Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INVESTIGATION OF DYNAMIC PROPERTY OF SOIL COMMONLY FOUND

IN ARBA MINCH TOWN

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, OF ADDIS ABABA
UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
BY
Mengesha Dimer
ADVISOR
Dr. Prof. Alemayehu Teferra
2013

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INVESTIGATION OF DYNAMIC PROPERTY OF SOIL COMMONLY FOUND

IN ARBA MINCH TOWN
BY
Mengesha Dimer
AAU, Institute of Technology
Approved by Board of Examiners
Prof. Alemayehu Teferra ____________ ___________
Advisor Signature Date

____________ ____________ __________

External Examiner Signature Date

___________ ___________ ___________

Internal Examiner Signature Date

___________ ___________ ___________

Chairman Signature Date

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this thesis entitles
“INVESTIGATION OF DYNAMIC PROPERTY OF SOIL COMMONLY FOUND IN ARBA
MINCH TOWN” is original work of my own, has not been presented for a degree
in any other university and that all sources of material used for the thesis have
been duly acknowledged.

--------------------------------------------- --------------------------
MENGESHA DIMER DATE
(CANDIDATE)

This is to certify that the above declaration made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge.

--------------------------------------------- --------------------------
PROF. ALEMAYEHU TEFERRA DATE
(THESIS ADVISOR)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and for most, praise and thanks be to the Almighty God, for giving me his grace
and strength to finish this work.

I am deeply indebted to my adviser Prof. Alemayehu Teferra for his encouragement,

supervision, and guidance he has provided me throughout my research. His critical
comment and kind support gives me strength right from inception of the topic to the
last minute of the research.

I would like to extend my gratitude to my instructors, professor Dr.Ing Alemayehu

Teferra and

Dr. Samuel Tadesse for giving me all the basics and their suggestions during progress
report.

I gratefully acknowledge to Arba Minch municipality offices and Arba Minch

University for their help during sample collection.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my Brothers, my course Mate, AAiT
geotechnical engineering laboratory people and friends for their genuine support,
socialization, and help each other.

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Content
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... I
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION ...................................................................................... IV
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... V
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... VI
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. X
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ XI
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................ 2
1.2.1 General objective ............................................................................................................. 2
1.2.2 Specific objective ........................................................................................................... 2
1.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................................................ 2
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................... 3
1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS .......................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................. 4
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 4
2.1 DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES ................................................................................................. 4
2.1.1 General............................................................................................................................ 4
2.1.2 Cyclic stress strain behaviour of soil .............................................................................. 5
2.2 SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF SOIL ................................................................................ 6
2.2.1 Physical States and Index Properties of soil ................................................................... 6
2.3 SHEAR MODULUS AND DAMPING RATIO ............................................................................ 11
2.3.1 Method of determining shear modulus and damping ratio .......................................... 11
2.3.2 Computation of Shear modulus and Damping ratio parameters ................................. 13
2.3.3 Factors affecting Shear modulus and Damping ratio................................................... 16
2.3.4 Shear modulus and damping ratio values of soils ........................................................ 20

CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................ 24
DATA COLLECTION AND TEST RESULTS..................................................................... 24

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3.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................. 24

3.2 SUMMARY OF SOME BASIC TEST RESULTS ............................................................................ 25
3.3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION ......................................................................................................... 26
3.4 ORGANIC CONTENT TEST ................................................................................................... 27
3.5 ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION ............................................................................... 27
3.6 CYCLIC SIMPLE SHEAR TESTING SYSTEM ............................................................................. 29
3.6.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE MACHINE ........................................................................... 29
3.6.2 Stages and Setup of Cyclic simple shear testing .......................................................... 30
3.6.1 Specimen preparation ................................................................................................... 31
3.6.2 Consolidation Stage ...................................................................................................... 31
3.6.3 Cyclic Simple Shear Stage ............................................................................................ 31
3.7 PRESENTATION OF CYCLIC SHEAR TEST RESULTS .............................................................. 32
3.7.1 Axial loads and Shear Strain Levels used .................................................................... 32
3.7.2 Shear stress and strain parameters ............................................................................... 33
3.7.3 Hysteresis loops of test results...................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................ 43
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS ......................................... 43
4.1 Computation of shear modulus and damping ratio values ............................................. 43
4.2 Effect of number of cycles and Axial Loads ..................................................................... 50
4.3 Computation of maximum shear modulus ...................................................................... 52
4.4 Modulus reduction (G/Gmax) values ............................................................................. 55
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................ 56
COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS WITH LITERATURES .......................................... 56
5.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 56
5.2 Shear modulus reduction ................................................................................................. 56
5.3 Damping ratio ............................................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................................................ 68
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................................... 68
6.1 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 68
6.2 Recommendation ................................................................................................................. 69
LIST OF REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 70

