
affected by discarding any finite number of terms from
the series. Hence the conditions of the test do not need
to be satisfied from the very beginning of the series, but
only after a certain point, all the terms up to that point
being neglected.
Example : Test the series

'
1 + ^. + :^
1.22.33.4
Tfte series
1+1
"^
-^
22
+ 14-1 +
32 42-

is known to converge (Ex. 4, p. 214). Discarding the

 :

216 CALCULUS

first term of the series to be tested, we have

1
n{n 4-
1}
The general term of the known series is

Since

the series in question converges.

EXERCISES
Test the following series as to convergence or divergence.

''^hh ....O.r»W 1-2 3-4 5-6 lp^

3. -^H =H -+ ••••

V2 V3 V4:

2 2-22 "^3- 28 4.24 32 52

149. Ratio test. There are many "ratio tests"; the

simplest is the following
Given the series
M1 + M2 + M3+ •••

to be tested for convergence, form the ratio —^±1 of a

"
general term * to the one preceding it.

"-n+l
(a) If lim < 1, the series converges.

*n+l
(5) If
lira
M„
> 1, or if increases indefinitely,

the series diverges.

= 1, ^Ae test fails.

* We may divide tlie (» + l)-th term by the m-th, the (m + 10)-th by

the (n + 9)-th — any general term by the one before it, since the question
of convergence is not affected by dropping any finite number of terms.
 ;

INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 217

This test holds for any series whatever, not merely for
series of positive terms.
Suppose we have case (a) :
lim -^ = L<1. At
present we shall consider only the case in which all the
terms are positive, and show later
how the proof may be completed. ,;
T4.T, r-T,^ L
4
r
—
1
i-
1
Liet us choose some number r be- -^ 03
tween L and 1. By the definition
of limit, the difference between the ratio _!^ and its limit

L ultimately becomes and remains as small as we please

therefore a number m can be found such that for all values
of re ^m we have
< r.
Hence

Discarding the first m terms of our series, we see that the

remaining terms are less than the corresponding terms of
the series

But this latter series, being a geometric series

with ratio
r < 1,convergent
is hence the given series is conver-
;

gent, by the comparison test.

Case (by may be proved by showing that the general
term u„ does not approach when n increases indefinitely.
The details are left to the student. •

The test may be shown to fail in case (c) by the follow-

ing example : For the series
218 CALCULUS

the test ratio is

(n + ly
1 +i
nJ
and
liin
 INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 219

of the parentheses is positive. Equation (2) shows that

S^^ is always less than Mj. Since *^2m always increases,
but never exceeds the fixed number Mj, it approaches a
limit S not greater than u^, by theorem IV of § 8.
Further, the sum of an odd number of terms S-i^+i ap-
proaches the same limit, since
lim (S.^+i- A^am) = lim "2^+1 = 0.
Theorem II follows at once. For, if n is even, the dif-
ference S — S„is the alternating series

Wn+i — w„+2 + u^+i — •••,

and we have just shown that the sum of an alternating

series is not greater than the first term. Similarly if n
is odd.
151. Absolute convergence. A series is said to be abso-
lutely convergent if the series formed from it by replacing
all itsterms by their absolute values is convergent. It
can be shown that a series always converges if the series
of absolute values converges. From this fact the proof
in § 149 is easily completed for the case when the terms
are not all positive.

EXERCISES
Determine whether the following series are convergent or divergent.

a. + <J.iV....y>^\ 4. |..(|)Vs(|)V .
f
'-^'^
. 1!^21^3!^ ,

'
.:^'^"C R 1, 1-3 ^1.3. 5^
10 102 10» V 3 3-6 3-6.9 ^3
7. l-i + |-i+....^.^- - 8.
111
l-^^+±-±+....^
<^w). 1

^,,

9. 1 - — + _-_ + -...> 10. l-i + i-i + ....

11. Are the series in Exs. 7-10 absolutely convergent ?

12. Carry out the proof of case (b), § 149.
220 CALCULUS

11. Power Series

152. Power series. Up to this point we have con-
sidered only series whose terms are constants. The case
of greatest practical importance, however, is that in which
the terms are functions of a variable. In what follows,
we shall be chiefly concerned with the class known as
power series.
A series of the form
aQ + ajX+ a^x'^+ ••,

where a; is a variable and a^, a^, a^, ••• are constants, IS

called a power series. Such series are of especial impor-

tance in practice.
A power series may converge for all values of the variable
a;, or for no values except ; but usually it will converge for
all values in some finite interval, and diverge for all values
outside that interval. The interval of convergence always
extends equal distances on each side of the point x = 0.
The interval of convergence can usually be determined
by the ratio test. We illustrate the process by an
Uxample : Find the interval of convergence of the series

+^+
2 3
Here
M„ = -

lim
 I ! '

INFINITE SERIES, TAYLOR'S THEOREM 221

(a) The series converges when |a;| < 1, i.e. —1< < a; 1.

(6) The series diverges when \x\ > 1.

(e) The test fails when x=±l. But when x=l the
series is the harmonic series

and therefore diverges ; when a; =— 1, the series is

which converges by § 150.

Hence the interval of convergence is —1< a; < 1.

EXERCISES
Find the intervalof convergence of the following series.

l+x + x^+x'+
W
1. ....

~~ i-2x + sx-^~iz» + Q^ •<

JT^
2.
i. Vv
.t::v)/
'-
T'>.^
VU
\ ^— ^
^ '^ ^
3
,S
^ 9 27 .
\X\"
^l -v''^ 4. X
'^»^
31
1
x^
5!
••.
V^-^
^ ^ .TT"
[^"^' ^
-
- '
—~ ^
-4»w- All values of x.
j,('

,^,6. 1 + 10a; + 2- 1002-" + 3-1000a:» + ••. ^..jaks* ? %<\

V 6. 1 + x + 2\t'+S\x'+ : -i^*» u»^ J»yu-^-)C -

^ J o

8. 1 + xH
21
!- —
31
+•••. 4n«. All values of 2.

+ •
b^,
9.

b^,

<
If Oj
ij,

.1/,
a+
where
Oj
set
+

ilf is
of
fls is an absolutely convergent series and
numbers that remain finite as n increases:
a constant, show that the series g, -voL^-»a.-
1
6„ I

converges absolutely. ^ -^

10. Prove that the series

sin 3 X sin 5 X
sm x ,

^
•

3" 52

converges absolutely for all values of x.

11. If Oj + Qj + Oj + .•• is an absolutely convergent series and if

«, + Ujj + Uj + • is a series such that -^ approaches a limit when n

a,
increases, show that the u-series converges absolutely.
 :

222 CALCULUS
12. State and prove a theorem for divergent series analogous to
that of Ex. 11.

153. Maclaurin's series. It is shown in algebra that

the quantity (1 + a;)™, where m is not a positive integer,
may be developed into an infinite series in powers ol x by
the binomial theorem

the expansion being valid for all values of x numerically

less than 1.

Consider now the problem of developing any given

function fix) in powers of x. We will assume for the
present that such a development is possible, and write
(1) f{x)=o^ + o^x + e^x^ + •• + c^a;" + •••,

where the coefficients Cq, Cj, c^, • are constants to be de-

termined. Letting a; = 0, we get /(O) = Cq ; i.e. e^ is the
value of the given function at a; = 0. Differentiating (1),
/'(a;) = Gj^ + 2e^x+i c^x^ + •••,

and setting x=0, we find

/'(0)=«i.
Proceeding in this way, we find
/"(0) = 2.U„
/"_(0)=3_.2.1c3,

/"'(0) = 7^|c,.,

Hence (1) takes the following form, called Maclaurin's

series :

(2) /(:,) = /(0) + /'(0)a;+-M^2+/:^^3+ ....

It must be remembered that as yet we have not proved

the validity of this result ; we have merely shown that,
if a development in powers of x is possible, it must have

the form (2). Evidently a necessary condition for the

 :

INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 223

existence of Maclaurin's series is that the function and its

successive derivatives be defined at a; = 0.

Example : Expand e'^ in Maclaurin's series.
Here
/(a;)=e^ hence /(0)=1,
f'(ix) = e^, /'(0)=1,
/"(^)=«^ /"(0)=1,
/"'(ic)=f, /"'(0)=1,

Therefore the development is

/via /yiO

154. Taylor's series. More generally, let it be required

develop a function /(a?) in powers of x
/to — a, where a is

J a given number. Assuming

/W = «o+ e^(3; — a} + c^{x — ay + c^(x — ay + ••,

. and setting x = a, we find

/(«)= Co-
Proceeding as in § 153, we obtain finally Taylor's series

(1) fix) = fio) + /'(a) ix-d)+ -^ (X - ay

^r(^cx-ay+:..
3!

Thus Maclaurin's series is a special case of Taylor's series,

viz. : the case a = 0.
When a function is represented by the series (1), we
say that it has been developed or expanded in Taylor's
series about the point x = a.
If, in (1), we replace a; by a + A, we obtain another im-
portant form of Taylor's series:

f(a + h)=f(a) +/'(a)A+£^ft2 +-^1^/13+ ....

It is clear that the Taylor series for a function /(a;) can

always be formally written down if the function and its
 : s

224 CALCULUS

derivatives of all orders are defined at a; = a. But it by

no means follows from this that the series represents the
function for any particular value of x. The series may
diverge, or, if convergent, its sum may not be /(a;). The
development in Taylor's series is valid only for those values
of X for which the series converges to the value f(£).
In the next article we show under precisely what cir-
cumstances a function may be developed in Taylor's series.
However, for all functions that we shall consider, the
converges at all, converges to the value f(x);
series, if it
hence for those functions the interval within which Taylor^
series is valid coincides with the interval of convergence of the
series.

JSxample : Expand the function log x in Taylor's series

about the point x=l, and find the interval of convergence
of the series.
In this case a = 1

fCx) = log X, /(I) = 0,

/'"(I) = 2,
•
3^

Hence, by (1),
logx=<ix-l)-l<ix-iy + \ix-iy-....
The general term is

n
Applying the ratio test, we have
(a;-l)n+l
*n-H = w +l
- ly = \x~l\.
lim lim
jx
n
 +

INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 225

Thus the series converges when |a; — 1|<1, i.e. when

< a; < 2. When x = 0, the series is

which is divergent (§ 147). When x=2, the series is •

which is convergent (§ 150). Hence, finally, the interval

of convergence is < a; <2.
>/>^
V EXERCISES
1. In the Maclaurin series for e' (§ 153), show that the series
converges for all values of x.

In each of the following, determine the interval of convergence of

the series.
2. Expand sin x in powers of x.
'y^a^c- <

sina;=x — £- + ^—
r6
Ans. ..., all values of y.
3! 51
3. Expand cos x about the origin. Vna-o-c •

Ans. cos a; = 1——+^ , all values of x.

21 4!
4. Expand e" in Taylor's series about the point x = 2.

5. By replacing a; by 1 + x in the example of § 154, obtain the

development of log (1 + x) in powers of x. Hvac-
Ans. log(l + x)=x-^+'^-^+..., -l<s<l.
^ o i
6. Expand log (1 — x) about the origin. "Vvla-c

Ans. log(l -x) =- x-----^

2 3 4
, -l<a;<l.
7. Obtain the binomial theorem 'V*'^*-c_

(l + x)'-=l + mx "'("' - ^)
x' + '"('» - ])(."" - 2) x»
+
21 o I

8. Expand sin x about the point x =j- -^ I

9. Show that log x cannot be expanded in powers of x.

10. Expand arctan x about the origin. MXo* r»

Ans. arctan X = ——+^ a;
3 5
— ...

11. Show that, if P(x) is a polynomial of the n-th degree in x,

F(x) = P(a) + P'(a)(x -a) + ^^ (x - a)^ + ... + ^^^(x - a)",

whatever may be the values of a and x.

Q
226 CALCULUS

155. Taylor's theorem. Let the function f(x) and it?

first n+ 1 derivatives be continuous in an interval includ-

ing the point a; = a, and let a; = a + A be a second point of the

interval. Let 72„ denote the difference between f(a + h)
and the sum of the first n + 1 terms of the corresponding
Taylor's series (2), §154; i.e. set

(1) /(a + A) =f(^a) + fia-)h+^^¥+ -

n '

For convenience, write i2„ in the form

(n + iy.
so that

(2) /(a + A)=/(a)+/'(«)A+ ... +/^An+_^J^p„.

Consider now the auxiliary function
4>(x~) =fia + A) - /(a;) - (a + A - a;) /'(a:)
(a+A-a;)^ (a + A-a;)"
^,,^^^ ___ ^(„)^^^

(« + A-a:)"+i p
(»i + l)!
This function evidentlj'- vanishes when a; =a + A, and, by
(2), it also vanishes when x = a. Further, it results from
our hypotheses that <^(a;) has a derivative ^'(a;) in the in-
terval from x=a to a; = a + A. Hence <f>(x) satisfies all the
conditions of Rolle's theorem (§ 136) in that interval, and
its derivative must vanish at some point a;j of that interval.

Differentiating </)(a;), we find after simplifying that

ni
By Rolle's theorem,

hence
P„ = /(«+i)(a;0.
 '

INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 227

Substituting this value of P„ in (2), we get

(3) /(a + ^)=/(a)+/'(a)A + /^A2+ ... +/!!l^^n

z nl

+ 7rTT^/'"^"(^l)'
(w + 1)
or, writing x — a for A,

(4) /t») -A") +/'(«)(»- 1) + ^'('-o)«+ -

where ajj lies between a and a;.

Formula (4), or its equivalent (3), is called Taylor's
theorem with a remainder. The last term is called the re-
mainder after w + 1 terms :

For n=0, Taylor's theorem reduces to the law of the

mean (§137):
/(a;)=/(a) + (a:-a)/'(a-i).
If n increases indefinitely, the right member of (4) be-
comes an infinite series, the Taylor's series for /(a;). The
necessary and sufficient condition that the series shall con-
verge to the value /(a;), and hence that the function shall
be developable in Taylor's series, is that

n->oo

Example : Prove that the function e' can be developed

in powers of x for all values of x.

Here a = and
f(x) = e^ f'Cx} = e% • •
•,
/'"+'' (a;) = e',
so that the remainder in Taylor's theorem has the form

where ajj is between and x.

228 CALCULUS

By Ex. 8, p. 221, the quantity - — - is the general

term of a series which converges for all values of x, so

that, § 146, this quantity converges to
by when n becomes
infinite. Hence, for all values of a;,

and the proof is complete.

EXERCISES
1. In the Maclaurin series for sin x, prove that the remainder con-
verges to for all values of x.

2. Prove that cos x can be expanded in powers of x for all values

of X.

156. Approximate computation by series. We have

found in the preceding article that any function whatever,
provided certain conditions regarding continuity are
satisfied, can be represented by Taylor's theorem as a
polynomial of arbitrary degree, with a certain remainder
-B„. It is clear that R^ is the error committed if we re-
place the function by the polynomial.
This suggests a method for computing approximately
the numerical value, for any given value of the argument,
of functions such as the sine, cosine, logarithm, etc., whose
value cannot be found directly. We have only to build
up the Taylor polynomial for the function in question,
and show that the error R^ is less than the allowable limit
of error for the problem in hand.
now our function can be developed in Taylor's series,
If
we know at once that its value to any desired degree of ac-
curacy can be found by merely adding up a sufficient num-
ber of terms at the beginning of the series. For, by § 165,
the remainder, or error, R„ converges to as w increases
indefinitely, and hence, by the definition of § 14, can be
made as small aswe please by taking n sufficiently large.
An upper limit for the error committed by stopping at
 INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 229

any point may frequently be found from the general prop-

erties of series. Thus in the case of an alternating series
the error is less than the first term neglected, by theorem
II of § 150.
Example : Compute sin 3° correct to five decimal places.
Since
s,n. =
_ ^ ^
:.--+--
it follows that

sin 6 = sin — = 2L- i^—Y4- -i-/^^Y-

60 60 6V60y 120V60y
= 0.052365-0.000024+ ••••

Since this an alternating series, the error committed by

is

stopping with any term is less than the next term. With-
out computing the third term, we see that it is much too
small to afifect the fifth decimal place, hence we need keep
only two terms : \

sin 3° = 0.05234.
To be of practical use in computation, a series should
converge rapidly, as in the above example, so that a few
terms are enough to give the desired degree of accuracy.
In this connection the following point should be noted.
Our choice of a in Taylor's theorem governed only by
is

the necessity of knowing /(x)

at that point the value of
and its derivatives. Since the remainder Ii„ contains the
factor (a;— a)""'"^ it is clear that, in general, the smaller the
difference x— a, the faster the remainder will approach 0.
Hence in general, of all possible values for a, we should
choose that one lying nearest to the value of x in question.
Thus to compute sin 3°, we took a = ; if we had to com-

pute sin 47°, we would take * a = —, i.e. we would expand

sin X in powers of a; —— ; etc.

* Assuming of course that we know the value of the sine and cosine

only for the "principal angles" 0, ^, ^, etc.

6 4
230 CALCULUS

EXERCISES
1. Draw on the same axes, on a large scale, the curve y — sinx

and the first and second " approximation curves " y = x, y = x ,in

the interval < <

a; TT. Estimate the interval within which each of
the approximating polynomials is correct to one decimal place.

2. Proceed as in Ex. 1 with the curve y = e" and the successive

approximation curves y = \ -^ x,y =l+ x + — ,y = 1 + x + — + —,vii

the interval —2<x^2.
3. Compute (a) sin 1° to five places; (V) sin 9° to three places;
(c) cos 3° to four places.

4. Find the value of e to five decimal places. Ans. e = 2.71828 ••.

^ 6. Compute (a) sin 47°, (J) cos 31°, each to four places. ty 3

6. Find the tenth root of e to five decimal places.

7. Find the value of eP-^ to five decimal places.

8. Show that an arc of a great circle of the earth 2J miles long
recedes 1 ft. from its chord.
Taking the circumference of the earth as 40,000,000 meters,
9.

show that the difference between the circumference and the perimeter
of a regular inscribed polygon of 1,000,000 sides is less than one fif-

teenth of a millimeter.
10. Within what interval can sin 6 be replaced by 6, if accuracy
to three decimal places is required ?

157. Operations with power series. Operations that can

always be performed upon series of a finite number of
terms, such as rearrangement of terms, multiplication of
one series by another, terra-by-term d^ifferentiation or
integration, etc., cannot be assumed offhand to be allow-
able with infinite series, and in faqt it is easily shown that
they are not allowable in all cases.

In dealing with developments in Taylor's series, it is

frequently desirable to know just when such elementary
operations are permissible. We therefore state, without
proof, the following theorems regarding power series.
Theorem I : Addition. Two power series may be added
together for all values of x for which both series are convergent.
 INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 231

That is, if the series

</)(a;) = + a^x + a^a^ +
«(, —,
i/r(a;) = 6„ + b-^x + b^x^ + • ••

are both convergent, the series obtained by adding these

together will converge to the value + -^(x)
<f>{x) :

<p(x) + T/r(a;) = flg + 6(, + (aj + bj)x + (a^ + b^)3? + •-.

Theorem II : Multiplication. Two power series

may be multiplied together for all values of x for which both
series are absolutely convergent.
That is, if the series
^(x) = + a-^x + a^os^ +
«() •••,

i/r(a;) =60+ \^ +
K^ + •••

are both absolutely convergent, then

4>(x) f(x) = a^Jo + (ajJo + aj).^)x
+ (^=2*0 + "i^i + aoh^^ + • • •

Theorem III: Division. One convergent power series

may be divided by another, provided the constant term in the
denominator is not 0. The result holds within a certain
interval, the determination of which is beyond the scope
of this discussion.
Theorem IV : Substitution. If the series
z = a^-\- a^y + a^y^ + ••

converges for all values of y, and the series

y = 6o + Ji2; + V^+ •••

converges for all values of x, the series for y may be sub-

stituted in the series for z and the result arranged in powers

of X. This result holds for all values of x.

Theorem V : Differentiation. A power series may

be differentiated term by term for all values of x within its

interval of convergence. *
Theorem VI : Integration. A power series may be
integrated term by term between any limits lying within the
interval of convergence.*

* The endpoints of the interval are excluded.

232 CALCULUS

These theorems enable us to obtain many Taylor ex-

pansions in which the evaluation of the successive deriva-
tives would be very tedious, and in which the law of
formation of the coefficients is so complicated that the
interval of convergence could not be determined directly.
Example: Expand powers of
e^^^" in x, to a^ inclusive.

By Exs. 1, 2, p. 225, we have

Bin, 1 ,
. , sin^a; , sin^a; ,
sin*a; ,

sin a; = — a; — -h ••.