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SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION

AAiT Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

AMU-CSc Arba Minch University Community School
a (k) Parameter related to plastic index
Aloop Area of hysteresis loop
ASTM American Society for testing and Materials
e Void ratio of soils
emax Maximum void ratio or void ratio in the loosest state
emin Minimum void ratio or void ratio in the densest state
G Dynamic shear modulus
Gmax Maximum Dynamic shear modulus
Gs Specific gravity of soil
MDD Maximum dry density
OCR Over consolidation ratio
OMC Optimum moisture content
PI Plastic index
w Moisture content of soil
WD Dissipated energy
Ws Maximum strain energy
γ Shear strain
γc Shear strain at the tip of hysteresis loop
γs Unit weight of soil
γd Dry unit weight of soil
γw Unit weight of water
β Damping ratio
νs Shear wave velocity
ρ Density of soil
σ Normal stress
σm Mean normal stress
τ Shear stress
τc Shear stress at the tip of hysteresis loop

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1 Specific gravity value of some soil types ......................................................... 7
Table 2.2 Range of plasticity index with its consistency [ 12] ........................................ 9
Table 2.3 Test procedures for measuring moduli and damping characteristics [17]12
Table 2. 4 Typical soil behaviour ...................................................................................... 16
Table2. 5 Effect of increase of various factors on G/Gmax, and D of normally
consolidated and moderately over-consolidated clays [19] ......................................... 17
Table 3 1 Field and maximum densities, water contents and specific gravities ........ 25
Table 3. 2 Atterberg limits and Classification ................................................................ 27
Table3. 3 Axial stress and shear strain values used for this thesis ............................. 32
Table 3. 4 Shear stress and shear strain values of the 5th cycle test result of silt soil
with 2.5 % strain and 400 KPa axial loads. ...................................................................... 34
Table 3. 5 Shear stress and shear strain values of the 5th cycle test result of silt soil
with 2.5 % strain and with 400 KPa axial loads.............................................................. 36
Table 4.1 computation of shear strains and shear stresses .......................................... 44
Table 4.2 Typical calculation of shear modulus and damping ratio using ................ 46
Table 4.3 Values of shear modulus and damping ratio for silt soil tested at 400 KPa
axial loads ............................................................................................................................ 47
Table 4. 4 Shear modulus and Damping ratio values of clay soil, at 400KPa axial
stress ..................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 4 .5 values of a with respect to plasticity index [26] .......................................... 53
Table 4.6 Values of the parameters PI, a and e for all test pits .................................... 53
Table 4. 7 Typical Gmax values of soils [9] .................................................................... 54
Table 4. 8 Computed Gmax values with different axial stresses ................................ 54
Table 4 9 Modulus ratio (G/Gmax) values .................................................................... 55
Table A : liquid limit and plastic limit test values.......................................................73
Table B. Shear modulus and Damping ratio values of silt soil................................... 78
Table C. Shear modulus and Damping ratio values of clay soil.................................78

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1 Change in soil states as a function of soil volume and water content. ...... 8
Figure 2. 2 Hysteretic stress-strain response of soil subjected to cyclic loading [9].. 13
Figure 2. 3 Shear modulus reduction and damping ratio curves after .......................16
Figure 2.4 Effects of confining stress on the strain-dependent damping ratio .... 18
Figure 2. 5 Effects of confining stress on the strain-dependent shear modulus ....... 18
Figure 2.6 Effects of consolidation histories on strain-dependent modulus 19
Figure 2.7 Effects of consolidation histories on strain-dependent damping ratio .... 19
Figure 2. 8 Relations between G/Gmax versus cyclic shear strain, and Damping
versus cyclic shear strain curves and soil plasticity for normally and
overconsolidated soils [19]. ............................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.9 Strain-dependent shear modulus of soft clays [20]. ................................... 21
Figure 2.10 Damping ratio for saturated clay [17] ......................................................... 21
Figure 2.11: Variation of shear modulus with shear strain for sand [17] ................... 22
Figure 2.12 Variation damping ratio with strain for sand [17] ................................... 22
Figure 2.13: Shear modulus ratio vs. Shear strain curves of soils in South of Tehran
as compared with Vucetic and Dobry (1991) curves [21] ............................................. 23
Figure 2.14: Damping ratio vs. Shear strain curves of soils in South Tehran as
compared with Vucetic and Dobry (1991) curves [21] .................................................. 23
Figure 3.1 Location of test pits .......................................................................................... 24
Figure 3. 2 Grain size distribution of all test pits .......................................................... 26
Figure 3.3 Void ratio vs. pressure (log scale) for clay soil ........................................... 28
Figure 3.4 Void ratio verses pressure (log scale) for silt soil ....................................... 28
Figure 3.5 Cyclic simple shear machine (model 31-WF7500) ...................................... 29
Figure 3 6: The movement rings during Shearing Stage ............................................... 30
Figure3.7 Sinusoidal wave shapes of 2.5 % strain of silt soil for two cycles at
400KPa axial load ................................................................................................................ 35
Figure 3. 8 Sinusoidal wave shapes of 2.5 % strain of clay soil for two cycles ......... 37

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Figure 3. 9 Hysteresis loops of the 5th cycle of silt soil at 400 KPa of axial stress tests
for each strain levels ........................................................................................................... 39
Figure3. 10 Hysteresis loops of the 5th cycle of silt soil at 100,200 &400KPa axial
load & for each strain level in percent ............................................................................. 40
Figure3. 11: Hysteresis loops of the 5th cycle of clay soil for each strain levels in
percent at 400KPa axial stress ........................................................................................... 41
Figure 3. 12 Hysteresis loops of the 5th cycle of clay soil at 100KPa, 200Kpa &
400KPa axial load for each strain level in percent ......................................................... 42
Figure 4.1 The hysteresis loop and triangle plotted using table 4.1 stress and strain
values. ................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 4.2 Shear Modulus curves of silt soil for selected cycles ................................. 48
Figure 4 3 Damping Ratio curves of silt soil for selected cycles .................................. 48
Figure 4.4: Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio curves of clay soil for selected cycles
............................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 4. 5 Effect of axial loads on shear modulus of the Silt soil ............................... 50
Figure 4 6 Effect of axial loads on shear modulus of the clay soil ............................... 51
Figure 4 .7 Effect of axial loads on damping ratio of silt soil ....................................... 51
Figure 4. 8 Effect of axial loads on damping ratio of clay soil .................................... 52
Figure 5. 1 location of modulus reduction values of Clay soil) as compared with
curves developed for sand by Seed and Indriss (1970) ................................................. 56
Figure 5. 2 location of modulus reduction values of Silt soil as compared with
curves developed for sand by Seed and Indriss (1970) ................................................. 57
Figure 5. 3: Location of modulus reduction values of Clay soil as compared with
curves developed for saturated clay by Seed and Indriss (1970) ................................ 57
Figure 5. 4: Location of modulus reduction values of Silt soil as compared with
curves developed for saturated clay by Seed and Indris (1970) .................................. 58
Figure 5. 9 Location of modulus reduction values of Clay soil as compared with
ABu’s curves developed for silt clay soil (2011) ............................................................. 60