Since both these series converge for all values of x, the

series for sin x may, by theorem IV, be substituted in the
series for e«'°^:

Expanding the parentheses by theorem II and collecting

terms, we find

By theorem IV, this series converges for all values of x.

EXERCISES
Expand the following functions in powers of x, and determine the
interval of convergence in each case.
1. sin^i. Ans. x'^ - ^x* + f%x' + —, all values.

2. cos^a;. Compare this result with that of Ex. 1.

3. e'sin x. Am. x + x^+ ~-~+ , all values.

/ 4. log
1 — X
. 6. e'""".

6. By integrating the series

= 1 — X +x^ — x' + ••.

1 + X
between the limits Oanda;, obtain the Maclaurin series for log (1 + x).
 INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 233

7. Expaud
ixpai arcsin x in powers of x by integrating the binomial
1
expansion of
 1

234 CALCULUS

23. Find the difference between the circumference of the earth and
the perimeter of a regular circumscribed polygon of 1,000,000 sides.
Cf. Ex. 9, p. 230.

24. Find the surface generated by revolving the curve y =— about

the ar-axis, from x = Qto x = \.

158. Computation of logarithms. We have found

/yM ntO If^

a? 7? a^
&y J
2 3 4

each series holding for values of x numerically less than 1.

From these vfe may deduce a series that is better adapted

to numerical computation than either of the above series.
Subtracting the second equation from the first (by
theorem I, § 157), we find

for values of x numerically less than unity. Let us put

1 + X _ m+
1 —X m
or

2m+l'
where m mayhave. any positive value. Then
1
(1) log (1 + .) = log m + 2[^^ + -
^^ ^ ^ ^^3
+ 1 +...1.
6(2 m + 1)5 J
This series converges rapidly, and is therefore well
adapted to computation. It is easily shown that for
values of »i > 1 the error committed by stopping at any
point is only slightly greater than the first term neglected.
 INFINITE SERIES. TAYLOR'S THEOREM 235

Example : Taking m = 1, we have

log2 = 2[i 1
,+ 1 +.-^ +
3 3 • 33 5 . 35 7 37
'
•

= 2[0.3333 + 0.0123 + 0.0008+ •••]

= 0.693.
From this the logarithms of 4, 8, ••• may be found directly.
With OT = 2, we find log 3 from this and the previous
;

result we may obtain the logarithms of all numbers whose

only prime factors are 2 and 3. In fact, it is clear that
only the logarithms of prime numbers need be computed
by the series.

EXERCISES
1. Compute to three decimal places the natural logarithms of all

integers from 3 to 10 inclusive.

2. After finding log 10, obtain logjj 2, log,j 3.

3. By comparison with the geometric series

2n + l (2m + l)2»+iL (2 m+ 1)^ (2 m+ 1)< J

prove that the error committed by stopping with the ra-th term of the

series (1) is less than times the first term neglected.

1
 CHAPTER XXI
FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

I. Partial Differentiation

159. Functions of several variables. Up to this point

we have been concerned with functions of a single argu-
ment. A function may, however, depend upon several
independent variables. For example, the volume of a cir-
cular cylinder is a function of its radius and altitude the ;

acceleration of a moving particle is a function of all the

forces acting on it ; the strength of a rectangular beam
is a function of its breadth and depth.
If 2 is a function of two variables x and y, we write
z=f{x,y),
with a similar notation for functions of more than two
variables.
Geometrically a function of two variables may be rep-
resented as the ordinate of a surface in space. Thus
the equation
z = axhy \- \- c

represents a plane ; the equation

z = a? — y^
represents a hyperbolic paraboloid, etc.
A thorough study of functions of several variables is
beyond the scope of a first course in the calculus. In the
present chapter we set forth a few of the most important
definitions and theorems, confining our attention chiefly
to functions oftwo arguments.
160. Limits; continuity. Suppose we have given a
function of two variables
(1) 2 = /(^,2/)
236
 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 237

representing a surface in space. When x and y approach

the respective values Xq, i/q, the function z is said to
approach a limit Zq if the point (a:, y, z) of the surface (1)
approaches a definite limiting point (xq, y^, a^). In other
words, if when x is sufficiently near x^ and y is sufficiently-
near 1/q the difference between z and 2^ becomes and re-
mains numerically less than any preassigned quantity
however small, then z is said to approach the limit Zq in :

symbols,
limf(x,i/)= Zq.

A function y^(a;, y) is said to be continuous at the point

lim/(2;, i/) = /(2;o,yo).

Similar definitions are laid down for functions of more

than two variables.
In what follows, it is supposed that all functions occur-
ring are continuous at all points under consideration.
161. Partial derivatives. If y be kept fixed, the func-
tion ., .

becomes a function of x alone, and its derivative may be

found by the ordinary rules. This derivative is called
the partial derivative of z with respect to x, and is denoted
by any one of the symbols

ax ax
The partial derivative with respect to y has a similar
meaning.
The idea of partial differentiation may be extended at
once to functions of any number of variables. We have
only to remember that in differentiating with respect to
any one variable, all the other variables are treated as
constants.
 :

238 CALCULUS

162. Geometric interpretation of partial derivatives. To

keep y constant, say y = y^, in the equation

z =/(a;, «/)

means geometrically that we cut

the surface by the plane y = «/q.

The partial derivative — is there-

fore the slope of the curve of in-

tersection of the surface and the
plane, i.e. of the curve whose equa-
tions are
z=f(_x,y'), y = y^.

Fig. 84
The partial derivative — may
dz ,
be
interpreted similarly.
dz dz
163. Higher derivatives. The derivatives are
dx dy
themselves functions of x and y, and their partial deriva-
tives can in turn be found. They are denoted by the
following symbols
d fdz\ dh J. ^ .

dx
^fdz dh
=fvxi^, y)^
dy\dx. dydx
d fdz\_ 5^z _ ^ ^ N

d fdz\ dh ~ . ^

ey{rytW^ =
^^<'^'^-

The process can of course be repeated to find still

higher derivatives.
It can be shown that the two "cross-derivatives"

are identical
dydx dzdy
323 dh
dydx dxdy
 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 239
f

That is, the order of differentiation is immaterial. This is

true for derivatives of all orders, and for functions of any
number of variables.

EXERCISES

Find -r- , -r- for the following functions.

ax dy
1. z = x'^ + xv — ix + 5. Ans. — =2x + w — 3; -r-
ay
= x.
8x
2. z = x' + Bx^-xy + 2y-3.
3. z=(x^-2xyy. 4. z =
x'' + y^

6. z = eoi.'f^-v). 6. z = logVa;2 + y\

7. z = arctan^- Ans. -^= ~ ^ . .

X ,
bx x^-Vy^
8. Given /(a:, j^, z) = lyz + 3 i^j, + z'^, find/^, /„,/,.
v4ns. /^ = y{z + 6 a;).

9. If « = x^! + 3,^ - z» + X + 2y, find ^, ^, ^•

ax dy oz
10. Find the slope of the curve cut from the hyperbolic paraboloid
z = x^ — 2y^bj the plane y = 3, at the point (4, 3, - 2). Ans. 8.

11. Find the equations of the tangent to the parabola

z = 3x^+4:y^, x = 2
at the point (2, 1, 16). Ans. x = 2,z=8y + S.

12. If ti = a:Y-2a;!/*+3a;y,showthata;^ + 2/r^= 5u.

13. If « = (y-z)(z-x)(a;-y), show that ^

ox
+ ^ + ^=0.
ay az

14. Givenz = z + x«j,» + 2a;V,find|^, ^"^ ^"^ ^"^

Ans. —=6xy^ + ^y*;

dx^
-^
ydx
ayax
= 6b x'^y
x-'y + \6 xyi>.

3% 3%
15. Given z = x^y^ + 3xY- x% verify that
oyox axay

16. If z = cos (i - ?/), show that —-— = axayax = vrr-

d^z d^z d'z
ayax^. ax^ay
17. If « = e'~«-^, verify that

dxdy dydx dydz dzdy

 :

240 CALCULUS
I

18. ltz = i log (x^+y^), show that

g + |p = 0.

19. If z = x^y, show that x-^ + 2/^^ = 3 z.

20. If u = i«+ y^+ yz, show that a;|^ + y|^ + z^ = 2u.

, 21. Tf y^r, y, g) = ^ — . show that /^ + /„2 + ./;^ = 0.

y/x^ + y^ + z^

22. Prove that if two functions « and v are so related that

du _dv du__dv
dx dy' dy dx

then ^+^=
dx^ dy^
0,

164. Total differentials. When x and «/ change by

amounts Ax and Ay, the function
z=f(x,y')
changes by an amount Aa. It can be shown that Az may
be expressed in the form

Az = — Aa; + —Aw + eAa; + t/Aw,

ciZ fiZ

oa; 5y
where e and t) are infinitesimals.

The quantity — Ax-\

dz dz
Ay is called the principal part
dx By
(cf .
§ 49) of the infinitesimal Az. The iotaZ differential of

z is defined as the principal part of As

dz = ~Ax + —Ay.
dx dy

In particular, ii z = x, — =1 and — = 0, so that

dx By
dx = Ax.
Similarly
dy = Ay.
Hence we may write
(1) dz = ^^dx + ^^dy.
dx dy
 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 241

For functions of more than two arguments a similar

formula holds. Thus, if

y'=fix, y, z),

(2) du=^-^dx + ^-^dy + ^-^dz.

ox by dz

If X, y, z are functions of a fourth variable t, then u be-

comes a function of t and its differential has been
alone,
defined in § 50. It can be shown that the value of du
as given by (2) agrees with the earlier definition, so that
(2) still holds even when x, y, z are functions of a single
variable.
JExample: Find approximately the increase in the area
of a rectangle if each of its dimensions increases by a
small amount.
da
We have
A = ah,
hence
dA = hda + adb.
The actual increase in the area is

AA = (a + da) (h + dh) - ah ^^^ ^

= bda + adh + dadb.
If da and db are so small that their product can be
neglected in comparison with the other terms occurring,
the total differential dA represents the actual change AA
with sufficient accuracy.
165. Differentiation of implicit functions. Let y be de-
fined as a function of x by the equation

/(^,2/)=0.
Let us for an instant put

then by (1), § 164,

dz = -^dx + J-dy.
"
dx dy
242 '
*
CALCULUS

But in the present instance

3 = 0,
hence

dx dy ^
or
 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 243

or

,0. dz Bx
(^^^n\
dz
Similarly
BF

EXERCISES
Find the total differential of each of the following functions.

\. z = x'^ -'ixy + y^ +2y. 2. z = cos^ {x - y).

3. u = a; + w + z. 4. « = log tan 2^-

X
5. Let V be the volume, S the total surface, of a right circular
cylinder. If r and h change by an amount Ar and A/i respectively,

find rf F, A 7, dS, A 6'. Draw a figure.

6. In Ex. 5, if 7- = 5 ft., A = 10 ft., Ar = AA = 2 in., compute the
percentage of error made by using dV in place of AF" and dS in place
_^A^,
7. The dimensions x, rectangular parallelepiped change
'
y, z oi a,

by amounts Ax, A//, Az. Find dV, AF. Also obtain dV and AF
directly by inspection of a figure.

Find -r-' in the following cases, using formula (1) of § 165.

dx
8. 'dx - iy + 2xy = \.

9. (2a;-2-3i/2)2+ 1 _ a;^, = 0.

10. Arctan ^ = a;.

X
11. Given x^ + y^ + z^ = 1, find ^, ^ by formulas (2) and (3)
dx dy
of § 165.

12. Find the equations of the tangent to the circle x''-\-y'+z''=d6,

y = 4 at the point (2, 4, 4).

13. Find the equations of the tangent to the ellipse x^ + Sy^ = z\

I = 4 at the point (2, 2, 4).
244 CALCULUS

II. Applications to Solid Analytic Geometry

166. Tangent plane to a surface. It can be shown that

all the lines tangent to a surface

at a point P : (ajg, ^q, Sg) lie in a plane,* the tangent plane

to the surface at that point.This plane is of course
determined by any two of the tangent lines. We have
already learned (§ 162) how to find the equations of the
tangent lines lying in the plan^ x = Xq, y = y^. Let us
assume the equation of the tangent plane in the form
z-z^ = m^(x - x^ + mjCy - y^,
where mj and m^ are to be determined. Now the line of
intersection of this plane with the plane y = y^ has the
slope my But this line is the tangent lying in the plane

y= y^, and, by § 162, its slope is the value of —

dx
at P,

which value we shall denote by the symbol — Hence

bx
83
Wj
^
=
dx
Similarly we find

m„ =—
dz

p
Thus the equation of the plane tangent to the surface

z =/(a:, y')

at (xq, yQ, 3o) is

/t\ Sz
dxjp oyjp
dy_

More generally, let the equation of the surface be given

in the implicit form
(2) FCx,y,z) = 0,

* Provided z, — , and 2£ are continuous at P.

dx dy
 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 245

where the partial derivatives — —dy — do

3a;
, .

dz
not all vanish

atP : (xq, i/q, Zq). Suppose for definiteness that —dz Jp

=?s= 0.

We may imagine equation (2) solved for s, and may then

write the equation of the tangent plane by formula (1).
But, by (2) and (3) of § 165,
dF dF
dz dx 5z _ dy ^

dz dz
Substituting these values in (1), we find

dF-
dx dy
(x - x^~) - _

(.y - s'o)'
dF^ dF-
dzjp dz
or

167. Normal line to a surface. The normal to a surface

at a point P is the line through P perpendicular to the
tangent plane.
It will be recalled from solid analytic geometry that the
direction cosines of any line perpendicular to the plane
Ax + By + Oz +D=Q
are proportional to the coefficients A, B, 0. Hence, since
the normal perpendicular to the tangent plane (3) of
is

§ 166, we have at once the following

Theorem: 2%e direction cosines of the normal to the sur-
face
F(x,y,z-)=0
dF dF dF
at any point are proportional to the values of at
dx dy dz
that point.
This theorem is fundamental in the geometry of surfaces.
 -246 CALCULUS

By analytic geometry, the equations of a line through

Xq, i/Q, Zq with direction cosines proportional to a, b, c are
^ - a^n ^ - yn ^ g -
.y gft

a h c

From this the equations of the normal at any point may be

written down at once.

Angle between two surfaces between a line and a

168. ;

surface. The angle between two surfaces at a point of in-

tersection is defined as the angle between the tangent planes
at that point, and this in turn is equal to the angle be-
tween the normals. This angle may be found by the
theorem of analytic geometry that, if two lines have direc-
tion cosines ly wij, Wj and l^, m^-, n^ respectively, the angle
between them is given by the formula
cos = Zj?2 + m^in^ + **iW2-
The angle at which a line pierces a surface is defined as
the angle between the line and the tangent plane at the
piercing-point. This is evidently the complement of the
angle between the line and the normal.
Fxample : Find the angle between the cylinder y^ = ix
and the ellipsoid 2 a;^ -H y^ 4- 2^ = 7 at the point (1, 2, 1).
y For the ellipsoid, the partial derivatives are
dF ^ dF ^ dF „
dx dy ^ dz
hence the direction cosines of the normal at (1, 2, 1) are
proportional to 4, 4, 2, and their actual values are |, |, \.
For the cylinder.

dx dy " dz

1
 1 \ FUNCTpNS OF SEVERAL~VARIABLES 247

EXERCISES
Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal line to each of
the following surfaces at the point indicated.
1. The cone x"^ + 'i =
at (2, 2, 4) draw the figure.
y'^ z^ ;

,0
Ans. x+?,y-2z
A n = „a; —
(i; -—— =
H——— 2=2 — 4
^.
2«
2. The paraboloid = x^ -y'^&t (1, 1, 0).
z

3. The cylinder — ^ax at (a, 2 a, a) draw

y'^ ; the figure.
4. The paraboloid x = yz at the origin.
6. The sphere x- + y^ + z^ = a^ at (x„, y„, 2„).
Ans. Xf)X + y^y + zoz = a'.

6. The surface ^±^±-^=l&t {x^, y„, z„).

7. Find the equations of the tangent to the circle x^ + y^ + z^ = 9,

x + y +z= 5a,t the point (1, 2, 2) ; draw the figure.

8. Find the angle between the sphere x^ + y'' + z^ =14 and the
ellipsoid 3 a;^ + o yi + z^ = 20 at the point ( - 1, - 2, 3). Ans. 23° 33'.
9. Show that at any point on the 2-axis there are two tangent
planes to the surface a^y'^ = x-(b^ — z^).

10. Show that the sum of the squares of the intercepts on the axes
made by a tangent plane to the surface a-t + ^J + z* = a* is constant.
Sketch this surface.
11. Prove that the tetrahedron formed by the coordinate planes
and a tangent plane to the surface xyz = a' is of constant volume.
12. Find the angle at which the normal to the hyperboloid
y^ — X- + ^z''= 16 at the point (2, 2, 2) intersects the ly-plane. Draw
the figure.
13. Find the equations of the projections on the coordinate planes
of the normal to the cylinder x =y+ z- a,t (2, 1, 1).

14. Find the equations of the normal to the surface xh/ + y^+z'^ = Z
at the point (1, 1, 1).

16. Show that the sphere x^ + y- + ~'^ = 2 a^ and the hyperbolic

cylinder xy = a^ are tangent to each other at the point (a. a, 0).

16. Determine a and 6 so that the ellipsoid x^ + 2^''^ + z' = 7 and

the paraboloid 2 = ax'^ + by'^ may intersect at right angles at (1, 1, 2).
Ans. a = 3, 6 =— 1.

17. Find the angle between the normal to the oblate spheroid
ifi + + '2z^ = 10 at (2, 2, 1) and the line joining the origin to that
y-
point. Ans. Arccosf-v/3.
 248 CALCULUS

18. In Ex. 17, find the shortest distance from the origin to the
normal in question. Ans. ^Ve.

19. Find the angle at which the line | =^=? pierces the ellipsoid

2 a;2 + 4 2/2 + z2 = 25.

'

Ans. 67° 48'.

20. Prove that every line through the center of a sphere intersects
the sphere at right angles.

169. Space curves. Two surfaces

(1) ^Cx,y,z-) = 0,^(:x,j/,z-)=0
/mtersect in general in a curve in space. The curve is de-
termined by the equations of the two surfaces considered
as simultaneous.
Since there are an infinite number of surfaces through a
given curve, and since the equations of any two of these
surfaces in general determine the curve, it follows that the
equations of the curve may be given in an infinite number
of ways. A particularly simple way is to give the equa-
tions oftwo of the " projecting cylinders " i. e. the cylin- —
ders through the curve with generators perpendicular to
the coordinate planes. Eliminating y and z in turn be-
tween the equations (1), we find two equations of the form
(2) <f>(ix,z}=0,ylrCx,y} = 0.
These equations represent cylinders through the curve (1)
with generators perpendicular to the a;3-plane and the
2;?/-plane respectively.

We have seen that the coordinates of a point on a plane

curve are frequently given in terms of a parameter t. The
same device is often employed with curves in space the :

curve is given by the three parametric equations

(3) x=f(t-),y = g(f),z = h(t').
By eliminating the parameter between two different pairs
of these equations, we obtain equations of the form (2).
170. Tangent line and normal plane to a space curve.
The tangent to the curve (1) of § 169 at the point
P: (Xq, i/Q, Zq) is the intersection of the tangent planes to
 :

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 249

the two surfaces

^(x,y, 2)=0, ^P(2;, ?/, 2)=0.
Hence its equations can be written down at once.
The normal plane is the plane through P perpendicular
to the tangent. To find its equation, we have only to
transform the equations of the tangent line to, the
" symmetric form "

w — w,
X— X.h.=y^zyi = z — z.
a h c

after which the equation of the normal plane can be

written directly.
Example : Find the equations of the tangent line and
the normal plane to the curve
x^ + f + z^=S,
iz = Sx^ + f,
at the point (1, 1, 1).

The equations of the tangent are found by formula (3),

§ 166, to be
x + y + z = S,
Sx+i/-2z=2.
To put these equations in the symmetric form, let us
eliminate y and z in turn, thus representing the line by
two of its projecting planes

2x-Sz = -l,

Equating the values of x from these two equations, we

find

''-
_ -3,y + 8 _ 3g-l
2~'
5
or

3-5 2

The equation of the normal plane is therefore

3(a;_l)_5(y_l)+2(2-l) = 0.
250 CALCULUS

171. Let us draw a

Direction cosines of the tangent.
secant (Fig. 86) through P
and a second point
: (a^g, i/q, z^)
F' {xq + Ax, y^ + Ay, Zq + Az), and denote by 8 the length
:

of the arc from a fixed point to P, by As the length of

the arc PP' . The direction cosines of the secant are

I
= Aa; .J,
Aw
=—^— ,
= Az
cos a' . cos p' , cos 7' ,

PP' PP' PP'

those of the tangent are

= lim
Ax = Tlim Aa; A« dx
cos «
PP'-^PP' pp-=^o^« PP'
(1) cos/3 = dy

cos 7 = dz

Hence the direction cosines of the tangent are propor-

tional to dx, dy, dz.
From this fact we obtain at
once the equations of the
tangent to the curve (3) of
§ 169. They are

Z'Oo) ff'Cto) h'it,)

The equation of the normal
plane may be written down
at once.
172. Length of a space
curve. Since
FiG. 86
cos^ « + cos^ ^ -f cos^ 7 = 1»

itfollows from the formulas (1) of the preceding article

that
d? = dx+d^ + d?.
Hence the length of the arc of the curve (3) of § 169 be-
 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 251

tween any two points Pq : (^Xq, «/q, z^) and P^ : (a;^, y^, Zj) is

E'er the curve (2) of § 169 this becomes

EXERCISES
1. Find the equations of the projecting cylinders of the curve
a;2 + iy2 = 2 a^, x^ — y^ + z^ = a^; also find the equations of the tan-
gent line and the normal plane at the point (a, a, a).
Ans. Normal plane : r — y — 2z + 2a = 0.

2. Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal plane to
the circle x^ + y^ + z^ = 9, 2^ + z = 3 at the point (2, 2, 1).

Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal plane
3. to
the helix x = a cos 6, y = a sin 6, z = bO at the point = 6^,.
4. Find the length of one turn of the helix in Ex. 3.

6. Find the angle between the curves

X^ + y^ + z^ = 3,

z = xy,
and
a;2 _ y2 + 22 = 1,

X+y+z= Z,

at the point (1, 1, 1).

6. Find the circumference of the circle 4 x^ + S y^ + 2 z^ = 1, z = x.

7. Find the condition that the surfaces 9(x, y, z) =0, *(x, y, z) =
intersect at right angles in a point (Xq, y^, Zq) .

8. Find the centroid of the arc of the curve x^ = 2 ay, i' = 6 a%

from (0, 0, 0) to («> |.
§)
 CHAPTER XXII
ENVELOPES. EVOLUTES

173. Envelope of a family of plane curves. The equa-

tion
(1) /(a:, 2/, a) = 0,
where a is arbitrary, represents a family of plane curves :

a is constant for any one curve, but varies when we pass

from one curve of the family to another. Thus the
equation

represents all the unit circles having their centers on the

'

a;-axis ; the equation

y = X + k
represents the family of straight lines making an angle of
45° with OX.
It may happen that there exists a curve to which
each member of the family (1) is tangent. Such a
curve is called the envelope
of the family. The family of
circles mentioned above have
the lines y =± 1l as their en-
velope, since each of the cir-
cles is tangent to these lines.
On the other hand, the fam-
ily of straight lines y =x -{-k have no envelope.
174. Determination of the envelope. Suppose that the
curves
(1) f(x, y,a}=0
262
 ENVELOPES. EVOLUTES 253

have an envelope. Let (x, y~) be the point of tangency

of the envelope with a curve Q of the family; then the
coordinates x and y are functions of a alone, and they
satisfy equation (1). Differentiating (1), we find (§ 165)

(2) ^Adx + ^dy^^da = Q.

dx dy da

We have not yet made use of the fact that the envelope
and the curve O have a common tangent at (x, «/).
The slope of the tangent to Q at (x, «/) is determined
by the equation (§ 165)

(3) ^Idx+^ldy = Q,
ax dy
and this gives the slope of the envelope also. Combining
(2) and (3), we find

^^da = 0.
da
But since x and y are functions of a, a is the independent
variable and we may take da ^ 0. We thus find

da
as a second equation, in addition to (1), that is satisfied by
the coordinates x, y. Hence the equations
f(x, y, a) = 0,
(4) ^=0,
da

taken together constitute parametric equations of the en-

velope. The equation in cartesian coordinates can be
found by eliminating the parameter a.
In the above discussion the existence of the en-
velope was assumed. It can be shown, conversely, that

the curve (4) is an envelope, provided -^ and J- do not

both vanish along the curve.
254 CALCULUS

Example: Find the envelope of the family of straight

lines y = mx -\ —m , where m is the variable parameter.

Differentiating partially with respect to m, we find

or

Substituting this value of m in

the original equation, we get

t/ =± 2Vaz,
or
«/^ = 4 ax.
This agrees with the result of
analytic geometry that the

straight line y = mx -\ —m IS

tangent to the parabola y^ = 4:ax

for all values of m.
FlQ. 88
175. Envelope of tangents.
Every curve may be considered as the envelope of its
tangents, as appears at once from the definition of the
envelope. This is illustrated by the example of the pre-
vious article, where the parabola was found as the enve-
lope of its tangents.

EXERCISES
Fiud the envelope of each of the following families of curves. In
each case draw several curves of the family, and the envelope.
1. The circles of radius a with their centers on the y-axis.
2. The family of straight lines y = 2 mx + m>.
Ans. 16/ + 27 a;* = 0.

3. The family of parabolas y^ = a(x — a). Ans. a; ± 2y = 0.

4. The family of circles whose diameters are double ordinates of

 ENVELOPES. EVOLUTES 255

6. The family of circles tangent to the x-axis and having their

centers on the parabola y = x^. Ans. y = Q, 2 x^ + 2 y^ — y r= Q.

6. The circles with centers on a parabola and passing through the

vertex of the parabola. Ans. y'^(x + 2 a) + a:' = 0.

7. The circles through the origin with their centers on the

hyperbola x^ - y^ = a^. Ans. (x^ + y")2= 4 a\x'^ - y^).
8. The family of ellipses whose axes coincide and whose area is
constant. Ans. Two conjugate rectangular hyperbolas.
9. A straight line segment of constant length moves with its ends
in two perpendicular straight lines. Find its envelope.
Ans. A hypocycloid of four cusps.
10. A straight line moves so that the sum of its intercepts on the
axes is constant. Find its envelope. Ans. The parabola x^ + y^ = a*
11. When a projectile is fired from a gun with an initial velocity
)•„ inclined at an angle a to the horizontal, the equation of its path, all
resistances being neglected,' is (§ 235)

y = X tan « S£ .

2 Wo cos'' 06

Find the envelope of all possible trajectories when the angle of ele-

vation a varies. .4 ns. The parabola ^ = -?^5 2£_

2g 2t)„2-

12. The sides of a variable right triangle lie along two fixed lines.
If the area of the triangle is constant, find the envelope of the
hypotenuse.
13. Find the equation of the curve tangent to the lines

y = mx — am^,
where m is the parameter.
14. Find the equation of the curve which is tangent to the line
yoy = 2ax + i y^"
for all values of ^o.

16. Find the equation of the curve tangent to the family of straight
lines

X cos u + y sin a = p,
where a. is the variable parameter.
16. Find the equation of the curve tangent to the straight line

y = mx ± y/ahn,^ + V^

for all values of m. Ans. — +S-. =

jfi j,2
l.
a' h^
 "

256 CALCULUS

176. The evolute. When a point P moves along a

curve, the center of curvature (§ 54) describes a second
Q
curve, called the evolute of the original curve.
It can be shown that the normal PQ to the original
curve is tangent to the evolute; i.e. the evolute is the
envelope of the normals. Its equation may therefore be
found by writing the equation of the normal to the given
curve in terms of a parameter, and then applying the
method of § 174.
Example : Find the evolute of the parabola «/^ = 4 ax.
It is shown in analytic geometry that the line

(1) y = mx — 2 am — arrfi
is normal to this parabola for all values of m. We have
therefore to find the envelope of the family (1), regarding
m as the variable parameter.
Differentiating partially with respect to wi, we get
= — 2a — 3 am\
a;

or
x — 2a
m"
8a
Equation (1) may be written
in the form
i/ = m(jc —2 a— am^"),
or
^2 = m\x —2 a— am^}^-
^ Substituting for m^, we find
the equation of the evolute

a " semi-cubical parabola

Fig. 89 with a cusp at (2 a, 0).
 ENVELOPES. EVOLUTES 257

EXERCISES
1. Find the equation y^= Aiax by
of the evolute of the parabola
writing the equation of the normal in terms of the ordinate of the
point at which the normal meets the curve.
2. In Ex. 1, show that the distance from any point P on the

parabola to the corresponding point on the evolute is equal to the

radius of curvature, thus verifying that the locus of the center of
curvature and the envelope of the normals are the same curve.

3. Find the evolute of the ellipse -^ + ^= 1, given that the equa^

tion of the normal in terms of the eccentric angle <f>

is

hy = ax tan <^ — (a^ — b^) sin ^.

Ans. (ax)^ + (by)^ = (a^ - 6=)^

2 2 2
4. Find the evolute of the hypocycloid x^ + y^ = a^, the equation
of whose normal is
y cos a — X sin a = a cos 2 a.

Ans. (x + y)^ + (x - j/)^ = 2 a^.

 CHAPTER XXIII

MULTIPLE INTEGRALS

177. Volume under a surface. Let us try to find the

volume V bounded by a portion T of the surface

the area S into which T projects in the xy-plane, and the

cylindrical surface through the boundaries of S and T.

Fig. 90

We can get an approximate expression for the required

volume as follows. Draw in «? a set of n lines parallel to
268
 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 259

the y-axis and a set of m lines parallel to the a;-axis, as

in Fig. 90, thus dividing S into rectangles of area Ai/ Ax,
together with a number of irregular portions around the.
boundary. By passing through each line of the two sets
a plane perpendicular to the a;«/-plane we divide into V
vertical rectangular columns, together with smaller ir-
regular columns. The upper boundary of each rectangu-
lar column is a portion of the surface T. Through that
point of the upper boundary of each column which is

nearest the a;y-plane, pass a horizontal plane, thus form-

ing a set of rectangular pjrisms lying wholly within V.
The sum of the volumes of these prisms is evidently
an approximation to the required volume, the error com-
mitted being the sum of the irregular columns around
the outside, together with the portions lying above the
upper bases of the rectangular prisms. That is, approxi-
mately,
n m
V=f^^Kx„y,^AyAx,

where /(a;^, y,) is the altitude of the prism.

It is obvious that the error in this approximation may
be made arbitrarily small by taking both Ax and Ay suf-
ficiently small. Hence the required volume is exactly
n m
(1) V= lim V V/(a;„ y,)% ^^-
The "double limit" (1) may be evaluated by two
successive applications of the fundamental theorem of
§ 104, as follows.
Let us fix our attention on the rectangle PiP-'Ql'Q! in
S (Fig. 90). The volume AF/ whose base is this rec-
tangle may be found approximately by adding the volumes
of all the included elementary prisms. Hence, by the
fundamental theorem of § 104, AF^' is given exactly
 :

260 CALCULUS

by the formula

Vi'
f(xi, y)dy Lx,
=[X:
'Vi

Xi and Aa; remaining constant as we pass to the limit.

Now if we add all the volumes of this type, we have
approximately the required volume. It is to be noticed
that in the expression for A VI the coefficient of Aa; is a
function of x^ alone, since the limits yi and z//' are func-
tions of Xi alone. Thus we may apply again the theorem
of § 104, and find that the required volume under the sur-
face z =f(x, y~) is

F= lim 2) I, Axi, y)dy Aa; = f T P fix, y-)dy dx^

where a and b are the extreme values of x on the bound-

ary of S.
The quantity just found is usually written without the
brackets, thus

<^2) y= f C"f(x,y)dydx.
more properly an iterated
It is called a double integral, or
integral,being merely an integral of an integral. It
is to be noted that the inner integral sign belongs with

the inner differential, and that during the integration

with respect to y, x remains constant. Further, the
first or inner limits of integration are in general variables,
but the outer limits are always constants.
Of course we might integrate first with respect to x,

then with respect to y. The same argument as before

would lead to the formula

(3) V= ^^r" f(ix,y~)dxdy,

y j'emaining constant during the first integration.
 :

MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 261

In the foregoing argument, we have assumed our vol-

ume to be divided into rectangular columns perpendicular
to the xy-plane. Frequently, however, it is more conven-
ient to erect columns perpendicular to one of the other
coordinate planes (cf. example (J) below). Such varia-
tions offer no provided the geometric meaning
difficulty
of the successive integrations be kept clearly in mind. In
every problem, a sketch of the required volume should be
made, and the required double integral built up by inspec-
tion of the figure.
Examples: (a) Find the volume in tlie first octant
bounded by the plane z = x + y
and the cylinder y = 1 — x^.
Integrating in the order y, x,

we have

= \ \ (a; + y')dy dx
^0 ^0
1
=/ -i/+?

- +
-f .r a^

=u- Fig. 91

(J) Find the volume common to the circular cylinder

y^ + z^ — ay and the sphere x^->ry^ + z^ = a^.
Let us divide the volume into columns perpendicular to
the ^2-plane
V ay— j/^

T X dz dy

Va^ — y^ — z^ dz dy, etc.

»'0 "^O
 :

262 CALCULUS

178. Volume under a surface : second method. The re-

sult of § 177 may be obtained by a somewhat different

method. The area of the section by a particular one of
the planes parallel to the ya-plane is evidently

Hence, by § 110, the volume is

V=\ A(x)dx = j I
*
f(x, y)dy dx.

The actual work of obtaining the volume in any particular

case is therefore the same by the two methods — the only
difference is in the geometric interpretation of the succes-
sive steps. The great advantage of the method of § 177
is that it lends itself readily to the discussion of a great
variety of other problems besides the computing of vol-
umes, as we shall see in the next few articles.
Of course when A(x) is known to start with, the volume
may be found by a single integration as in § 110. This is
the case in several of the exercises below.

EXERCISES
In each of the following exercises, the limits of integration should
be obtained directly from a figure.
1. Find the volume in the first octant bounded by the planes
X = \, z = X \- y and the cylinder = x. y''' Ans. W-
2. Find the volume in the first octant bounded by the cylinder
a;2 + ^2 _ (j2 and the plane z = x -^ y. Ans. \ a'.

Find the volume of a cylindrical column standing on the area

3.

common to the two parabolas x = y'^, y = x^ as base and cut off by the
surface z =. 1 + y — x\ Check the result by integrating in two ways
first in the order y, x ; next in the order x, y.

4. Find the volume in the first octant bounded by the plane

y -\- z = 1 and the surface a; = 4 — z — y^. Check as in Ex. 3.

2^
5. Find the volume cut off from the paraboloid V =^ ~ -t~~^ J.2

by the a:z-plane.
 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 263

6. Find the volume in the first octant under the surface z = xy

bounded by the cylinder y = x^ and the plane y = \. Solve two
ways.
7. Find the volume bounded by the surface z =
fit/v^/o

xy, the cylinder

in

^
y'^ = ax, and the planes x + y=2a, y = Q, z = 0.

8. Find the volume sliced off from the paraboloid az = a^ — x^ — y"^

by theplane y z = a. -\-

9. Find the volume cut out of the first octant by the cylinders
= = 1 - x^ X = 1 - /. Ans. \\.

Find the volume of a segment

10. of an elliptic paraboloid
bounded by a right section.
11. Find the volume bounded by the surfaces 4 + 4 z^ = x^,
y^

X = 4:y,x = 2a,z = 0. Ans. ^(i tr - 3\/3)a8.

12. two ways the volume in the fii'st octant bounded by
Find in
the paraboloid y = xz and the planes z = x, z=2 — x.

13. Find the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of two nappes

bounded by a right section.
2 2 2 2.

14. Find the volume bounded by the surface x'^ + y^ + z^ = a*.

Sketch this surface. Ans. -^tto'.

15. Find the volume in the first octant inside the cylinder
x^ + y^ = 2 ax and outside the paraboloid x^ + y^ = az. Ans. | tt a'.

i6. Find the volume in the first octant bounded by the surface

17. Show that the volume of any cone or pyramid is one third the
area of the base times the altitude.

18. Write out six different double integrals for the volume in the
first octant bounded by the cylinders y = x", x^ + z^ = 1.

19. Find the volume in Ex. 18 by simple integration.

179. Interpretation of the given function. Any function

f(x, «/) of two independent variables may be interpreted
as the z-coordinate of a point on a surface in space.
If, then, in any problem, we can express the required-
quantity as a double limit of the form (1), § 177, no
matter whatmay he the geometric or physical meaning of the
given function f{x, «/), the limit may be evaluated by an
264 CALCULUS

iterated integration as in § 177. Thus the result of that

article is by no means confined to the determination of
volumes —
we shall, as was mentioned in § 178, apply it

to the study of a variety of problems.

180. The double integral. In the argument of § 177 it

is not necessary that the function / be expressed in terms

of cartesian coordinates x and
^ further, the area S need not
y ;

be divided into elements in the

particular way there adopted.
The essential points are, first,

that we have a function / of

two independent variables de-
fined at all points of the region
S; second, that we divide 8
inton elements A/S' which are
infinitesimal of the second
order*
When *S' is divided in this
way, the double limit

Fig. 92 lira T/iA^

n->oo ,-_2

is called the double integral of the function / over the

region S, and is denoted by the symbol I fdS:

j

limV/.AS = fffdS.

As noted in § 177, the integral I I

^
/(a;, y^dy dx is

often called a double integral, and it is evidently equal to

\ \ f dS ; but it is clear that the latter integral is the

* That is, such that the maximum distance between two points on the
boundary oi'AS approaches 0.
 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 265

more general, since it does not tie us down to a particular

coordinate system, or to a particular mode of division of S.

The integrals (2) and (3) of § 177 are merely two special
forms of the double integral. ,

181. The double integral in polar coordinates. Given a

function /(r, 0) of the polar coordinates r, 6, the double

integral
Js J f diS may be evaluated as follows. Divide jS

into elements by a set of circles with center at the origin

and a set of lines radiating from
the origin, as in Fig. 93. Then
AS is the difference between
two circular sectors of angle A^
and radius r and >• + Ar respec-
tively ; i.e.

AS= ^(r + Ar)2A(9 - ^ r^Ad

= (rAr + ^ A?)A^.
We may now repeat the argu-
ment of § 177, integrating first
with respect to r, and noting
Fig. 93
that,by § 109, the infinitesimal
of higher order J Ar^A^ may be neglected, This leads to
the result

JJ'/dS= lim 25 /(r, e)rArAe =jy"'f(r, Q)rdrdi.

EXERCISES
*t1. a round hole is bored through the center of a sphere. Find
the volume cut out, ilsing polar coordinates.
2. A cylinder is erected on the circle r = a cos 6 as a base. Find
the volume of the cylinder inside a sphere of radius a with center at
the origin.

3. Find the volume above the a;y-plane common to the paraboloid

z = i — 3^ — y^ and the cylinder x^ + y^ = 1, using polar coSrdinates.
266 CALCULUS

4. A square hole of side 2 whose axis is the z-axis is cut through

the paraboloid of Ex. 3. Find the volume cut out.

6. Find the volume of a spherical wedge by double integration.

6. Prove that when a curve r =/($) revolves about the initial

line, the volume of revolution generated is given by the formula

F = 2 TT (^C rsiud-rdr dO.

Solve the following by the method of Ex. 6. .

oJ^^
7. Find the volume of a sphere. ^'"^
8. Find the volume generated by revolving the cardioid
r =a(l — sinfl) about its line of symmetry. Ans. Itto^.

9. The curve f'- = a^ sin revolves about the 2/-axis. Find the
volume generated.
10. Find the volume generated by revolving one loop of the curve
r = a cos 2 9 about its line of symmetry.

11. Find the volume generated by revolving a circle about one of

its tangents.

12. Find the volume cut from a sphere by a cone of half-angle -

o
with its vertex at the center of the sphere. Check by using cartesian
coordinates.

13. Find the volume of the prolate spheroid generated by revolv-

ing about its major axis the ellipse

1 — e cos 6
where e is the eccentricity. Ans. —
•'
3(1 — e2)2

14. Find the volume of a paraboloid of revolution bounded by a

right section through the focus, taking the equation of the generating

parabola in the form r =

—
— -• Ans. Qtra'.
1 cos 6

182. Transformation of double integrals. We have seen

that the integrals (2) and (3) of § 177 are merely dif-

ferent forms of the double integral I

j fdS. It may

happen that an integral given in the form (2) is difficult

or impossible to evaluate, but that when transformed to

the form (3), it becomes simple. Or sometimes after
evaluating the form (2) we change to the form (3) and
 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 267

evaluate again, merely as a check on the result. The

process of changing the form of an integral from (2) to
(3), or vice versa, is called inverting the order of integration.
Another transformation of importance is the change
from one coordinate system to another — for instance,
from cartesian to polar coordinates.