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Figure 5 10: Location of modulus reduction values of Silt soil (Sikela AMUCSc) as
compared with Abu’s curves developed for silt soil (2011) ......................................... 61
Figure 5.12 Location of damping ratio values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed for sand by Seed and Indriss (1970).............................................................. 62
Figure5.13 Location of damping ratio values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed for saturated clay by Seed and Indriss (1970) ............................................. 63
Figure 5.14 Location of damping ratio values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed for saturated clay by Seed and Indriss (1970) ............................................. 63
Figure 5.15 Location of damping ratio values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed by Vucetic and Dobry (1991) ........................................................................ 64
Figure 5. 16 Location of damping ratio values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed by Vucetic and Dobry (1991) ........................................................................ 64
Figure 5.17 : Location of damping ratio values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed by Ayalew (2012) for silt soil of Awassa ...................................................... 65
Figure 5.18 : Location of damping ratio values of silt soil as compared with curves
developed by Ayalew (2012) for silt soil of Awassa ...................................................... 65
Figure 5.19 : Location of damping ratio values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed for silt by Abu (2011) ...................................................................................... 66
Figure 5.20: Location of damping ratio values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed for silt by Abu (2011) ...................................................................................... 66
figure A : liquid limit graphs ........................................................................................... 75
figure B : 1 hysteresis loops of each strain levels with axial stresses indicated for silt
soil ......................................................................................................................................... 76
figure B 2: hysteresis loops of each strain levels with axial stresses indicated .......... 77
figure C. 1: shear modulus and damping ratio curves of silt soil for selected cycles
at 100kpa .............................................................................................................................. 79
figure C .2 : shear modulus and damping ratio curves of silt soil for selected cycles
at 200kpa .............................................................................................................................. 80

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figure C. 3: shear modulus and damping ratio curves of clay soil for selected cycles
at 200kpa .............................................................................................................................. 81
figure C. 4: shear modulus and damping ratio curves of clay soil for selected cycles
at 100kpa .............................................................................................................................. 82
Figure D 1: Shear modulus curves for different axial loads of silt and clay soil ....... 83
Figure D 2 : Damping ratio curves for different axial loads of silt and clay soil ....... 83
Figure D 3 Shear modulus reduction curve .................................................................... 84
Figure D 4 Effect of number of cycles on shear modulus of the silt soil ................... 85
Figure D 5 Effect of number of cycles on shear modulus of the clay soil................... 85
Figure D 6 Effect of number cycles on damping ratio of clay soil ............................... 86
Figure D 7 Effect of number of cycles on damping ratio of silt soil ........................... 86

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LIST OF APPENDICES

appendix – A . test results of index properties of soil .........................................................................................73

appendix – B hysteresis loop of the 5th cycles of each test pits ........................................................................76
appendix – C. shear modulus and damping ratio values of selected cycles .......................................................78
appendix – D shear modulus and damping ratio curves under different axial loads for both silt and clay......83

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ABSTRACT

The nature and distribution of earthquake damage is strongly influenced by the

response of soils to cyclic loading. The better understanding of the dynamic properties
of some particular natural soil such as the Mexico City clays or the San Francisco Bay
mud, together with the actual ground motion measurements during the Michoacan-
1985 and the Loma-Prieta earthquakes, have been greatly contribute to show off the
importance of local site conditions and dynamic properties of natural soils. Of those
dynamic properties, the shear modulus and damping characteristics of cyclically loaded
soils are critical to the evaluation of Geotechnical Engineering problems. Generally, soil
is a nonlinear material which causes nonlinear seismic loading responses of grounds
especially for earthquake ground motions corresponding to strain level ( ≥ 0.01%).

In this thesis, the shear modulus and damping ratio values of soils commonly found in
Arba Minch were determined using cyclic simple shear testing machine on remolded
samples. The tests were conducted as a function of cyclic strain amplitude of 0.01 %, 0.1
%, 1 %, 2.5 %, and 5% under the axial pressures of 100kPa, 200kPa and 400kPa. The test
results revealed that the shear modulus reduction values are in good agreement with
curves of local soils but slightly lower than other established literature value at the
highest strain level ( >0.1 %). The damping ratio value of the tests are generally in a
good agreement with curves of local soils but slightly lower than the other literature
values. This indicates that, the testing conditions appear to have significant effect on the
damping ratio values but little effect on the shear modulus reduction values.