Example : Evaluate \ \ — dy dx.

This integral cannot be evaluated di-

rectly, since the function — is not inte-

y
grable in terms of elementary functions.
But a study of the limits shows that
the field of integration is the triangle
bounded by the lines 2; = 0, y = x,y=a. Fir,. 94
Hence

) I —dydx=\ I — dxdy = \ \- dy
•^0 »^-r
y ^0 'Jo y "^0 l_i)

= j e'"dy = e" — 1.

EXERCISES
1. Check the result in example (a), § 177, by inverting the order
of integration.

2. Invert the order of integration in Exs. 1 and 2, p. 262.

3. Find the volume bounded by the cylinder x^ = iay and the

planes x + y + z = a, z = 0, x = 0, integrating in two different ways,
4. Express the volume of Ex. 3 as a double integral in two other
ways.

6. Interpret the integral \

"
\
°
V4 a^ — y^ dy dx as a volume,

and write out five other double integrals (all in cartesian coordi-
nates) for this same volume.
6. Evaluate \° \
"
'^(x + y)dy dx, and check by inverting the

order of integration. Interpret geometrically.

7. Evaluate C( ^ e"' fly dx. Ans. 0.859.

 268 CALCULUS

y/i-x'
8. Evaluate f \
gxHy' ijy dx by transforming to polar cobr-
Jo Jo
dmates. Afis. 1.35.

sin^
9. Evaluate
2 2
dydx. Ans.

10. Express i \fdS (a) in cartesian coordinates, (6) in polar coor-

s
dinates, where iS is the triangle bounded by the lines x = a, y = 0,
y = x.
TT

11. Transform I' I e'^^rrfrrf^ to cartesian coordinates.

Jo Jo

12. Compute the" value of j

cos (x^ + y^)dS extended over the
J
s
itgrior of the circle x^ + y^ = 1. Ans. 2.644.

13. Find the area in the first quadrant under the curve y = e-^'^'by
•^
noting that

--..)^.(j%-*^v.).(j;.-^..,)=j-;j;; e-i<''^+>^1dydx.

Ans.
-v1
14. Find the centroid of
the area in Ex. 13.

183. Area of a sur-

face. Let us try to find
the area tr of a portion
of the surface

2 =/(»;, J').

_y Suppose that the a;y-pro-

jection of a is the region
S. Let us divide S into
elements A/Sin any suit-
able way, and fix our
attention on a particular
one of these elements.
This element is the hori-
Fig. 95 zontal projection of the
 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 269

portion Act of a-. If we draw the tangent plane at some

point P of Ao-, then ^S will be the horizontal projection
of a certain area Ao-' on the tangent plane. Hence
AjiS* = Act' cos 7,
where 7 is the angle between the z-axis and the normal
PNto a- at P, and
A.'=-^
cos 7
If now we form the sum of the quantities Ao-' and pass
to the limit, we have

a= lim VV^= if^.

AS-^o^'^cosY -^g*^ cos-y ^

In case it is more convenient to project the area on the

xz- or the ys-plane, the corresponding formula is readily
developed.
Example : Find the area of that part of the surface
z= y +x^ whose projection on the a;y-plane is the triangle
bounded by the lines y =0, 1/ = x, x = l.
Writing the equation of the surface in the form
z — — x^ =1/ 0,

we have for the partial derivatives the values

—
dF = —
dx
^
2x, —
dF —
dy
= —
dF
= .
1,
dz
.
1.

Hence by the theorem of § 167, the direction cosines of

the normal are proportional to — 2 a;, — 1 , 1, and
1
cos 7 = ^

V4 a;2 +1+1
Therefore the required area is

o- =Cr V4 a;2 + 2 dy dx

= rxV4,x^ + 2dx~
Jo

= |. 1(4x2+2)^7 = ^(6^-2^).
270 CALCULUS

EXERCISES
1. Find the area cut out of the plane x + y + 2z = 2a by the
cylinder x^ + y^ = cfl. Ans. jVtJTra^.
8
2. Find tlie area of that part of the surface z y + \x'^ whose
projection in the a;^-plane is the triangle bounded by the lines y = 0,
y = X, X = 2. Ans. 11(2 + V2).
3. The center of a sphere of radius a on the surface of a cylinder
is

of diameter a. Find the surface of the cylinder intercepted by the

sphere. Ans. i a^.
4. In Ex. 3, find the surface of the sphere intercepted by the
cylinder. Ans. 2{ir — 2)0^.

5. How much of the conical surface z^ = a;^ _|_

yi ijgg above a.

square of side 2 a in the xjz-plane whose center is the origin ? »-l- <y

^ 6. How much of the surface az = xy lies within the cylinder

a;2 ^ yi — (fi") (Use polar coordinates.)
7. A square hole is cut through a sphere, the axis of the hole coin-
ciding with a diameter of the sphere. Find the area cut from the
surface of the sphere.
J2
Ans. 16 aJarcsin 8 a^ arcsin -

J2

184. Triple integrals. We have seen that the integral

of a function of one
vai'iable, extended
over a given inter-
val, may be inter-
preted as the area
under a plane
curve. Again, the
integral of a func-
tion of two varia-
bles extended over
a plane region may
be interpreted as
the volume under
a surface. If now
we have a function
Fig. 9G of three variables
 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 271

defined at all points of a portion of space, no similar geomet-

ric interpretation for the integral of the function over the
given region is possible, since geometric intuition fails in
space of four dimensions. Nevertheless the meaning of
such an integral may be made plain by analogy with the
earlier cases.
Suppose we have given a function f(x, «/, s) defined at
all points of a three-dimensional region V. Let us pass
through V three sets of planes parallel to the coordinate
planes, thus dividing V into elementary rectangular
parallelepipeds ofvolume Aa; Ay As, together with smaller
irregular portions around the boundary. Now multiply
the volume of each element by the value of the function
at some point within the element, say at its center, and
form the sum of these products. The triple limit

is defined as the value of the triple integral of fQx, y, 2)

over the region V.
This limit may be evaluated by three successive
integrations (cf. §177) :

r= lim V y y /(x,
Ax->0 '^ "' -^
y, z-)Ax Ay Az

A3->0

I f{x,y,z)dzdydx.
(I Jy 'J z'

The integration extends over a vertical column of

first

base Ay Ax; the limits z\ z" are the extreme values of z

in this column, and are in general functions of both x and
y. The integration with respect to y is extended over
a slice parallel to the yg-plane the limits y' and jr" are
;

the extreme values of y in this slice, and are functions of

X alone. In the final integration the limits are of course

the extreme values of x in the whole region.

272 CALCULUS

More generally, the function / may be given in terms

of any system of coordinates, and the region V may
be divided into elements in any suitable way.* We
write in general, for the value of the triple integral of /
over the region V,

It is hardly necessary to say that such transformations

as inversion of order and change from one coordinate
system to another are allowable and useful with triple
integrals, just as with double integrals.
It may be well to observe at this point that applica-
tions of triple integration are comparatively rare in ele-
mentary work. In the problems treated in the next two
articles, triple integrals are sometimes required.
The volume F" itself may be expressed as a triple inte-
gral, the given function/ being taken equal to unity :

V
It is true that the volume may be found more
directly by
methods previously studied nevertheless it may be worth
;

while to solve a few exercises by the present method for

the sake of practice in determining the limits in triple
integration.
Example : Find the volume cut off from the paraboloid
2 =1— a;2 _ £_
by the a;«/-plane.
*

In this case

F=4 Jo Jo I
1
Jo
idzdvdx

(l-r^-^-^y,dx

* The element must of course be infinitesimal of the third order.

 —

MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 273

4ifl-^)^-sr'^'^
16
3X'a-^)'^«
3
16 3 TT

EXERCISES
Find the following volumes by triple integration, drawing a figure
in each case.
1. The tetrahedron bounded by the coordinate planes and the
X y z ,
plane - + y +-= 1.
a c

2. The volume bounded by the paraboloid x^ + y^ = az, the cylin-

der x^ + y^ = 2 ax, and the plane z = 0. Ans. ^ ira^.
'
3. Interpret the triple integral y i
'^
\^'^~''dzdydx geometri-

cally, and express the same volume as a triple integral in several other
ways, drawing a figure for each case.

185.Heterogeneous masses. The density of a homo-

geneous mass has been defined in § 121 as the ratio of
the mass to the volume it occupies :

For a heterogeneous mass, i.e. one whose density varies

from point to point, we must introduce the idea of density
at a point.
Consider an element of volume A F" including a point P,
and let AM
denote the mass contained in A V. Then the

ratio — is the average density in AV. If A F" approaches

in such a way that P is always included, the ratio —

in general approaches a limit * S, called the density at the

* In general this is true only if A T is infinitesimal of the third order,

as in § 184.
T
274 CALCULUS

point P:
f.
5 = ,.
lim -
AM
— = dM
AF^oAF dV
The mass of a heterogeneous body whose density at any
point given as a function of the coordinates of the point
is

can be found by integration. We have only to choose a

suitable mass-element and integrate over the whole body.
The great point to be noted is that in general the element
itselfmust be homogeneous,* since otherwise the mass of
the element cannot be comptited and hence the integral
cannot be built up.
In many cases it is possible to choose an element as in
Chapter XV and obtain the result by a simple integra-
tion in more complicated problems double or triple in-
;

tegration may be necessary.

We give the argument in full only for the general case
where triple integrals are employed. Given a mass M
occupying a volume V, divide F'into elements as in § 184,
and multiply each element A V by the density S at one of
its points. Then the sum VVVSAP^is an arbitrarily
close approximation to the mass Mii AT^be taken suffi-
ciently small, and the mass is therefore given exactly by
the formula

^=i5?o2;2:i;8A7=/j/8rfF.
r
For a mass distributed over a surface S, the idea of
"surface density" must be introduced:

g ^ lira AM^ dM
^^->oAS dS'
whence, by argument now familiar,

M = fj'SdS.
* By this is meant that the density at different points of the element
varies only by infinitesimal amounts; cf. example (a) below. By the
theorem of § 109, the infinitesimal variations may be neglected.
 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 275

Similarly, for a mass distributed along a curve C, the

"linear density" is

g ^ lim Ai^^ dM^

'
^»->o As ds
and

M -X hds.

Examples : (a) Find the mass

of a circular cone whose density
varies as * the distance from the
axis.
Let us take the vertex of the
cone at the origin and its axis '
FiQ. 97
along OX. If we divide the mass
into cylindrical shells about the axis, each element will be
" homogeneous " of density

8 = kr = ky.
We have
dV= i T^yQi — x)dy,

M=fdM = j'Bdr=2 TrkfyXh - x}dy

= 2 ttA ) yHh y]dy = -irka^h.
•^0 V a J 6

(J) The density at any point of a cube is proportional

to the sum of the distances from three adjacent faces.
Find the mass of the cube.
Taking the three faces mentioned as coordinate planes,
and choosing the element as in § 184, we have

M= kJoC"JoC" Jofi^x + y + z)dz dy dx.

* To say that a varies as b, or a is proportional to b, means that
a = kb, where k is constant.
276 CALCULUS

EXERCISES
Determine the following masses.
1. A straight rod whose density is proportional to the ra-th power
of the distance from one end.
2. A semicircular wire whose density varies as the distance from
the diameter joining the ends. Ans. 2 ka^.

3. A circular plate whose density varies (a) as the distance from

the center ;
(b) as the distance from a fixed diameter. Ans. (b) f ka^.
4. A spherical surface whose density varies as the distance (a)
from a fixed diameter ;
(b) from a diametral plane. Ans. (a) kir^a'.

6. A sphere whose density is proportional to the distance from the

center. Ans. kwa*.
6. A rectangle whose density is proportional to the sum of the
distances from two adjacent sides.

7. A circular plate whose density varies as the distance from a point

on the circumference.
8. A square whose density is proportional to the distance from one
corner. A ns. .765 fca'.

9. The tetrahedron bounded by the coordinate planes and the

plane x + y + z = a, if the density is proportional to the sum of the
distances from the coordinate planes.

186. Centroids and moments of inertia: the general case.

We arenow in position to lay down precise definitions of
the moment and the moment of inertia, of
of first order,
any mass. Divide the mass into elements AF'as in § 184,
and multiply each element by the density S at a point
P (a;, y, z) of the element.
: Then the moment of the first
order with respect to tlio j/2-plane is defined as

lim 2^2^2^:cSAF= jTfajSiF,

with a similar formula for the moment with respect to any

other plane. The centroid is defined as the point (x, y, i)
whose coordinates are given by the formulas

Mi = fffxbdV,m=fffy^dV,Mz=j'j'j'zhdV
 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 277

Similarly, the moment of inertia with respect to any

axis is defined as

V
where r is the distance of a point of the element from the
axis.
While the above formulas are important from the
theoretical standpoint onl account of their generality, it

must not be foi'gotten that in the actual computation of

moments of the first order and moments of inertia multiple
integrals are very rarely needed, at least for homogeneous
masses.
It will be remembered that the theorems of § 134 have
been proved only for a set of particles. The reader will
now have no difficulty in extending the proof to the
general case.

EXERCISES
\«^1. Find the centroid of the volume in the first octant bounded by
the paraboloid 02 = 3;^ + y"^ and the planes y = x, x = a.
Ans. (ia, /(jO, t'so).

2. Find the moment of inertia of the volume in Ex. 1, with

respect to the z-axis.

'-
3. Find the centroid of the volume in Ex. 3, p. 262.

4. Find in two ways the centroid of the volume in Ex. 9, p. 263.

6. Find the moment of inertia, with respect to the x-axis, of the

volume in Ex. 4, p. 262. Check by inverting the order of integration.

In Exs. 6-10, use polar coordinates.
6. Find the moment of inertia, with respect to the z-axis, of the
volume in Ex. 2, p. 265.
•^
^
'
7. Find the centroid of a hemisphere (cf. Ex. 6, p. 266). -^
8. Find the moment of inertia of a sphere about a diameter.

9. Find the centroid of a spherical wedge of half -angle a. Check

by putting a = |-
10. For the wire of Ex. 2, p. 276, find (a) the centroid ; also the
 278 CALCULUS
moment of inertia with respect to (b) the diameter joining the ends,
(c) the radius perpendicular to this diameter.
Ans. (a) x = iTra; (6) fikfa^; (c) ^Ma'^.

V. 11. Find the moment of inertia of a circular disk whose density

varies as the distance from the center, (o) about the axis of the disk,
(6) about a diameter. Ans. (a) iMa^.
12. Find the centroid of a rectangle whose density is proportional
to the sum of the distances from two adjacent sides.
^^ 13.Find the moment of inertia with respect to (r/) the z^-plane,
volume bounded by the planes z = x +y, x + y=a,
(6) the s-axis, of the
and the coordinate planes. Ann. (a) ^Ma'.
14. Find the moment of inertia, with respect to the yz-Tp\eme, of the
volume bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = a, z = x + y, integrat-
ing in the order z, y, x; check by integrating in the order x, y, z.
"^ Find the centroid of a straight rod whose density
16. is propor-
tional to the re-th power of the distance from one end.

Am. 5=5Jliz.
n+2
16. By dividing a triangle into strips parallel to the base and con-
centrating the mass of each strip at its center, show that in finding
the centroid of the triangle we may replace the triangle by a straight
line lying along the median and having a density proportional to the
distance from the vertex. Hence find the centroid of any triangle by
the result of Ex. 15.
^ 17. By a method analogous to that of Ex. 16, find the centroid of
any cone or pyramid.
18. Prove theorems I and II of § 134 for the general case of any
continuous mass.
 :

CHAPTER XXIV
FLUID PRESSURE

187. Force. If a particle of mass m moves with an ac-

celeration y, the product of the mass by the acceleration is
called force

and the motion is said to be due to the action of the force.

Since force is a mere numerical multiple of acceleration,
it follows that force a vector (§ 56).
is If several forces'
act on the same particle, their combined effects are equiva-
lent to that of a single force, their resultant. Usually the
resultant most easily found analytically by resolving
is

eaoli force into components parallel to the coordinate axes

and summing in each direction to get the rectangular com-
ponents of the resultant, after which the resultant is found
by compounding these rectangular components (see the
example below).
If there is no force acting on the particle, or, what is the
same thing, if the resultant of all the forces is 0, the par-
ticle is said to be in equilibrium. It follows from § 59
that a particle in equilibrium is either at rest or moving
uniformly in a straight line.
If several forces act at various points of a body, it is

not always possible to compound them into a single result-

ant. In what follows, we shall consider only cases in
which this is possible.
Example : Find the resultant of a plane sj-stem of forces

F^ = 10 lbs., ^2 = 20 lbs., -F3 =8 Ibs.,^ F^ = 15 lbs.

acting as in the figure, where a = arctan ^.

279
280 CALCULUS

The components parallel

to OX are, of J\, 10; of
^2, 20 cos «= 16; of F^, 0;
of F^, — 15 sin «= — 9.
"^ Hence the x-component R^
of the resultant is

^, = 10 + 16 + - 9 = 17.
Similarly,
Fig. 98 i2„ = + 12 - 8 - 12 = - 8.
Hence
R = VI72 + 82 = V353 = 18.8 lbs..

inclined to the a;-axis at an angle

arctan ( - J^) = - 25° 12'.

188. Force distributed over an area. We have frequently
to consider a force not acting at a single point, but dis-
tributed over an area. Examples are the pressure of a
body of water upon a dam, that of a carload of sand
against the sides of the car, the attraction of an electric
point-charge upon an electrified plate, etc. If the mass
upon which the force acts be thought of as composed ulti-

mately of particles, such a distributed force may be

regarded as comprising the totality of forces acting on the
separate particles. We shall consider only the case in
which all these separate forces taken together are equiva-
lent to a single resultant ; the resultant is the total force
acting on the body.
Consider a force acting in the same direction at all
points of a plane surface S, and suppose for concreteness
that the force is normal to the surface. If we denote by
A^ the total force acting on an element of area A/S chosen

as in § 180, then the ratio —- is called the average pres-

sure on A^S*. Now, if ^S approaches in such a way that a

 FLUID PRESSURE 281

certain point Q is always included, the ratio —— in general

Ao
approaches a limit, called the pressure at the point Q:
AF dF
dS'
When the pressure at every point is given as a func-
tion of the coordinates, the total force F can be found
by In the most general case the force ap-
integration.
pears as a double integral, by § 180 :

s
but in most cases of practical importance the element of
area can be so chosen that a single integration is sufficient.
189. Fluid pressure. An example of force acting
normally to a surface is furnished by the pressure of a
fluid against a retaining wall.
The any point of an incompressible fluid,
pressure, at
due weight of the fluid is equal to the weight per
to the
unit volume times the depth h of the point below the
surface of the fluid :

p = wh.
We assume the retaining area
will Surface

to be plane and vertical. Let us

divide this area into horizontal
rectangular elements of area liAh
as in the figure. If we denote by
Pi the pressure at the depth A(,
the force acting on the rectangle
liAh is approximately * Fig. 99

pJiAh = whilfAh.
n
Then the sum V whikAh is approximately the total force,
1=1

» The actual force on the rectangle evidently difiers from the quantity
PiliAh by an inflnitesimaJ of higher order, which may be neglected.
282 CALCULUS

or total pressure * P, on the whole area, and the limit of

this sum is exactly P Hence, by the fundamental
theorem of § 104,

P= l^^ 2) "'MAS = wfhldh,

i=l

where limits of integration are to be assigned in such a

way as to extend the integration over the whole area.
Example : A whose
trough,
cross-section is an equilateral tri-
angle of side 2 ft., is full of water.
Find the total pressure on one end.
Let us take the origin at the
lower vertex of the triangle.
Then the equation of the line
OA is

y = VS X.
The total pressure on the triangle is

P = 2 wj" \ V3 - y~)x dt/ = 2wf (VS-VS x)xVE dx

=6w \ (1 — x^x dx= 6 w\ —
=w= 62 lbs., nearly.

EXERCISES
1. A on by two forces F^ F^ lying in the same
particle is acted
vertical planeand inclined to the horizon at angles «,, a^. Find their
resultant in magnitude and direction, if F^ = 527 lbs., F^ = 272 lbs.,
«! = 127° 52', az = 32° 13'.

Ans. 569 lbs., inclined to the horizon at 99° 26'.

2. Six forces, of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 lbs. respectively, act at the same

point, making angles of 60° with each other. Find their resultant.
Ans. 6 lbs., acting along the line of the 5-lb. force.

* Care must be taken not to confuse the total pressure, P, with the
pressure at a point', p.The former is a force, the latter, a force per unit
area.
 FLUID PRESSURE 283

3. Work the example of § 189 with the origin at B.

Find the total pressure on one side of a plank 2 x 8 ft. sub-

4.

merged vertically with its upper end (a) in the surface, (6) 1 ft.
below the surface.
5. A horizontal cylindrical boiler 4 ft. in diameter is haK full of
water. Find the total pressure on one end. .-Ins. 330 lbs.

6. Work Ex. 5 if the boiler is full of water.

7. What force must be withstood by a vertical dam 100 ft. long

and 20 ft. deep?
8. Work Ex. 7 if the dam is a trapezoid 100 ft. long at the top
and 80 ft. long at the bottom, taking the origin at an vipper corner.
Check by solving again with the origin in a different position.
9. Find the total pressure on one side of a right triangle of sides
AB = 3 ft., AC = ^ it., submerged with A C vertical and (o) A in the
surface, (b) A 2 ft. deep, (c) C 2 ft. deep. In each case check as in
Ex. 8.

10. Find the total pressure on one face of a square 2 ft. on a side,
submerged with one diagonal vertical and one corner in the surface.
11. Find the force on one end of a parabolic trough full of water,
if the depth is 2 ft. and the width across the top 2 ft. Ans. f| w.
12. A trough 4 ft. deep and 6wide has semi-elliptical ends.
ft. If
the trough is full of water, find the pressure on one end.

13. Find the force that must be withstood by a bulkhead closing a

watermain 4 ft. in diameter, if the surface of the water in the reservoir
is 40 ft. above the center of the bulkhead. Ans. 16 tons.

Show that the problem of § 189 is analytically equivalent to the

14.
following: To find the mass of a thin plate, if the density is propor-
tional to the distance from a line in the plane of the plate.

190. Resultant of parallel forces. Suppose we have

given a set of parallel forces /j, /j, •••,/„, ^vhose resultant
(algebraic sum) is not 0. F
The problem of finding the
line of action of the resultant is analogous to that of find-
ing the centroid of a set of mass particles.
Let us take the ary-plane perpendicular to the given
forces, C^i^yt) be the point where the line of
and let

action of /< pierces this plane. The moment of the result-

ant about each coordinate axis must equal the sum of the
284 CALCULUS

moments of the forces about the same axis. Hence the

line of action of F pierces the a;y-plane at the point whose
coordinates x, y are given by the?formulas
n n

i=l i=l

191. Center of pressure. More generally, consider again

the case of a force acting normally at all points of a plane
area. Take the given plane as 2;y-plane, and divide the
surface into elements A<S'as in § 180 then the force on A.S ;

is approximately pA.S, where p is the pressure at a point

(x, y) of A/S", and the moment of this force about the

y-axis isThe sum of these moments is approxi-
xpb^S.
mately the moment of the whole force, and the limit of the
sum is exacth' that moment. Similarly, we can find the
moment about the 2;-axis. Hence the resultant 'acts at
the point whose coordinates 5, Ij are given by the formulas

Fx= ffxpdS, Fy=ffypdS,

*
s s

where F is the total force. The point (x, y) is called

the center of pressure.
As happens in many problems that the double
usual, it
integrals reduce to simple integrals, if the element be
properly chosen. In particular, in the problem of fluid
pressure it is easilj' seen that the depth of the center of
pressure below the surface is given by the formula

Ph = wChH dh,
where P is the total pressure.

EXERCISES
1. A straight beam AB 50 ft. long bears loads as follows: 100
lbs. at A, 100 lbs. at C, 200 lbs. at D, 50 lbs. at S; 4C = 10 ft.,

AD = 20 ft. Find the point of application of the resultant.

2. Work Ex. 1 if the segment AD bears a uniformly distributed
load of 5 lbs. per foot.
 ;

FLUID PRESSURE 285

3. Work Ex. 2 if the segment DB bears a distributed load which

increases uniformly from 5 lbs. per foot at D to 15 lbs. per foot at B.
4. A platform ABCD 20 ft. square bears a single concentrated
load. The reactions are, at ^, 50 lbs. ; at B, 80 lbs. ; at C, 100 lbs.
at D, 70 lbs. Where is the load ?
6. Find the most advantageous length for a lever to lift a weight
of 100 the distance from the weight to the fulcrum is 4 ft.
lbs., if

and the lever weighs 4 lbs. per foot.

Find the depth of the center of pressure in the following cases.

6. A rectangle submerged vertically (a) with one edge in the
surface, (ft) with its upper edge at a depth c. Arts, (a) f a.

7. An isosceles triangle submerged with the line of symmetry

vertical and (a) the vertex, (6) the base, in the surface.
Ans. (a)ih; (6) \h.
8. Any triangle submerged with one side in the surface.
9. One end of the parabolic trough of Ex. 11, p. 283.
10. A semicircle submerged with its bounding diameter in the
surface.

11. In each case of Ex. 9, p. 283, if the pressure is removed from

one side of the triangle, at what point must a brace be applied in
order to hold the triangle in position ?
Ans. (o) With AB, AC as axes, (|, 2).
12. Show that the problem of § 191 is analytically equivalent to
that of finding the centroid of a plane mass of variable density p.
 :

CHAPTER XXV
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER

I. General Intkoduction
192. Differential equations. A differential equation is

an equation that involves derivatives or differentials.

Various examples have arisen in our previous work, of
which the following may be mentioned

(1) (§15)

(§16)
(§50)
(Ex. 43, p. 64)

(§ 51)

(Ex. 18, p. 50)

(Ex. 1, p. 81)

(Ex. 2, p. 78)

(Ex. 1, p. 239)

(10)
S + a-p=0. (Ex. 22, p. 240)

Equations containing partial derivatives, such as ex-

amples (9) and (10), are called partial differential equa-
tions. Such equations are of great importance, but a
study of them is beyond the limits of this book.
286
 :

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 287

193. Order of a differential equation. Thej)rder of a,

differential equation is the order of the highest deri vative
that occurs in it. Thus, in § 192, examples (1), (3), (5)
are of the first ordei-, (2), (6), (7), (8) are of the second
*"
order, (-1) is of the n-th order.
In the applications, equations of the first and second
orders are of predominant importance, and we shall be
chieily concerned with these two t3'pes.

194. Solutions of a differential equation. A solution of

a differential equation is any relation between x and «/

by virtue of whicli the differential equation is satisfied.

Thus equation (1) of § 192 is true if

1^

where c is arbitrary ; hence this relation is a solution of

the equation. A solution of (2) is easilj' seen to be

y = 2 2-2 + Cj.r 4- Cg.

It appears from these examples that a solution of a
differential equation may involve one or more arbitrary
constants ; we shall find this to be true in general. It
follows that eacli equation has an infinity of solutions,
obtained by assigning different values to the arbitrary
constants.
By analogy with the integral calculus, a solution of a
differential equation is often called an integral of the
equation, and the arbitrary constants are called constants
of integration.

II. Equations of the First Okdek

195. The general Suppose there is given a
solution.
relation (free of derivatives) between a;, y and an arbi-
trary constant
(1) F(x,y,c)=(i.
 :

288 CALCULUS

Geometrically this equation represents a family of curves,

whose individual members are obtained by assigning par-
ticular values to c.

If we differentiate (1) with respect to x, the arbitrary

constant e may be eliminated from the equation thus
formed and the original equation. The result of this
elimination is evidently an equation involving x, y, and
y' ; i.e. it is a differential equation of the first order

(2) ^Cx,y,y')=0.
As this equation does not contain a, it represents a prop-
erty common to all the curves of the above-mentioned
family.
Since equation (2) is true by virtue of equation (1), it
follows that (1) is a solution of (2).
If a solution of a differential equation of the first order
contains an arbitrary constant, it is called the general
solution: hence (1) is the general solution of (2). It
can be shown that, in general, corresponding to every
differential equation of the form (2) there exists a gen-
eral solution (1) ; methods of finding this solution in
various cases will be considered presently.
It may be worth while to point out that, if the differ-
ential equation has the simple form

ax
the integral calculus gives us .the general solution at
once:

y =jf(x) dx + c.
It should also be noted that while in the integral cal-

culus the constant of integration always appears as an

additive constant, this is not true in general in the solu-
tion of a differential equation ; the constant often enters
in other ways.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 289

Examples: (ci) Find the differential equation whose

general solution is

y = ce^.
Differentiating, we find
dy = 2 ce^ dx ;

eliminating c by division, we get

^=2 do:.
y
This example illustrates the fact that the arbitrary con-
stant is not always additive.

(J) Find by inspection the general solution of the

equation
X dy -\-y dx=^.
The answer is seen at once to be
xy =0.
196. Particular solutions. A solution obtained from
the general solution by assigning a particular value to
the arbitrary constant is called a particular solution of the
differential equation. Thus in example (5), § 195, the
equations xy =0, xy = 5, etc., are particular solutions.
In applied problems involving differential equations
we are often concerned with a particular solution.
Nevertheless the determination of the general solution
is usually a necessary preliminary step, after which the
required particular solution is found by determining
the arbitrary constant from given initial conditions. The
process is illustrated by the examples of § 77, which
should be reviewed at this point.
Differential equations involving y' to a degree higher
than the first may in some cases have a so-called singular

solution, which cannot be obtained from the general solu-

tion by assigning a particular value to the arbitrary con-
stant. As such solutions are of little importance in most
of the elementary applications, we shall omit a discussion
of them.
 .

290 CALCULUS

EXERCISES
In the following cases, find the differential equation whose general
solution is the given equation.

1. y = s* + c. 2. y = ex.
3. y = ce''. 4. y = ex + e^.
6. log r = kO. 6. xy + cy = 1.
7. s = svat + c cos t. 8. c^ + 2cy = x\

Find by inspection the general solution of each of the following

differential equations.
'
9. dy - sin x dx = Q.
Y ^""^ \Q. x dx + y dy = 0. ^^
11. ^=xdx. 12. ^= '^-.

X
t'-^'
.
•

y y
"^
13.( xdy + y c?a;]+ 2 dy = 0. > *^ t" i ~^- C --

14. Find the equation of a curve whose slope at any point is

equal* to the abscissa of the point. How many such curves are
- /"
there? Draw several of them. ^ >* - 4k
15. In Ex. 14, find the curve that passes through (4, — 3)

16. Solve Ex. 14, reading " ordinate " instead of " abscissa."
17. A
point, starting with a velocity of 10 ft. per second, moves
under a constant acceleration of 8 ft. per second per second. Find
(a) the velocity, (ft) the distance from the starting point, after t
seconds of motion.
18. A point moves under an acceleration
*^ = -4cos2<.
dt
If j; = and x = 1 when t = 0, find v and x in terms of t.

'^
197. Geometrical interpretation. In analytic geometry
we find that the locus of a point whose coordinates x, y are
connected by an equation

is a certain curve, the graph of the equation. In general,

any value whatever may be assigned to x, and the corre-
sponding value of y determined.

* That is, the number is the same as that rep-

representing the slope
resenting the abscissa. only in this sense that a ratio, such as
It is

the slope of a curve, can be equal to a length, such as the abscissa of a

point.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 291

If now we have given a differential equation of the

first order, and of the first degree in y\ i.e. a relation
between a;, «/, and y' of the form

(1) y'=F{x,y-),
it is clear that, in general, any values whatever may be
assigned to x and y provided we associate with them the
value of y' given by the equation. Thus, equation (1) is
satisfied by the coordinates of aiwj point (x, «/) provided
the point is moving in the proper direction. Starting with
any assumed initial position, and moving always in the
direction required by the given equation, the point de-
scribes a curve the values of a;, y, y' at any point of the
;

curve satisfy the differential equation. Further, since

the initial position is entirely arbitrary, it is clear that
the point may be made to describe any one of a family of
curves, the so-called integral curves. The equation of this
family is, of course, the general solution of the differ-
ential equation ; it contains, as it should, an arbitrary
parameter, viz., the constant of integration. The graph
of any particular solution is merely one of the family of
integral curves.
Example ; Interpret geometrically the differential equa-
tion
X dx +y dy = 0.

Writing the equation in the form

dy X
dx y
we see that the point Qx, y') must always be moving in a
direction perpendicular to the line joining it to the origin.
Its path is therefore any one of the family of circles with
center at the origin. This may
be verified by observing
that the general solution of the differential equation is

a^ + y2 _ g_
 292 CALCULUS

EXERCISES
In each of the following cases find the equation of the famil'
integral curves and draw several curves of the family.
0.*'^»»^^-'^^ ^--'''^'^''
1. y= 2. 2,' = 5.

>*\ 7. Find the differential equation of the family of circles throu§

\ the origin with centers on the a-axis. Ans. 2 ocyy'. = y^ — a;M

Ijl 8. Find the differential equation of the family of parabolas with .

I \foci at the origin and axes coinciding with the s-axis.

y 9. Interpret geometrically the equations in Exs. 9, 12, and 14, .

<p. 290. H
198. Separation of variables. In the remainder of this
chapter we show how to find the general solution of a*
differential equation of the first order in some of the
simpler cases.
Every differential equation of the first order, and of the
first degree in y\ can evidently be written in the form
J
Mdx + Ndy = 0,
where in general ilf and iVare functions of both x and y.
It is often possible totransform the equation so that ilf is
a function of x alone and iVis a function of y alone this ;

transformation is called separation of variables. When

the variables have been separated, the differential equa-
tion may be solved by a simple integration, as in the fol-

lowing
Example : Solve the equation
xy dx + (a?+ V)dy — 0.
After division by y(x^ + 1) the equation takes the
form
xdx ,dy_n
x^+l y
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 293

Integrating, we get

^ log (a? + l^ + log y = c,

or
log j/Va:^ = + 1 0,

yyJ^ +1 = 6",

y\a? + 1) = c\

where = c' e"".

II

^ Solve the following differential equations.

EXERCISES

•K
1. (1 + x)y rfs + (1 — y)x dy = 0. Ans. log {xy) + x --y = c.
2. y' = axy^ Ans. ax^y + cy + 2 = 0.
3. sin X cos y da = cos r sin y dy. Ans. co&y=ccosx.

aa; y —a
6 _dy___dx_
'
1 + y 1-x
6. (1 + 3;)y2 dx - a' dy = 0.

7. VI - y2da; + Vl - x^dy = 0. 4ns. xVl - y^ + y VI - a^ = c.

9. f?£=-cos2<.
dt

10. Show that the function

y = ce*

is the only function that is unchanged by differentiation.

11. Find a function whose first derivative is equal to the square of

the original function.* Interpret geometrically.

12. Determine the family of curves whose slope at any point is

equal to the product of the coordinates of the point. Find the curve
of this family that passes through the point (0, 1), and trace it.
13. A particle falls under gravity, the resistance of the air being
neglected. If the initial velocity is Vg, find v and x in terms of t.

* «f footnote,
. p. 290.
*2^4" CALCULUS
14. Determine the family of curves represented by the equation '^

dx
15.In Ex. 14, find the curve (a) that passes through (0, 0) (6); ;

that crosses the line a; = 1 at an angle of 45°. Trace these curves.

199. Coefficients homogeneous of the same degree. A<

polynomial in x and y is said to be homogeneous if all the
terms are of the same degree in x and y. More generally,r
any function of x and y is said to be homogeneous of the n-tM
degree if, when x and y are replaced by hx and hy respec-
tively, the result is the original function multiplied by k".
Thus the function
X + Va;^ — y^ -^ y log -
X
is homogeneous of the first degree.
If, in the equation
Mdx + Ndy = 0,

the coefficients iff and i\rare homogeneous functions of the

same degree, it is easily seen that the equation when solved
for y' takes the form

i.e. y' is a function of ^ alone. This suggests the substitu-

X
tion of a new variable v for the ratio ti ; i. e. the substitu-
^
tion
y = vx, dy = V dx + X dv.

This substitution always produces a differential equation

in Vand x in which the variables are separable.
Example : Solve the equation
(a; + y^dx — x dy = Q.
Substituting
y=vx, dy = V dx + X dv,
we find
(a; + vx~)dx — x(v dx + x dv) = 0,
or
dx — X dv = 0.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 295

The variables can now be separated :

dx
X
dv= 0,

log a; —V+c= 0,
or, since

V —^.
X
y= X log X -f- ex.

EXERCISES
Solve the following differential equations.

1. (x + y)y' + X — y= 0. Am. arctan ^ +- log {x^ + y^) ~ c.

X 2
2. (^2 + y^)dx — 2 xy dy = 0. Ans. x- - y^ = ex.

3. (xy - x^V-^ = y^. Ans. y = cei.

dx
4. x^dy + y' dx = 0.
6. x^dx + y^ dy = 0.
6. udv — vdu — y/u^ + v^ du = 0. Ans. u^ = c^+2cv.
7. xdx + V¥+l dy = 0.
8. 2 uf du + ('-2 _ 3 u^)dv = 0. 4n«. u' = ciu'' - v^).

„ dv
dx
10. Show that, if M and iV are homogeneous of the same degree,
the equation
Mdx + Ndy =0
can always be put in the form

11. Give a general proof of the fact that, in the problem of § 199,
the substitution y = ox always leads to an equation in which the
variables are separable.

>//OTO. Exact differentials. The differential of a function

^ oftwo variables x and y is given by formula (1) of

§164:
(V)
^
du = —dx + — dy.
-^
dx ay
296 CALCULUS

The quantity
(2) Mdx + Ndy
is called an exact differential if it is precisely the dif-
ferential of some function u. Thus, the quantity
xdy + ydx an exact differential, viz. d(xyy; on the
is

other hand, the quantity xdy — y dx is not an exact

differential.
If the quantity (2) is an exact differential, it appears
by comparison with (1) that there must exist a function
M such that
(3)
^ ^
—
dx
= M,

(4)
^ ^J!: = w.
^ sy
Differentiating (3) with respect to y and (4) with respect
to X, we find

dy dx dy dx dy dx

Equating values of and , by § 163, we get the

dy dx dx dy
relation
dM^dN
dy dx

as a necessary condition that (2) be an exact differential.

It can be shown that this condition is not only necessary
but sufficient : i.e. the quantity Mdx + Ndy is an exact
differential if and only if

dM^dN
dy
~ dx'

201. Exact differential equations. The equation

(1) Mdx + Ndy=Q
is called an exact differential equation ii its left member is

an exact differential.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 2S7

Since equation (1), when exact, has the form

du = 0,
its general solution is evidently
u = c.

While a general method can be given for finding the

function u, we shall consider only cases in which this
function is readily found by inspection.
202. Integrating factors.. If the equation
(1) Mdx + Ndy =
is not exact, its solution can still be put in the form
(2) u =o
by merely solving for the arbitrary constant. By dififer-

entiating (2) we obtain an equation of the first order that

is satisfied whenever (1) is satisfied : this equation must
therefore have the form

v(Mdx + J!fdi/}=0,
where v is in general a function of both x and y. Thus
for every differential equation * (1) there exists a function
V, called ai? integrating factor, whose introduction renders
the equation exact.
It can be shown that every differential equation has
not merely one, but infinitely many, integrating factors ;

nevertheless it is frequently impossible to find one of

them. In various cases, some of which will be considei-ed
presently, an integrating factor can be found by direct
processes ; in other cases it is best found by inspection.
should be noticed that in separating variables, as in
It

§ 198, we are really introducing an integrating factor.

Thus, in the example of that article, the integrating
factor is

K^ + 1)"
* Assuming the existence of the general solution. Cf. § 196.
 =
:

298 CALCULUS

Example : Solve the differential equation

xdy — y dx = Q.

If we note that the differential of ^

X
is — 3T
„ ^ , it

appears that — is an integrating factor in the present

instance
xdy-ydx ^^

y=
X
y = ex.

Other integrating factors are — (which merely sepa-

rates the variables), — ———-•

,

y^ 7? ± y^

J EXERCISES
J^ 1. Solve the above example by using each of the integrating
factors there mentioned, and compare the results.

2. Solve Ex. 1, p. 295, by means of an integrating factor.

Solve the following equations.

^ « x^ \
Z. xdy -{x + y)dx = Q. H- / ^'^ ^ U
Ov^* X^-vJ-**^ "^
4. (2x+2y)dx + (2x + y'')dy = 0. g
s 6. (x — y^) dx + 2 xy dy = 0.

6. xdy- ydx=(x^ + y^)dx. H - X^^^^^ Cx-^c)

7. {x + y + 1) dx +{x - y) dy = 0.

8. X dx -{ y dy + X dy — y dx = 0.
9. xy' = y + Va;2 — y^.

10. u{u + 2 v) du + («" - u2) dv = 0.

11. w—
ds s^

12. (sin y + 2x')dx + x cos y dy = 0.