The cyclic simple shear test machine, currently functional in the laboratory, is capable of
reproducing earthquake stress condition accurately. Moreover, the index properties of
the soil are determined for characterization of the soil in the town to setup schedules of
dynamic property investigations in this research.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
The ground response under seismic loading is most important in geotechnical
investigation. The ground motion due to earthquake may lead to permanent settlement,
tilting of footing, collapse structures ...etc [3].

The nature and distribution of earthquake damage is strongly influenced by the

response of soils to cyclic loading. The behaviour of soils subjected to seismic loading is
influenced by the stiffness, damping, Poisson’s ratio, plasticity index, effective stress
and density of the soil [4]. Of these, the stiffness and damping characteristics of
cyclically loaded soils are critical for the evaluation of many geotechnical engineering
problems [4]. Arba Minch is located in Gamo Gofa zone, the Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples Region. Geographically, Arba Minch is located at the floor of
the southern part of the East African Rift between 6030’N to 6008’N latitude and
37033’E to 37037’E longitude at an elevation of 1285 above sea level.

The proximity of significant earthquakes to the major population centres like Arba
Minch obviously leads to the question of how much damage will be sustained by the
buildings and other infrastructures constructed or being constructed. Therefore, it is
necessary to understand the ground responses of the soil deposits in which their
dynamic property play a crucial role [23].

The dynamic properties of soil in Arba Minch have not been investigated so far. In this
thesis, the shear modulus and damping ratio values of soils commonly found in Arba
Minch are to be investigated in the laboratory using the cyclic simple shear testing
machine on remolded samples. In addition, some important properties of the soil tests
have been determined for better characterization of the soils.

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1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 General objective

The main objective of this research is to determine the dynamic shear modulus and
damping ratio values of soils found in Arba Minch town using cyclic simple shear
testing machine, to provide useful guide in the selection of soil characteristics for
analysis purpose, and to make a comparison of the results with literature values.

1.2.2 Specific objective

• To determine the index properties and classify the soils
• To determine field density, maximum dry density, field moisture content and
pre-consolidation pressure from both disturbed and undisturbed soil sample.
• To determine shear modulus and damping ratio of specimens under remolded to
field conditions

1.3 Materials and Methods

To meet the above objectives, the following methodologies have been employed:

• Previous studies and papers related to dynamic properties of soils have been
reviewed.
• Field densities were determined using core cutter
• field moisture contents of the soils have been determined
• Samples are collected from 1.5m and 3m depth for characterization of the soil.
• The following tests have been conducted to characterize the soils
Atterberg limit
Specific gravity
Compaction
Particle size analysis
One-dimensional consolidation and Free swell
• The soil is groped in to silt soil (Sikela town) and clay soil (Secha town)

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• As soils in Arba Minch are more of silty and clay type, disturbed soil samples have
been collected at 3 m depth from five selected test pits of the area.
• In the laboratory, samples have been remolded to field condition for cycling loading
test
• From cyclic simple shear machine test results, the shear stress is calculated simply
by dividing the sheer force by the area of the specimen base, and the shear strain is
calculated by dividing the shear displacement by the height of the specimen.
• Shear modulus and damping ratio values of the soil then have been calculated.
• Finally the results have been compared to known literature values and discussed.

1.4 Scope of the study

This thesis is limited to cyclic simple shear testing, index properties and one
dimensional consolidation tests. The transportation problem and the soil character
make the retrieval of undisturbed soil samples for laboratory test difficult. Hence,
disturbed soil samples will be collected from the test pits.

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

This thesis has six Chapters and Appendices. In the first Chapter contains background
of the thesis, objectives, materials and methods and scope of the thesis are presented.
Chapter two covers a literature review regarding dynamic soil parameters and their
determination using cyclic simple shear testing machine. The third Chapter is about
sample collection and test results. Chapter four is about data analysis and discussion of
test results of cyclic simple shear test. In Chapter five, comparison of shear modulus
reduction and damping ratio values with literature are presented. Chapter six contains
conclusions and recommendations. Appendices which contain test results and graphs are
presented after the reference.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Dynamic soil properties

2.1.1 General

Required inputs for seismic ground response analysis include stiffness and material
damping information for each soil type at the site in question. The current state of
practice for evaluating the response of soil deposits under seismic loading conditions
shows much progress in recent years. Successful application of analytical procedures
for determining ground response in specific cases, however, is essentially dependent on
the incorporation of representative soil properties in the analysis. Thus, considerable
effort has also been directed toward the determination of soil properties for use in these
analytical procedures.