J103. The linear equation. A differential equation of

the first order is said to be linear if it is of the first degree
in y and y'. Every such equation may evidently be
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 299

written in the form

(1) y'+Py=Q,
where P and Q are functions of x alone. We shall find
that the linear equation is of especial importance in the
applications.
Before undertaking to solve equation (1), let us con-
sider the special case
(2) y + Py = 0.

Here the variables are separable, and the solution may

be obtained at once :

^ + Pdx=Q,
y
whence
log y + \ P dx = o,

(3) ye^'"'^ = 0.
Now, differentiating (3), we get
e^P-^^dy + Pydx^^Q,
which shows that e^^^^ is an integrating factor for equa-
tion (2). But since $ is a function of x alone, it follows

that eJ^^"*^ is likewise an integrating factor for equation (1).

Examples : (a) Solve the equation
dy + 2ydx = x dx.'
'Here
P = 2, Cp dx = 2x, e^P'^ = e^-
Introducing the integrating factor e^, and integrating,
we find

ye^ = Cxe^ dx = l xe"^ — \e'^''+ c,

whence
y = ^x — \ + ee-^.
(i) Solve the equation
xy' — 7?— y = 0.

Writing this in the form

(4) dy — ^dx = x'^dx,

300 CALCULUS

we have
P = -i. CFdx=-logx,
whence
gSP dx _ g-logo: _ 1
X
by formula (5) of §44. Hence, dividing equation (4)
by X and integrating, we get
^= ixdx=—+o,
X *^ I
1y = ^-\-c'x.
204. Equations linear in /(y). The equation
(1) f'(.y')+Pf<iy~)=Q,
where P and Q are functions of x alone, is evidently
linear in /(«/), and may be solved by the method of the
preceding article.
An
equation not given directly in the form (1) may
sometimes be reduced to that form by a simple trans-
formation. In particular, this is always possible with the
equation
'^ + Py=Qy^.
dx
The process is as shown in the following
Example: Solve the equation

X y^
Let us write the equation in thp form

y'^dy + — da; = dx.

If we multiply through by 3, so that the first term be-
comes d(jy^), this equation is seen to be linear in y^ :

Zy^dy + ^dx=%dx.
X
Here
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 301

whence the solution of the equation is

EXERCISES
Solve the following equations.

1. -^ + y = X. Ans. y = x —~" 1 + ce-*.

ax .

2. (x + l)rfy-22/(fa;=(x + l)Sdx. J\ +\J(^- ^\^ -

Am. 2y = (a: + 1)1 + c(a; + l)^.
_
3. y' — xy = X. — - -

4. x-^ +(1 + x)y = e'. Arts. 2xye' = e^+c.

6. (x - 2y + 5)dx+(2x + i)dy = 0.

6. y' sin y + sin x cos y = sin x.

7. dy + y(l - xy^) dx = 0. Ans. —=

y2
x + + ce^.
2
--

8. 3y2y - 2^«= K + 1. Ans. y^ = ce^ -^x~ \.

9. -r- — g — kv. Solve in two ways.

10. —^ cos a; + w sin 2 = 1.

C?2

11. —
dx
+«
^
cos X = sin 2 x.

12. (1 + ^2) ^+ 3, = arctan x.

dx
*a dv
13. -— =— + !; cos t.
dt

14. (xj^^ -^ y^dx — x dy = Q.

16. 3y + (x + x!/2) dj, = 0.

dx
16. ydy + (xy^ — x)dx = 0. Solve in two ways.

17. xdy + (xe» - l)dx = 0.

205. Geometric applications. Many of the properties

of a curve depend not only on the coordinates x, y, but
on the slope y' as well. When a curve is defined by such
... /I X
302 CALCULUS

properties, the analytic expression of the given data leads

to a relation between x, y, and y' — in other words, to a
differential equation of the first order. The general
solution of this equation represents the family of "inte-
gral curves," as seen in § 197 ; in many cases additional
data are given that enable us to determine the constant of
integration.
Example : Find the equation of the curves whose
normal always passes through a fixed point.
Let us take the fixed point as origin of coordinates.

The slope of the normal at (a;, «/) is ; but since the

y ,

normal passes through the origin, its slope is ^- Hence

X
the differential equation of the required curves is

y' x"
or
xdx + y dy = 0.
Solving, we get
x^ -i- y^ = 0.
The only curves having the given property are circles
with center at the given fixed point.

EXERCISES
1. Find the equation of the curves whose subnormal is constant.
Draw the figure. (See Ex. 22, p. 32 ; cf. also Ex. 8, p. 31.)

2. Find the equation of the curves whose subtangent is constant

-
and equal
^ to a. Draw the figure.
° ,
=
Ans. y ce".

3. Determine the curves in which the normal at any point is

perpendicular to the radius vector (i.e. the line joining the point
to the origin).

4. Determine the curves in which the perpendicular from the

origin upon the tangent is equal to the abscissa of the point of
contact.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 303

6. Determine the curves in which the area inclosed between the

tangent and the coordinate axes is equal to a^.

6. Determine the curves such that the area included between the
curve, the coordinate axes, and any ordinate is proportional to the
-
ordinate. .

Ans. y = ce".

7. Find the curve of Ex. 6 that crosses the y-axis (a) at (0, 2 a) ;

(6) at an angle of 45°.

^
x-'N^ MISCELLAiraiOUS EXERCISES
Solve the following equations. |

1. 3^dy -(l + x^y)dx = 0. ^ ~ *^^ 8 J^'^

2. r —= 1 — v^. Solve in two ways. *

3. dy —
sin X dx = 2 y dx. 3
4. y dx + dy = y'^ dx. Solve in two ways. ,

h. {x-y)dx+(\-x-2y)dy = (i.
'^^*'i^'i'H
6. dy + x^y dx = 0. Solve in two ways.

7. ^
dv
dt
= a - cos kt. n) ru 0-1r — -4-
-*t.
^^^

8. —+ (log y — l}dx = 0. Solve in two ways.

y

9. —=l-v
dt
+ sml. 10. (x^ - 4: xy)dx + y^ dy = 0.

11. x^ -y- xy/x^ + yK 12. (I + x'^)dy - (1 + xy)dx = 0.

dx

13. — = a= - /fcV. 14. u^ = y - y.

 CHAPTER XXVI
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER

I. Introduction

206. General and particular solutions. Being given a

relation between «, y, and n arbitrary constants, say
(1) #(a;, t/,Ci, ...,<;„) =0,
us differentiate this relation n times in succession.
let,

The equations thus obtained form with the original

equation a set of n +l equations from which the n con-
stants may be eliminated. The result is a differential
equation of the w-th order,

(2) 4>(a;, 2/, y, -,«/<"') =0-

Conversely, corresponding to a differential equation of
the form (2), there exists in general a relation of the form
(1) which satisfies the differential equation. Equation
(1) is called the general solution of equation (2). Thus
the general solution o/" adifferential equation of the n-th order
involves n arbitrary constants.
It is understood that the general solution contains n
essential constants : i.e. that it cannot be replaced by an
equally general form containing a smaller number of con-
stants. Thus the equation

y = e.e^+«2
appears at first sight to contain two constants, but there
is really only one. For, writing the equation in the form

304
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER 305

and setiting
c^e"' = O,
we see that the equation
«/= Oe"
is equally general.
A particular solution one that is obtained from the
is

general solution by assigning particular values to one or

more of the arbitrary constants. Thus a particular solution
may contain any number of constants less than the
maximum number, n.
For example, it follows from Ex. 18, p. 50, that the
equation

is satisfied by the equation

x =A cos kt + £ sin kt,
where A and £ are arbitrary. Since the differential
equation is of the second order, the solution here given,
containing two constants, is the general solution. Par-
ticular solutions are
x= A cos kt,

X = A(cos kt + sin kt^,

a;= 2 sin kt,
x = 0,
etc.

207. Geometric interpretation. Given a differential

equation of the second order, and of the first degree in y",
y" =/(a;, y, «/')>
we may in general assign values at pleasure to x, y, and y',
and compute the corresponding value of y". The equation
is satisfied by the coordinates of any point (x, y^ moving
in any direction, provided its direction is ehan,ging at the
proper rate. Or, since the value of y", together with the
assumed value of y', determines the curvature of the path,
we may also say that the differential equation is satisfied
306 CALCULUS

by the coordinates of any point moving in any direction,

provided its patli has always the proper curvature.
The paths of the point (2;, y~) moving in the manner
just described are called, as in § 197, the integral curves
of the given differentia equation. The ordinary equation
of the family of integral curves is of course the general
solution of the differential equation ; since this solution
contains two arbitrary constants, or parameters, it follows
that the integral curves form a doubly -infinite system.
The point (a;, y') may start from any assumed initial
position in any direction hence through any point in the
;

plane there pass infinitely many integral curves.

The above discussion is readily extended to differential
equations of the third and higher orders.

EXERCISES
Find the differential equation whose general solution is as follows.
1. y = 0^ + c^e^. Arts, - y" 2 y' = 0.

2. 2/= cie" + c^e-'. V" " H "j^Ji, V" - 2 M ' -• «<

Z. y = Cjf + c^'. ^
-— —
4. y = ci sin x c^ cos x.
-\- Ans. y" +y= 0.

5. y = ci + c^ + x\ U" ~~ Si,

e. y = ci(l + xy + Cj.
Solve the following differential equations, and discuss the nature
of the integral curves. 1. .

7.y" = 0. Vj-CvX+1 8.y" = l. \\ - -^

9. y" = 6 X.
Y*
/^C.^**'* 10. y" = y'.
^^^^ .
^ Q.^

11. ^^ + y'T^ = a. (Cf Ex.

. 2, p. 78.)

12. Solve Ex. 8, (a) if the curve touches the line 3/ = 2 a; at (1, 2) ;

(i) if the curve passes through the points (1, 2), (3, 3) ;
(c) if the
curve passes through (1, 1) (rf) if the curve intersects the y-axis at
;

right angles. Draw the curve (or several of the curves) in each case.

13. Solve Ex. 9 for each of the cases of Ex. 12.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER 307

II. The Linear Equation with Constant

Coefficients
208. The linear equation. We
have already (§ 203)
defined the linear equation of the first order as an equa-
tion that is of the first degree in y and y' More gener- .

ally, a differential equation of the w-th order is said to be

linear if it is of the first degree in y, y', •-, y^^K Thus
every linear differential equation of the w-th order can be
vpritten in the form

where the coefficients p^, ••, p„ and the right member X

are functions of x.
In what follows, we shall be concerned entirely with the
important special case in which the functions pj, ••, p„ are
constants :

(1) y''^ + aiy"-"+ - +a„2/ =X

The homogeneous linear equation. A linear differ-
209.
ential equationwhose right-hand member is is said to

be homogeneous.* Thus the general form of the homo-

geneous linear equation with constant coefiicients is

(1) y») + ajt/C-" + - +«^ = 0.

This equation is important not only in itself but because
its must be determined before that of the non-
solution
homogeneous equation (1) of § 208 can be found.
If y = t/j is a particular solution of equation (1), then
y = CjT/j, where c^ is arbitrary, is also a solution, as ap-
pears at once by substitution in (1). Further, if y= y^
is a second particular solution,! then not only y = c^^
but also
y = <?iyi + ^2^2
* That is, it is homogeneous in y and its derivatives. See § 199.
t That is, a solution not of the form y = Ciyi.
308 CALCULUS

is a solution. Finally, if

y = Ci^v

y=o^n
are n distinct particular solutions, then

y = '^iyi + <>^i+ ••• +c„«/„

is a solution, and since it contains n arbitrary constants,
it is the general solution.
We proceed to show that the general solution of equa-
tion (1) can always be written down, provided a certain
algebraic equation of the w-th degree can be solved. The
theory will be developed in detail only for the equation
of the second order.
210. The characteristic equation. The homogeneous
linear equation of the first order, viz.,

y' + «iy = Oi

is evidently satisfied by
y = e""!^.
This suggests the possibility of determining m so that
y = e'^"

will be a solution of the equation

(1) y" + ay
+ a^=^0.
Substituting in (1) the values
y = e™*, y' = me"", y" mh"", =
and bracketing out the factor 6"% we find that the differ-
ential equation is satisfied, provided
(2) m^ + a-^m + osj = 0.
Equation (2) is called the characteristic equation* cor-
responding to (1). Thus
y — gmx
is a solution of equation (1) if and only if m is a root of

the characteristic equation.

* Also called the auxiliary equation.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER 309

211. Distinct roots. If the roots m-^, m^ of the char-

acteristic equation are distinct, we obtain at once two
distinct particular solutions of the differential equation,
viz.,
y = e"'t', y = e"*2"'.

Hence, by § 209, the general solution is

(1) y= CjC^i"' + Cje^s*.

Example : Solve the differential equation

y" -y>-2y = Q.

The characteristic equation is

m^ —m— 2 = 0,
whence ?w = 2 or — 1.

Thus the general solution of the given equation is

y = c.^e^+c^e-''.
212. Repeated roots. When the characteristic
equation
has equal roots, the method of the previous article does
not give the general solution. For, if Wj = wig, equation
(1) above becomes
y= e-^e^" + Cje"!^
= (Cj + G^e"^" = c'e'^" ;

hence the solution contains only a single constant, and is

a particular solution.
To find a second particular solution, let us try

y = xe'^^,
whence y' = ^^^(m-^x + 1),

y = e^^'^ijn-^x + 2 OTi).
Substituting in the differential equation, we find that

y = a;e"^*
will be a solution, provided

(1) {m^ + ajWij + a^x + 2 m^ + ^i

= 0.

Now the coefficient of x vanishes because m-^ is a root of

the characteristic equation. Further, since m-^ = m^, it
310 CALCULUS

follows that

% = -2'' a-.

or 2 mj + «i = 0-
Thus (1) holds, and y =xe"'^'' is a second particular
solution.
Therefore the general solution of the differential equa-
tion is
y = qe'"!'" + c^xe"^'".
Complex roots. If the characteristic equation has
213.
complex roots a ± z/3, the general solution takes the form

(1) = e"(cie»^^ + Cje"*^^.

Up to this point the exponential function has not been
defined for imaginary values of the exponent. If, however,
we expand e^'' formally in Maclaurin's series, and compare
with the series for sin x and cos x, we obtain the relation
(2) e" — cos X + i sin x.

In the theory of functions of a complex variable, this

formula is taken as the definition of the imaginary expo-
nential function.
By means of (2), the right member of (1) may be sim-
plified. For,

Whence (1) becomes

y = e°^[(ci + Cj) cos ^x -\- i{c^ — c^) sin ^x'],

or, if we place
''l + ^2 ^ ''l ' * v^l ^2/ ^^ '^2

and drop the accents,

(3) y = e'^{c^ cos ^x + c^ sin pjf) .

Changing again the meaning of Cj and c^, we may write

(3) in the form
y= Cje-^cosC^aj+Cg),
as is easily verified. This form is to be preferred in cer-
tain applications.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER 311

EXERCISES
Solve the following differential equations.
V 1. 2/"-5/ + 6y = 0. ^2.y" = y.

3. y'-5y = 0. 4. 6^
dx^
=^+
ax
y.

6. )/" + 3 y' = 0. 6. —= k^x.

7. ^ + A:J = 0. S. y" + ny' + 28y = 0.

9. y" — 4y' + iy = 0. Ans. y = c-^e'^ + c^xe^'.

10. ^=0. 11. 4^+4^ + r = 0.

12. 9 y" + 12 +4 y = 2/' 0. 13. y" -by' = f) y.

14. y" + 2y' + 5y=0. Ans. j/ = e-^(CiCos2x + CjSin 2 x).

16. 3/" -iy'+6y = 0. 16. g=- Px.

17. y+9 3/ = 0. 18. y" + 2y' + y = 0.

19. 8 2/" + 16 2/' + 9 2/ = 0.

20. Find the equation of a curve for which y" = y, if it crosses

the y-axis at right angles at (0, 1).

21. Find the equation of a curve for which y" = — y, ii it touches

the line y = x + 1 a,t (0, 1).

22. Determine the curves for which the rate of change of the slope

is equal to the slope.

23. In Ex. 22, find the curve that touches the line jr = 2 a; at the
origin. Ans. y = '2e'-2.

24. In Ex. 22, find the curves that cross the 2/-axis at 45°.
26. In Ex. 22, find the curve that passes through (0, 1) and ap-
proaches the negative 2-axis asymptotically.

26. Show that e^ = i, e''< = ~\, e^"' = 1.

27. Derive formula (2) of § 213 by comparison of the Maclaurin

series for e'", sin a;, and cos x.
28. Show that, if the characteristic equation has equal roots m^,
the equation
y" + a,?/' + Uj^y =
can be reduced to the form z" = by the substitution y = ze"'i', and
derive the result of § 212 from this fact.
 : ; ; ; ;

312 CALCULUS

214. Extension to equations of higher order. The the-

ory of §§ 210-213 is readily extended to equations of
higher than the second order. give the results with- We
out proof
Let there be given a differential equation
(1) y'»' + ai2/("-" + ... +a„y=(i.

(a) If the roots Wj, Wg, .•., ?w„ of the characteristic

equation
m" + aim"~^+ ... + a„ =
are all distinct, the general solution of (1) is

y = c^e'"'^ + e^e^^ + ••• + e„e"'»^.

(S) Corresponding to a double root m^, the terms in the
general solution are
y = Cje™!^ + Cjaje™'''

corresponding to a triple root,

y = c^e™.^ + c^xe"'^'' + CgA"^^
etc.
(e) A pair of complex roots a ± i^ give rise to the
terms
y= e»^(cj cos ySx + Cg sin ^x)
a pair of double roots a ± i/3 give rise to the terms

y = e'^(cj cos ^x + Cj sin ^x + c^x cos ^x + c^ sin ^x)

etc.
EXERCISES
Solve the following equations.
1. y'"-7y' +6y = 0. 2. y'" = 4 y'.

3. y" = !/" + 6 y'. 4. yW _ 12 y" + 27 y = 0.

5. f?^+2^-2^-y = 0.
dx* dx' dx
Ans. y = c^e" + c^e * + CgXe * + C4A"*.
6. y'" = 0. 7. ^(« - 2 3^" + y = 0.

10. 2/'" - 6 y" + 13 3/' = 0. Ans. y = Cj + e»'(c2 cos 2 + a; c^ sin 2 1).

11. ^^ = x.
A'
12. ^ + 4^ =
dx^ dx
0.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER 313

13. y«) - 4 y'" + 14 y" - 20 y' + 25 y = 0.

14. y'" + 3 3/" + 3 y' + = 0.!/ 15. y"' -2 y" - y' + 2 y = 0.

16. Prove the results of § 214 for the equation of the third order.

215. The non-homogeneous linear equation. Let us con-

sider now the non- homogeneous linear equation

(1) y^"> + a,f'^''^+...+a^ = X.

In solving this equation, the first step is to write down
the general solution

of the homogeneous equation obtained from (1) by making

the right member 0. The quantity is called the comple- T
mentary function.
The next step is to obtain, by any means whatever, a
particular integral of (1),
y = y-
Then the equation
y= Y + y
is a solution of (1), as appears at once by substitution,
and since it contains n arbitrary constants, it is the gen-

eral solution.
Various methods are known for finding the particular
solution -
y = y-

The method given below, though not entirely general, is

usually the best method when it applies, and it is avail-

able in nearly all cases that arise in the simpler appli-
cations.
We begin with an
Example : Solve the equation

(2) t/" -5i/' +6t/ =x+ e^'.

The complementary function, i.e. the solution of the

equation

is
Y = c^e^" -f G^e^.
 :

314 CALCULUS

To obtain a particular integral .of (2)', proceed as follows:

Differentiating twice, we obtain
(3) «/(4) _ 5 yni
+ 6 y" = 4 e^.
'

Differentiating again, we get

(4) 2/(5) _ 5 yii) + 6 y'" = 8 eK
Multiplying equation (3) by 2 and subtracting from (4),
we get the homogeneous equation
2^(5) _ 7 yii) + 16
y"i - 12 y" = 0.
(5)
It is easily seen that the complementary function T
forms part of the solution of this equation ; hence two of
the roots of the characteristic equation
m5 - 7 m* + 16 ot3 - 12 ?w2 =
are m= 2, 3. The other roots are 2, 0, 0. Thus the
general solution of (5) is

(6) y= c^e^'' 4- c^e^'' + Cj + o^x + c^ xe^^.

Let us substitute y in the original equation as a trial

solution, noting, however, that theterms arising from the
complementary function must disappear identically after
the substitution, so that it is sufficient to substitute*

(7) 2/ = <?3 + «4^ + H^^^''-

We have , , o •>...•>,

y" = 4: c^xe^" + 4 Cgg^^.