Therefore, to obtain the maximum benefit from any method of seismic analysis, an
understanding of the dynamic response characteristics of soil is essential. Shear wave
velocity, shear modulus, damping ratio, stress history, plasticity index and Poisson’s
ratio are important mechanical properties of Soil that control the dynamic response of
soil under cyclic loading [7].

It has long been recognized that local soil conditions can significantly affect the ground
response when seismic waves propagate upward through a soil profile [6]. The better
understanding of the dynamic properties of some particular natural soils such as the
Mexico city clays or the San Francisco Bay mud, together with the actual ground motion
measurements during the Michoacan-1985 and the Loma-Prieta-1989 earthquakes, have
greatly contributed to show the importance of local site conditions and especially the
specific dynamic properties (Gmax, strain dependent shear modulus and damping) of
natural soils [8]. Thus, the shear modulus and damping characteristics of cyclically

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loaded soils are critical to the evaluation of Geotechnical Engineering problems that
involve dynamic loading of soils and soil–structure interaction systems at a wider strain
level [10].

2.1.2 Cyclic stress strain behaviour of soil

The stress strain behaviour of soil under dynamic loading depends on the nature of the
soil, the environment of the soil (static stress state and water content); and the nature of
the dynamic loading (strain magnitude, strain rate, and number of cycles of loading).

The effect of percentage of fines, material grading, and plasticity index (PI) and stress
history are significant on dynamic property of soil for small strain level (γ ≤ 0.01%).
However, for problems that involve medium to large strains (γ> 0.01%) the effects of
loading frequency (f) and the number of cycles (N) on stress strain property of soil are
significant (Darendeli 2001) [20]. For large strain level (γ> 0.1%) the kind of behaviour
is termed degraded hysteresis type. The manner in which the shear modulus and
damping ratio change with cycles is considered to depend upon the manner of change
in the effective confining stress during irregular time histories of shear stress
application [20].

The stress strain response of soil is non-linear for large strain but linear for small cyclic
shear strain. Earthquake-induced stresses and strains that produce cyclic shearing of the
soil are generally considered to be medium to large strain ( ≥ 0.01%) level [9].
Geotechnical earthquake engineering analysis assumes that earthquake ground motions
are generated by vertically-propagated shear waves which cause cyclic shearing of the
soil [9]. The stress-strain response of soil to this type of cyclic loading is nonlinear and
hysteretic and commonly characterized by a hysteresis loop [9]. The most common
model used to represent the hysteretic behavior of soil in seismic analysis is the
equivalent-linear model [9]. The equivalent-linear model characterized non-linear
hysteretic soil behavior using an equivalent shear modulus, and damping ratio [9].

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A wide variety of procedures, including laboratory and field tests have been used to
determine both shear modules and damping characteristics of soils. Previous Cyclic
laboratory studies have shown that, cyclic response of saturated soils manifested by the
deformation of the soil skeleton [10]. These deformations are mainly due to breakage of
particle bond, slippage at the particle contacts, and corresponding change of micro-
structural repulsion forces and can be expressed in terms of the shear strain of the soil
[10]. Hysteretic stress-strain relationships under moderate to relatively high strains may
be determined in the laboratory by means of triaxial compression tests, simple shear
tests or torsional shear tests conducted under cyclic loading conditions. In this study
shear modulus and damping factors were determined using cyclic shear tests.

2.2 Some important properties of soil

2.2.1 Physical States and Index Properties of soil

Soils are aggregates of mineral particles, and together with air and/or water in the void
spaces, they form three-phase systems. A large portion of the earth’s surface is covered
by soils, and they are widely used as construction and foundation materials [14]. Index
Properties are properties of a soil which help to classify the soil to assess the
engineering behaviour of the soil under study. The physical properties which show the
state of the soil are soil color, soil structure, texture, particle shape, grain specific
gravity, water content, density index, in-situ unit weight, consistency limits, and
particle size distribution, and related indices [10].