Substituting in (2), we find that (7) will be a particular

integral provided the equation
4 Cgaje^^ + 4 c^e^ — 5 e^ — 10 e^xe^"
— 6 + 6 Cg + 6 c^a; + 6
c^e'^'' c^xe'^'' = x + e^'
holds identically — i.e. for all values of x. The terms in
x^'' destroy each other. Equating coefficients of the other
functions, we find the following :

Coefficients of e^"' : 4 Cg — 5 = Cg 1.

Coefficients of a; 6 c^ = 1.

Constant terms : — 5 c^ + 6 Cj = 0.

* That is, we place, temporarily, ci = cj = 0.

 : ;

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER 315

This gives
"s =— 1, ^4 =f 1 '^3~36'

Substituting in (6), we get as the general solution of (2)

Thus the method consists of the following steps

(a) Write down the complementary function.
(J) Differentiate both members of the given equation
successively until the right member becomes 0, either
directly or by elimination. The original equation is thus
replaced by a derived homogeneous equation of higher order
(equation (5) in the example).
(c) Write down, by § 214, the general solution (equa-
tion (6) above) of this derived equation. The comple-
mentary function will always be a part of this solution, so
that certain of the roots of the characteristic equation are
known beforehand ; these should be removed at once by
synthetic division.
(d) Of the arbitrary constants occurring in this general
solution, those belonging to the complementary function
(cj, above) will remain arbitrary in the final result
Cj

they maytherefore be placed temporarily equal to 0, since

we are trying to find merely a particular solution of the
original equation. The other constants, the so-called
superfluous constants, are determined by substituting the
value of j/ in the original equation as a trial solution and
equating coefficients.
It is clear that the success of the method depends on our
ability to reduce the right-hand to member
by differen-
tiation and elimination, as in the above example. Hence
JTand its successive derivatives must contain only a finite
number of distinct functions of z- The method therefore
applies whenever ^contains only constants or terms of the
form X", e"", sin" ax, cos" ax, or products of these, n being
a positive integer.
 316 . CALCULUS

EXERCISES
1. Check the result of the above example by differentiation.
Solve the following equations.
2. y" -7 y' -^12y = X. Ans. y = c-^e^ + c^^ + ^-^ x + ^1^.
3. y" -oy' + Qy = e*^. Ans. y = Cyc'^ + c^e^ + \ e*'.
"
4. y" +y = cos2x. A -r c, -^^^ >. -•' -i-"^ "~ '^

6. y" ~5y' + iy=2x-S. U-. C^"*- *- ^'^ "^ -^

\-y'=(l + xy. vO-- aj+t-afl-'^^-X^-j

7. —= = ens
cos t
i ~
— X.
dfl

8. y" — 5 y' + 6y = cos a; — e^. ^ns. ^ = Cje^ + 026'* + ^^ cos x

— fj sin K + xe^'.
9. ^+ 4x = sin3«+ (2.

Ans. X = CjOos 2 « + C2sin 2t — J sin 3f +J t^ — \.

10. y — 2y' + y = a;e*. jlras. !/ = 6=^(05 + £22 + ^a;').
11. y + !/= 1 + 2cos«.
12. —^ + "a = X sin a;.
dx^
Ans. y = c-^ cos a; + Cj sin a; —J a;'' cos x -\-\x sin x.

14. —-— u=0. .(4ns. « = Ju^ + CiU + Co.

16. y'" - Zy" + 2y = 3a:-4.

16. y -2y" + y' = e'. Ans. y z= a + €'(0^ + c^x + Ja;^).

17. y' +-y = e^.

a;

18. yi-y^^L.
X
19. Prove the statement that the complementary function corre-
sponding to the original equation is always a part of the solution of
the derived homogeneous equation.

, /III. Miscellaneous Equations op the Second

./ Order
216. The equation y" =/(Jc)- In this section we con-
sider various classes of equations of the second order which
can be solved by special devices.
 :

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER 317

The simplest case is thab in which the second derivative

is a function of the independent variable :

y" =/(^)-
This equation can be solved directly by two successive
integrations. In fact, it is obvious that the equation

can be solved by n successive integrations.

217. The equation y" =f(jf). An equation in which the
second derivative is a function of the dependent variable,

y" =Ky')^
can always be rendered exact by introducing the integrat-
ing factor 2 y' dx in the left member, and its equivalent
2 dy in the right member
2y'y"dx = 2Ky-)dy.
Integrating, we find

y'^=^Jf(.y^dy + o^.
After extracting the square root of both sides, we have a
differential equation of the first order, and of the first
degree in y', in which the variables can be separated.
Example : Solve the equation

y" = h-
Multiplying through by 2 y' dx, we get

2 y'y" dx = —^,
whence

y'

y
318 CALCULUS

Separating variables, we have

y^y =dx.
± ^c^y^ - 1
whence
± V(?i2/^ — 1 = CiO; + Cj,
HV^ - 1 = C^i^: + (''if-
218. Dependent variable absent. An equation of the
second order in which the dependent variable y does not
occur is an equation of the first order in y' it may there-;

fore be solved for y' by the methods of Chapter XXV.

The result is of course an equation of the first order in t/,

which in turn may

be solved for y.
The problem of § 216 is evidently a special case of the
present one.

Example :
 :

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER 319

219. Independent variable absent. An equation of the

second order from which the independent variable x is
absent ma,y be written as an equation of the first order in
the variables y and v by putting

dv d^u dv
dx da? dy

The truth of this last formula is obvious :

(P'y _dv _ dr dy _ dv^

_

dap dx dy dx dy

should be noted that the problem of

It § 217 is merel}''

a special case of the present one.

Example : Solve the equation

y" = yy>.
With
dv
y'I = i>.
II
y" = V—-,
this becomes
dv
dy
or
dv = y dy,
JJ = 1^f + Cj
«/2
^v
Whence
2dy__ dx,
y^ + -2c 1

and, if Cj > 0,
—2 arctan —^=
u
=x + o„.

V
This may be simplified by writing ^ in place of Cj

—2 arctan ^V = x-V c^-

320 CALCULUS

EXERCISES
Solve the following equations.

1.
 :

- ' CHAPTER XXVII .

APPLICATIONS b^ DI^^ENTIAL EQUATIONS IN

MECHANICS

I. Rectilinear Motion

220. Rectilinear motion. Consider a point P moving in

a straight line : for instance, the centroid of a falling
body, of the piston of a steaha en- q p
gine, or of a train running on a
'

» x- <
'
^
straight track. The position of the *"''^- ^^i ,

point at any instant determined by its abscissa OP = x,

is

counted from an arbitrarily chosen origin on the line, a

definite sense along the line being selected as positive.
As the point moves, its abscissa a; is a function of the
time

If this function is known, the motion of the point is com-

pletely determined. The velocity v is found as the first

derivative — , and the acceleration/ as the second deriv-

ative -— , of the abscissa x with respect to the time (see

§55).
In most applications, however, it is the converse prob-
lem that presents itself. Thus, the velocity may be given
as a function of t or a; or both, say

so that in order to determine the position of the point at

any time it is necessary to solve this differential equation
Y 321
322 CALCULUS

of the first order. Or, and this is the most common case,
the acceleration may be given as a function of t, x, and v
(or of any one or two of these), say

(1)
S=-^^*'^''^-
The abscissa x is found in terms of t by solving this
differential equation of the second order.
It sliould be noted that when the acceleration (or the
velocity) is given, the motion is not completely determined
unless " initial conditions " are also given by means of
which the constants of integration can be determined.
221. Motion of a particle under given forces. Suppose
the " point " whose motion was discussed in the preceding
article is a material particle moving under given forces.
If the particle is free to move in any direction, the motion
will be rectilinear only if the resultant F of all the applied
forces lies same straight line with the initial
in the
velocity. The product of the mass by the acceleration is
equal to the resultant force, by § 187. If we multiply
both members of equation (1) above by m, and write
F(t, X, v') in place of mf(t, x, v), that equation takes the
form

This equation and equation (1) of § 220 are mathematically

equivalent, since one is a mere constant multiple of the
other. The difference -lies in the physical meaning of the
quantities involved.
It should be noted that the term " particle " as here used
does not mean necessarily a mere mass-point. The
" particle " may be a body of any size or shape, provided
that all the forces acting may be regarded as applied at a
single point, and that the motion of one point determines
the motion of the whole mass, as in the case of a rigid
body moving without rotation.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS' 323

222. The equation of motion. The equation

(1) m^ = F{t,x,v:,,
or its equivalent

(2)
S= /(^^''')'

iscalled the equation of motion. It follows from what has

been said that the rectilinear motion of a particle is
determined by the equation of motion together with the
initial conditions.
In each problem there are in general three steps first, :

to write the equation of motion second, to solve this ;

equation, determining the constants of integration in

accordance with given initial conditions ; tliird, to in-
terpret the results.
When the forces acting are given, the equation of
motion can be written at once : we have only to equate

fn,—^ to the sum of the components of the forces in the di-

rection of motion.
In the most general case, the equation of motion may be
expressed as a differential equation of the second order in
X and t by substituting
dx
dt

Special cases, however, are common. If the force is a

function of t only, the method of § 216 evidently applies.
If jF is a function of t and v, we may use the method of

§ 218, writing
,„. d^x _ dv
^^ l^~l[t
If J' is a function of x and v, the method of § 219 applies :

in this case, since

d?x _dv _dv dx
dt^ dt dx dt
324 CALCULUS

we substitute

We shall find that in many cases a variety of methods

may be used.
In any problem we may desire to know the position of
the particle at any time, the velocity at any time, and the
velocity at any position. We should therefore try to
obtain three equations, giving * a; in terms of t, v in terms
of t, and V in terms of x, respectively. The (a;, t)-equation
is of course obtained by solving the equation of motion
(1) (or (2)) as an equation in x and t, and determining
the constants. The (t), ^) -equation may be found by
differentiation of the (.-e, ^)-equation, after which the
(w, 2;)-equation may be obtained (theoretically at least)
by eliminating between the other two. If it is possible
t

to and apply the method of § 218, the

introduce (3)
(t), i)-equation' results directly from the first integration ;

if formula (4) and § 219 can be used, the (i>, a;)-equation

is obtained directly.
Uniformly accelerated motion.
223. motion is said to A
be uniformly accelerated if the applied force, and hence the
acceleration, is constant (cf. § 55). If the constant ac-
celeration be aenoted by k, the equatito of motion is

simply

A^
"
^>r "

^=
d^x
,

^ 1.
\.
dt^

BXERCISES
Write the differential equation of uniform rectilinear motion
(§ 55), and find x in terms of t, v in terms of t, and v in terms of i,
if a; = 2 and u = 4 when t = 0. Solve the equation of motion in three
ways, by the methods of §§ 212, 216, and 219, and obtain the (u, ()
equation and the (u, a;)-equation in each of the ways suggested in
§ 222. Draw the graph of each equation.

* Explicitly if possible.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 325

2. Solve Ex. 1 if a; = 10 when = t 5 and x = 22 when t = 9. Find

the values of x and v when t = 0.

3. The velocity of a particle at the time t is

V = 6t- 5.

Find (a) the acceleration ;

(i) the space covered in 4 seconds ;
(c) the
velocity when a; = 6 (x being measured from the starting point).
Describe the motion in words.
4. The velocity of a particle at the distance x from the starting
point is
V = Va; + 10.
Find x in terms of t; also find the acceleration.

5. A particle falls under gravity, all resistances beiijg neglected.

Write the equation of motion, taking motion downward as positive,

and solve it by three methods. Explain the meaning of the con-
stants of integration.
6. Determine the constants of integration in Ex. 5 if the particle
from rest, the starting point being taken as origin. Draw the
falls

graph of the (z, t)- and (u, ()-equations, noting that the latter is the
first derived curve of the former (§ 35).
7. (a) Solve Ex. 5 if the initial velocity is 10 ft. per second up-
ward. (6) How and how long does the particle rise ?
far (c) Find
V and t when the particle is 20 ft. below the starting point.
A)is. (c) u = 87.1 ft. per second.

8. Solve Ex. 5 if a; = when t = 1 and x = 100 when t = 3.

10
Does the particle at first move upward or downward ? Find the ve-
end of 1 second.
locity at the Ans. 13 ft. per second.
9. dropped from a balloon while ascending at the rate
If a stone
of 20 ft. per second reaches the ground in 10 seconds, what was the
height of the balloon when the stone was dropped ? With what ve-
locity does the stone strike the ground V

10. Solve Ex. 5 if the velocity 2 ft. below the starting point is
23 ft. per second. If the starting point is 500 ft. above the earth's

surface, when and with what velocity does the particle reach the
earth ? ' Ans. « = 5 or 6J seconds.
11. Show that the velocity acquired by a body falling from rest
through a height h is
v=\/2 gh.
Derive the formula in two ways.
12. A body falls 50 ft. in the third second of its motion. Find the
initial velocity.
 :

326 CALCULUS
13. A body falls under gravity. Find tlie distance covered in
6 seconds if at the end of 2 seconds the distance below the starting
point is 81 ft.

14. The motion of a railroad train is uniformly accelerated. If

when the train is 2.50 ft. from a station the velocity is 30 ft. per
second, when 600 ft. from the station it is 40 ft. per second, find the

acceleration, and the velocity when passing the station.

Ans. Oq = 20 ft. per second.

16. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the top of a tower.

At the end of 2 seconds it is 400 ft. above the ground, and is still

rising, with a velocity of 10 ft. per second. Find the height of the
tower. .^ Ans. 316 ft.

16. A stone thrown upward from the top of a tower with a velocity
of 100 ft. per second reaches the ground with a velocity of 140 ft. per
second. Discuss the motion. What is the height of the tower?
Ans. 150 ft.

224. Momentum ; impulse. When a particle of mass m

is moving with a velocity v, the product mv of the mass
by the velocity is called the momentum of the particle.
When a particle moves under a constant force F from
the time t^ to the time t^, the product ^(^j — ig) of the
force by the time during which it acts is called the impulse
of the force for that time-interval. More generally, if

F from instant to instant, let us divide the time

varies
from tg to into n equal intervals A^, multiply each At
t-i

by the value of F at the beginning (or any other instant)

of the interval, and form the sum of the products thus
obtained. The limit of this sum, as A^ approaches 0, is
the impulse of the variable force F during the interval
from to <j
ifl

1= lim
A'->-0
y FAt = C'Fdt.

225. The principle of impulse and momentum. Let us

write the equation
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 327

ill tlie form

Multiplying by lit and integrating from the time t^, when

tlie velocity is c^, to thetime ^ when the velocity is v. we
tind

A.
By § :2i!4, the left member of (1) is the change of
momentum in the time-interval from to the right t^^ t-^,

member is the impulse of the force F. Hence we have

the
Theorem: If ii partidt- moi'es in a straight U)u\ the
change of momentum in any time-interval is equal to the
impulse oftheforee Jurinif that interval.
This theorem will be referred to as the principle of
impulse and momentum.
It should be observed that what we have really done
here is to tind a first integral of the equation of motion
by tlie method of § 218. Since the force F is always
either directly or indirectly a function of t, the above
theorem is true in general; but in order actually to com-
pute the impulse directly in a given case, the force must
of course be given explicitly as a function of t :

F=F(^t^.
If the force F is constant, equation (^1) becomes simply
mv — mv^ =Ft — Ft^.
226. Work. When a particle moves in a straight line
under the action of a constant force F. the work done is
defined as the product of tlie force by the distance passed
over :

Tr = Fj:
When the force is variable, we proceed as follows:
Take the line of motion as .r-axis, and suppose the body
moves from j- = a to .r = b. Divide the interval into
328 CALCULUS

segments Ax, and multiply each segment Ax by the value

of -F at some point of Ax. The limit of the sum of the
products thus obtained is defined as the work of the vari-
able force during the motion :

W
227. The principle of kinetic energy and work. Let us
write the equation
cPx J,

in the form
dv -r,

dx
Multiplying by dx and integrating between the ai-limits
Xq and a; and the corresponding v-limits v^ and v, we find

(1) §m.^-|m.o^=X; Fdx.

By § 135, the quantity | mv^ is the kinetic energy of
the particle, hence the left member of (1) is the change
in kinetic energy from x^ to x. By § 226, the right
member is the work done during the motion. Hence we
have the
Theorem :
If a f article moves in a straight lin^, the
change of kinetic energy in any space-interval is equal to the

work done by the force in that interval.

This the principle of kinetic energy and work.
is

Here we have merely applied to the equation of motion

the method of § 219. In order to compute the work
directly, the force must of course be given explicitly as a
function of x :

F=F(x).
If the force is constant, equation (1) reduces to
1 mv"^ — ^ mv^ = Fx — Fxq.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 329

EXERCISES
1. Verify the principle of impulse and momentum in Exs. 7, 8,

p. 325.

2. "Verify the principle of kinetic energy and work in Exs. 7, 8,

p. 325.

3. Solve Ex. 14, p. 326, by the principle of kinetic energy and work.
4. Solve Ex. 15, p. 326, by the principles of §§ 225, 227.
5. A
ball of mass 5J oz. strikes a bat with a velocity of 12J ft.
per second, and returns in the same line with a velocity of 32 ft. per
second. If the blow lasts -^^ second, what force is exerted by the
batter? Ans. 9 lbs.

6. A ball of mass 5j oz. moving at 50 ft. per second is caught and

brought to rest in a distance of 6 in. What is the average pressure
on the hand? Ans. 26 lbs.

^^ 228. Constrained motion. The motion of a body some-

times depends on other conditions than the given forces.
Thus, the piston of a steam engine can move only along
the cylinder, a body sliding down an inclined plane can-
not fall through the plane, etc. The motion in such
cases is said to be constrained.
In the case of constrained motion, let the applied force
be resolved into components along, and at right angles to,
the path. The component in the direction of motion is the
" effective force " ; the motion is due entirely to this com-
ponent, and hence it is Only this component that appears in
the equation of motion. For example, when a particle
slides down a smooth inclined plane, the effective forOe
is the component of gravity parallel to the plane.*
Further, it is evident that, in the definitions and
theorems of §§ 224-227, the force must be taken as F
merely the effective component. The component normal
to the path cannot do work, or contribute to a change
of momentum.
» The motion is supposed to take place along a "line of greatest

slope " — i.e. a line at right angles to a horizontal line in the plane.
330 CALCULUS

EXERCISES
1. Write the equation of motion down an inclined plane, and solve
it in a variety of ways. Explain the meaning of the constants.
Determine the constants in Ex. 1 if the angle of inclination
2.

to the horizonis 30°, and the initial velocity is (a) 0; (//) 10 ft. per

second up the plane. In (b), how far and how long will the body
move up the plane ? Arts, (b) 3| f t.

3. A bead is strung on a smooth straight wire inclined at 45° to

the horizontal. What initial velocity must the bead be given to
raise it to a vertical height of 10 ft.?

4. A railroad train is running up a grade of 1 in 200 at the rate

of 20 miles per hour when the coupling of the last car breaks. Fric-
tion being neglected, (a) how far will the car have gone after 2 min-
utes from the point where the break occurred ? (b) When will it be-
gin moving down the grade ? (c) How far will be behind the train
it

at that moment? (d) If the grade extends 1500 ft. below the point
where the break occurred, with what velocity will it arrive at the
foot of the grade? Ans. (a) 2360 ft.; (J) 3 minutes 2 seconds;
(c) 2670 ft. ;
(d) 25 miles per hour.

6. Show that it takes a body twice as long to slide down a plane

of 30° inclination as it would take to fall through the " height " of
the plane.
6. Show that in sliding down a smooth inclined plane a body ac-
quires the same velocity as in falling vertically through the height
of the plane.

7. A mass of 12 lbs. rests on a smooth horizontal table. A cord at-

tached to this mass runs over a pulley on the edge of the table ; from
the cord a mass of 4 lbs. is suspended. Discuss the motion. If the
12 lb. mass is originally 5 ft. from the edge of the table, find when
and with what velocity it reaches the edge. Check by the principles
of §§ 225, 227.

8. A cord hangs over a vertical pulley and carries equal weights

of 10 lbs. at each end. If a 1-lb. weight be added at one end, discuss
the motion of the system. Find vwhen the system has moved 6 ft.

\ 229. Simple harmonic motion. If a point P moves in

a circle with constant angular velocity a>, the motion of
the projection P^ of P on a diameter of the circle is

called simple harmonic motion. As P moves in the circle /

 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 331

uniformly, P^ oscillates from A through to B and back

again.
p
Suppose P^ is at A at the time y^ 7\
< = 0.Then in time t the angle / ^/ i \
AOP swept out by the radius \ /^^ \ \
^
vector of P
is equal to o)*, hence ^BT o 1'^ jA
the distance x of P^ from is \ /
(1) x= a cos a>t, ^~^__—^'^
'"' '"^
where a is the radius of the circle.
If when t=0 the point P is not at A, but at some
point P' such that the angle AOP' is equal to e, the
equation (1) is evidently replaced by
(2) x =a cosQat + e').

The abscissa x is called the displacement of P^;

the maximum displacement a is the amplitude of the
motion.
The time of completing one whole oscillation from A
to B and back is called the period; it is evidently equal
to the time required for P to make one complete revolu-
tion, and is therefore
2 IT

CO

The number of oscillations per unit time is called the

frequency ; it is obviously the reciprocal of the period :

1 0)

The angle at + e is called the phase-angle, or simply the

phase, of the motion.
Differentiating (2), we get the velocity

v= —=
dx
— am sm
CLZr
•

(a>t + e),
and the acceleration

(3) y = --| = -00)2 cos («t + e).

 332 CALCULUS

Combining (2) and (3), we may write the acceleration

in the form
^ — (o'x :

i.e. the acceleration is proportional to the displacement, and

is always directed opposite to it.

\, 230. Attraction proportional to the distance. If a particle

moves in a straight line under the action of a force directed
toward a fixed point in the line of motion, and propor-
tional to the distance xfrom that point, the equation of
motion can evidently be written in the form

(1) m —- = — mJc^x,
dt^
where A is a constant, the minus sign being chosen be-
cause the force is always directed opposite to the displace-
ment X. The fixed point toward which the force is

directed is called the center offorce.

Integrating equation (1) by the method of § 213, we get

a; = Cj cos.^i + c^ sin kt,

whence
V = — = — ^Cisin kt+ kc,^ cosM.
^
dt
Take v = and x= a when < = 0. Then
 ;

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 333

231. Hooke's law. When a spiral steel spring of length

AO=l is stretched to a length AP = + x, I the tension
in the spring, or the force tending to restore it to its
natural length, is proportional to the extension x. This
law, known as Sooke's law, is obeyed very closely (pro-
vided the extension is not too great) by all so-called elastic

materials.
Suppose a steel spring of negligible mass is placed on
a smooth horizontal table with one end fast at A. Let
the natural length of the
spring he AO=l. A par- ^|
i
9 ^ q„
tide 01 mass m
,
attached
Fia. 103
• 1
to the free drawn
end is

out to the position P and then released. The only force

acting is the tension in the spring, which by Hooke's law
is directed toward the position of equilibrium and is

proportional to the distance from 0. If the spring offers

the same resistance to compression as to extension, it fol-

lows from § 230 that the particle performs simple harmonic

oscillations about 0. The equation of motion is
d^X 7 2

dt^
Of course if the resistance to compression is not the
same as to extension, a different equation comes into play
as soon as the particle passes through 0.

EXERCISES
1. In. the problem of simple harmonic motion, trace the curves
showing X, o, and j as functions of t, remembering that the graph of u is

the derived curve, the graph of j the second derived curve, of

first

the graph of x. Take a = 1, <i) = 2, e = 0.

2. Show that, if x performs periodic oscillations as in § 229, v and
j do likewise. Prove the following from the equations of § 229, and
verify by the curves of Ex. 1 the periods of all three are the same
:

the amplitude of u is <d times that of x, the amplitude of j is m times

that of v; in phase, v differs from a; by ^ and 7 differs from « by ^-
334 CALCULUS
3. In the problem of § 230, obtain the (u, a;)-equatioil by two
methods. Ans. v=±wVa''—x^.
4. A particle has simple harmonic motion. Proceeding from
equation (1) of § 230, find x in terms of t, v in terms of t, and v in
terms of a;, if v = Wq and x = when t = 0.
5. Show directly from equation (2) of § 230 that the particle

performs periodic vibrations about the center, and find the amplitude
and the period. Find when and where the velocity is a maximum,
and find the magnitude of the maximum velocity.

6. A steel spring offering the same resistance to compression as

to extension is placed on a smooth horizontal table with one end
fixed. The spring is stretched to a length 6 in. greater than the
natural length and then released. Discuss the subsequent motion of
a mass attached to the free end. Take k^ = 4. Find the period.
Ans. T = ir seconds.
7. In Ex. 6, find the work done by the force in a quarter-oscilla-
tion. Check by the theorem of § 227.
8. Work Ex. 6 if the steel spring is replaced by a rubber band of
natural length 1 ft. Ans. T= 7.14 seconds.

9. In Exs. 6 and 8, discuss the effect of increasing the con-

stant P.

10. Work Ex. 8 if /fc2 = 512. Ans, T= 0.6 second.

j_j 11. A
rubber band of natural length AB = l is suspended
vertically with a weight attached. The effect of the weight
is to stretch the band to a length AO = + I h. The weight
is given a displacement OP = a and then released. Write
the equation of motion and solve it completely. Show that
the particle performs simple harmonic oscillations about 0,
provided a<_h.
12. Solve Ex. 11 if a > I.
13. In Ex. 11, find in two ways the work done by the
forces as the particle moves from P to 0.
14. In Ex. 11, the weight is let fall from a height ft

above B. Determine the greatest extension of the rubber

band.
15. A bead is strung on a smooth straight wire, and is
Fig. 104
attached by a rubber band of very short natural length to a
]ioint in the perpendicular bisector of the wire. Taking the wire as
axis of y, show that, if gravity can be neglected, the equation of
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 335

motion of the bead is approximately

Discuss the motion completely.

16. A
particle is acted upon by a force of repulsion from a point
proportional to the distance from 0. Neglecting gravity, write the
equation of motion and solve it completely, taking x = and u =Uo
when t = 0. Discuss the solution.

17. In Ex. 16, find the work done in the first 10 ft. of the motion.
Check by the principle of kinetic energy and work.
18. In Ex. 16, find the impulse of the force during the first

second. Check by the principle of impulse and momentum.

19. It is shown in the theory of attraction that the attraction of a
spherical mass on a particle within the mass is directed toward the

center of the sphere and is proportional to the distance from the

center. Discuss the motion of a particle moving in a straight tube
through the center of the earth, if the velocity at the surface is 0.
Determine the proportionality constant from the fact that the force
k'''

at the surface is — mg.

20. In Ex. 19, how long does it take the particle to pass through
the earth? .4ns. 42 J minutes.
21. A straight tube is bored through the earth connecting two
points of its surface. Show that the equation of motion of a particle
sliding in this tube is

—
m rf% =
dt^
- mq
—^
R
X,

where R is the radius of the earth and x is the distance of the particle
from the midpoint of the tube. Discuss the motion. Show that
the time of passing through such a tube is independent of the posi-
tion of the endpoints.

II. Plane Curvilinear Motion

232. Rotation. In discussing circular motion, it is

usually convenient 'to take as dependent variable the

angle 6 swept out in the time t.

The problem of uniformly accelerated circular motion

(§ 58) is closely analogous to that of uniformly accelerated
336 CALCULUS

rectilinear motion. The equation of motion is evidently

where k is the constant angular acceleration.

233. The simple pendulum. A simple pendulum is a
point swinging in a vertical circle under the acceleration

Q of gravity.

/j^. Let P be a particle of mass m

V\ connected to the point by a cord
X\ or rod of length I, and denote by
\ ^s^ 6 the angle between OP and the
\f/^
vertical, by s the length of the arc
-'^ AP. The effective force acting on
% P is the component of gravity tan-
^°- -^"^
gent to the circle ; since this is

directed opposite to «, it must be given the minus sign.

The equation of motion of P is therefore
(1) m— = -mg sin 6.

But
s = ie,
so that (1) may be written

(2) inl—-- = —mq sin 6.

A first integration of (2) can be performed, by the
method of § 219 ; the general solution, however, cannot
be expressed in terms of elementary functions. We shall
therefore consider only the case in which the oscillations
are so small that sin 6 may be replaced by 6 (see § 156),
and (2) written in the form

(3) toZ— = - mgd.

This equation shows that for small oscillations the
motion is approximately simple harmonic. The remainder
of the discussion is left to the student.
 :

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 337

EXERCISES
Write the equation of uniform circular motion, and solve it in a
1.

variety of ways, explaining the meaning of the constants. Exhibit

the results graphically.

2. Proceed as in Ex. 1 for uniformly accelerated circular motion?

3. A wheel is making 400 R. P. M. when a resistance begins
to retard its motion at the rate of 10 radians per second. When
will it come to rest? How many revolutions will it make before
stopping ?

4. Solve equation (.3), § 233, taking 6 = ^^and u = when « = 0.

For convenience, put 2 = ic-.

6. Show that, in the problem of the simple pendulum, the time of

one swing or beat is

6. Find the length of the " seconds pendulum " — i.e. a pendulum
making one swing per second —
at a place where g = 32.17.
Ans. 3.2595 ft.

7. Find the angular velocity m in terms of if the oscillations are

so large that (2), § 233, must be used.

8. Study the motion of a pendulum making small oscillations, if

the resistance of the air is proportional to the velocity.

234. The equations of motion. In the general case of

motion in a plane curve, it is convenient to resolve all
the applied forces into components parallel to the coordi-

nate axes. The product m —— of the mass by the avcom-

(to

ponent of the acceleration (see § 59) is equal to the sum

F^ of the a:-components of all the forces ; similarly for the
^-components. We thus have the two equations of
motion
338 CALCULUS

In the most general case, both F^ and F^ are functions

dx du
of a;, y, t, and the velocity-components v^ = —, Vy = -^-
(XL dit

We shall, however, confine our attention to the case in which

Jife is a function only of a;, v^^ and t, and F^ is a function
of y, v^ and t. In this case the two equations of motion
may be integrated separately. We thus obtain two equa-
tions giving respectively x and y in terms of t ; these are
parametric equations of the path of the moving point.
By the same methods as those already used we find equa-
tions giving Vj. and v^ in terms of t, and in terms of x and
y respectively. The total velocity v may be found by
§57.
235. Projectiles. A simple example of curvilinear
motion is furnished by a projectile moving under gravity
alone — i.e. in a medium whose resistance can be
neglected.
Let a particle be projected with an initial velocity v^
inclined at an angle a to the horizontal. With the start-
ing point as origin and the «/-axis positive upward, the
initial conditions are

a; = 0, y = 0, v^ = «qC0s a, v^ = v^ sin a when < = 0.

The force of gravity acts vertically downward there is ;

no horizontal force. Hence the equations of motion are

These may be integrated and the constants determined

precisely as in our earlier work.

EXERCISES
1. Solve the problem of § 235 completely, finding x, y, o„ and Vy
in terms of t, v^ in terms of x, and Vy in terms of y.

2. In Ex. 1, by eliminating t from the (x, t)- and (y, <)-equations,

show that the path is a parabola.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 339

3. Show where all resistances are

that, in the ideal case of § 235,
negligible, a projectile whose initial velocity is horizontal will strike
the ground in the same time as a body let fall from rest from the
same height.
4. The range of a projectile is the distance from the starting
point to the point where it strikes the ground. Show that the range
on a horizontal plane is

iS = Hfl- sin 2 a.
9
6. What elevation gives the greatest range on a horizontal plane ?

6. The time of flight is the time from the starting point until the
projectile strikes the ground. Show that on a hoi'izontal plane the
time of flight is
r=—"sin a.
9
7. A stone is thrown horizontally from the top of a tower 400 ft.

high, with a velocity of 20 ft. per second. (o) When, (J) where,
and (c) with what velocity does it strike the ground ?
Ans. (a) 5 seconds ;
(c) 161.2 ft. per second, at 7° 8' to the vertical.

8. Find the work done by gravity in Ex. 7.

9. A stone slides down a roof sloping 30° to the horizon, through

a distance of 12 ft. If the lower edge of the roof is 50 ft. high,
(a) when, (6) where, (e) with what velocity does the stone strike
the ground? Ans. (J) 25.1 ft.

from the building ;

(c) 59.7 ft. per second, at 16" 30' to the vertical.
10. A pitcher throws a ball with a speed of 100 ft. per second, the
ball leaving his hand horizontally at a height of 5 ft. Show that
under the assumptions of 235 the ball would strike the ground
§
before reaching the batter 60 ft. away.
11. A particle slides on a smooth roof inclined at 45° to the hori-
zontal. If the initial velocity is 10 ft. per second parallel to the edge
of the roof and the starting point is 20 ft. above the edge, find when,
where, and with what velocity the particle leaves the roof.
12. A moves under the action of a force directed toward
particle
the origin and proportional to the distance from (cf. §230).

If the initial conditions are x = 10, y = 0, Uj, = 0, Vy = 20 ft. per

second, discuss the motion completely. Take k = \.
13. Find the cartesian equation of the path in Ex. 12.

14. In Ex. 12, find the work done in one quarter of the period.
Check by the principle of kinetic energy and work.
 INDEX
(The references are to pages.)

Acceleration, 80, 279, 322, 323 Definite integral, 143

angular —84, 335
, as limit of a sum, 150
components of 86-88 — , change of variable in — 145 ,

in curvilinear motion, 85, 337 fundamental theorem for — 150 ,

of gravity, 81 geometric meaning of — 144 ,

Algebraic functions, 3 Density, 179, 274

differentiation of 19-25 — , linear —
179, 275 ,

Arc surface —180, 274

—
,

centroid of 188 , Derivative, 14

of a plane curve, 167 as quotient of differentials, 70
of a space curve, 250 geometric meaning of 15 —
—
,

Area (plane), 121, 148, 175, 176 higher 18, 73

—
,

centroid of 185 , of a function of a function, 21

in cartesian coordinates, 151 Derived curves, 42, 81, 325
in polar coordinates, 154 Difference-quotient, 15
Asymptotes, 97 Differential, 70
tests for — , 98, 99, 105 exact — , 296
of arc, 76
Catenary, 107, 153, 160, 168, 170 of independent variable, 70
Center of mass, 181 total— 240 ,

Centroid, 180, 276 Differential equation, 286

of arcs, 188 exact — 296 ,

of areas, 185 general solution of — 287, 305 ,

of surfaces, 189 geometric meaning — 290, of ,

of volumes, 187 304

Characteristic equation, 210 linear — 298, 300, 307 ,

Composition of ordiuates, 106 order

—
— 287
of ,

Concavity, 33-36 partial -, 286

Conjugate point, 95 particular solution of , 289, 305 —

Constant of integration, 118, 143, 287 singular solution of 289 — ,

determination of —
117-118, 322 , Differentiation, 14
Continuity, 10, 202 of algebraic functions, 19-25
of a function of two variables, 237 of exponential functions, 62
Critical point, 33 of implicit functions, 26, 73, 241-
Critical value, 33 243
Curvature, 76, 306 of inverse trigonometric functions,
center of — 78 , 53
circle of —
. 78 of logarithms, 58
radius of — 78 , of trigonometric functions, 46—49
Curve tracing, 32, 101, 105 standard formulas of — , 65-66
by composition of ordinates, 106 Double integrals, 260, 262, 264
in polar coordinates, 114 in polar coordinates, 265
Cusp, 95 transformation of 266 — ,

Cycloid, 108, 111, 154, 161, 168, 170 Double point, 95

341
342 INDEX
Envelope, 252 Infinitesimals, 8, 240
of normals, 256 a theorem on — 159 ,

of tangents, 254 limit of ratio of 8, 15, 70 — ,

Epicycloid, 109 order of — 68

,

Equation of motion, 323 principal— 8 ,

in curvilinear motion, 337 principal part of , 68, 70, 240 —

Evolute, 256 Infinity, 11, 12
Exponential function, 56 Integral curves, 291, 306
differentiation of 62 — , Integral tables, 172
graph of —56 , Integrating factor, 297, 299, 317
imaginary — 310 , Integration, 116
by parts, 132
Force, 279, 322, 323, 327 by substitution, 123, 134
distributed 280 — , change of variable in 122, 145 —
,

parallel — , 283 of rational fractions, 137-141

Function, 1 standard formulas of 126-127 — ,

anti-hyperboUo 65 — Inverse trigonometric functions, 51

—
,

branches of 4, 51 , differentiation of 53 — ,

continuous —
10, 19, 32, 121, 237 , graphs of — 51-52 ,

differentiable 15, 19, 32— Isolated point, 95

—
,

homogeneous 294 ,

hyperbolic 64 — ,
Kinetic energy, 198, 328
implicit —26, 73, 92, 241-243
,
of a rotating body, 198

increasing and decreasing 32 — ,

Law of the mean, 201-202
——
integrable 121, 151 ,
Limit, 6
inverse
kinds of
27, 51, 56
— 3
,
evaluation of 202-208 — ,

of function, 8, 11, 12
—
,

limit of 8, 11, 12, 237

,
of function of two variables, 237
of several variables, 236 of ratio of infinitesimals, 8
one-valued — 3, 19, 32' ,
of sin o, 47
rate of change of — , 5, 15 the — e, 60, 230
(See also algebraic — exponential theorems on 7, 159 —
—
,
,

, etc.) Line integrals, 163, 167, 168. 170,

188, 189
Geometric addition, 82 evaluation of 165-167 — ,

Geometric derivative, 85 fundamental theorem for — , 165

Graphic solution of equations, 107 geometric meaning of — , 164
Logarithms, 56
Heterogeneous masses, 273 common, 63
Hooke's law, 333 computation of 234 —
—
,

Hypooycloid, 110 differentiation of 58 ,

of four cusps. 111, 160, 168, 170, graph of — 56 ,

173 Napierian — 60 ,

natural — 60
,

Implicit functions, 26, 92

differentiation of 26, 73, 241- — ,
properties of — , 51-58

243 Maxima and minima, 33, 102

of several variables, 242-243 applications of 37—42 — ,

Improper integrals, 175-177 in polar coordinates, 114

geometric meaning of — , 177 tests for — 33-36
,

Impulse, 326, 327 Moment

Indefinite integral, 116-118 of force, 283-284
geometric meaning of 121 — , of inertia, 190-198, 277
Indeterminate forms, 202-205 of mass, 180, 276
 ,

INDEX 343

Momentum, 326, 327 sum of — 210

,

Motion Taylor's — 223 ,

circular — , 83, 335 tests for convergence of 211- — ,

constrained — , 329 218, 220

curvilinear — 85-88, 335-339 , 82, transformation of 230-232 — ,

equation of — 323, 337 , Singular points, 92

plane — 80-88, 321-339
, kinds of 95— ,

rectilinear— 80-81, 321-335 , Slope of curve, 5, 15, 32

simple harmonic — 330-333, 336 , polar — 112
,

uniform — 324 , 55, Subnormal, 30, 32

uniformly accelerated — 324 , 56, Subtangent, 30, 32
Surfaces
Node, 95 angle between lines and — , 246
Normal, 29 angle between 246 —
—
,

length of 30, 32 , centroids of — 189 ,

to a surface, 245 cylindrical — 170 ,

Normal plane, 249 general — 268 ,

normal to — 245 ,

Osculating circle, 78 of revolution, 168

tangent plane to — , 244
Pappus, propositions of, 186, 189 Symmetry, 101, 114
Parametric equations, 72, 83, 167, 253
Partial derivatives, 237
Tangent, 29
geometric meaning of 238 — ,
determination of — by inspection,
higher — 238 ,
93
— 102
inflectional 35,
Partial fractions, 137
,

Pendulum, simple, 336 length of — 32 30,

stationary — 35
,

Point of inflection, 35, 36, 102 ,

tangent at 35 — ,
to apace curve, 248,
Tangent plane, 244
250
Point of osculation, 95
Pressure, 280-281, 284
Taylor's theorem, 227
center of 284 — ,
Time-rates, 88-91
fluid — 281
,
Trigonometric functions, 45
differentiation of 46-49 —
Projectfles, 338
—
,

elementary properties of , 45
Radius of gyration, 190, 191 graphs of —
45-46 ,

Radius of inertia, 190 Triple integrals, 270-272

Triple point, 95
Rate of change, 5, 15, 33, 80, 84, 88
of derivative, 33 Vector, 82
Rectification of curves, 167, 250
Rolle's theorem, 200, 226
components of , 56 —
derivative, 85
Rotation, 83, 335 resultant of 56 — ,

Velocity, 80, 84, 320, 324

Series, 209
— angular — , 83, 84
absolute convergence of
—
, 219 components of — , 83
alternating 218, 229 in curvilinear motion, 82, 338
computation by —
,

, 228, 234 Volmnes

convergence and divergence of — centroids of 187, 276 — ,

211, 220
geometric — 209, 210, 211
general — 161, 258-262, 265, 272
,

, 6, of revolution, 156-158, 266

Maclaurin's — 222 ,
under a surface, 258-262, 265
of n terms, 209
power — 220 , Work, 327, 328

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