2.2.1.1 Particle shape and size

The particle shape of coarse-grained soils may be described as ‘angular’, ‘sub-angular’,

‘sub-rounded’, ‘rounded’ and ‘well-rounded’. Silt and clay constitute the finer fractions
of the soil and one grain of this fraction generally consists of only one mineral.
Microscopic studies of clay and silt soil indicates that the particles are angular, flake-
shaped or sometimes needle-like shape [14].

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2.2.1.2 Specific gravity

The specific gravity of soil (Gs) is defined as the ratio of the mass in air of a given
volume of soil particles to the mass in air of an equal volume of gas free distilled water
at a stated temperature (20°C). The specific gravity is determined by means of a
calibrated pycnometer, by which the mass and temperature of a de-aired soil/distilled
water sample is measured [4]. The specific gravity of the soil grains have value in
computing the void ratio, degree of saturation and particle size by wet analysis when
the unit weight and water content are known. Typical value of specific gravity are
presented in Table 2.1 below.

Table 2. 1 Specific gravity value of some soil types

S.No Soil type Grain specific gravity

1 Quartz sand 2.64 - 2.65
2 Silt 2.68-2.72
3 Silt with organic matter 2.40 - 2.50
4 Clay 2.44-2.92
5 Bentonite 2.34
6 Loess 2.65-2.75
7 Lime 2.7
8 Peat 1.26 - 1.80

2.2.1.3 Moisture content

Moisture content of a soil has a direct bearing on strength and stability of fine-grained
soils. The knowledge of water content is necessary for classification, for correlation
studies and for the calculation of stability of all kinds of earth works [12]. The water
content of soil can influence the behavior of cyclically loaded soil specimen, as it
controls grain to grain slippage and pore water pressure development.

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2.2.1.5 Consistency of clay soil

Figure 2.3 demonstrates the change in soil states with water content. If clay slurry is
dried, the moisture content will gradually decrease, and the slurry will pass from a
liquid state to a plastic state. With further drying, it will change to a semisolid state and
finally to a solid state. A. Atterberg (In 1911), developed a method for describing the
limit consistency of fine-grained soils on the basis of moisture content. These limits are
the liquid limit, the plastic limit, and the shrinkage limit [13].

The Atterberg limits and related indices have proved

proved to be very useful for soil
identification and classification. The limits are often used directly in specifications for
controlling soil quality for use in fills and in semi empirical methods of design Soils for

different construction use [13].

The numerical difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit termed as
plasticity index indicates the magnitude of the range of moisture content over which the
soil remains plastic. A quantitative classification is given in Table 2.2.

Figure 2. 1 Change in soil states as a function of soil volume and water content.

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Table 2.2 Range of plasticity index with its consistency [ 12]

Plasticity index plasticity

0 non – plastic
1 to 5 slight
5 to 10 low
10 to 20 medium
20 to 40 high
> 40 very high

2.2.1.6 In-situ unit weight

The in-situ unit weight refers to the unit weight of a soil in the undisturbed condition.
The in-situ unit weight can be determined using either a sand-replacement or drive-
cylinder method. According to ASTM-D 2937-94, drive-cylinder method is used to
determine the in-place density of natural, inorganic soils which do not contain
significant amount of particles coarser than 4.75 mm, and which can be readily retained
in the drive cylinder. For this research, the Drive-cylinder method has been used to
determine the field density of the soils in each test pits.

2.2.1.7 Grain size distribution

For a basic understanding of the nature of soil, the distribution of the grain size in a
given soil mass should be known. The distribution of particle sizes larger than 75 µm is
determined by sieving, while the distribution of particle sizes smaller than 75 µm is
determined by a sedimentation process, using a hydrometer [12]. The grain-size
distribution can be used to determine some of the basic soil parameters, such as the
effective size, the uniformity coefficient, and the coefficient of gradation. Grain size
distribution affects the seismic response in soil deposit [24].

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2.2.1.8 Free swell

Some soils, particularly those clays containing montmorillonite, tend to increase their
volume when their moisture content increases [2]. The amount of swelling and the
magnitude of swelling are determined in the laboratory.

Final volume − Initial volume of the soil

= X 100%
Initial volume

2.2.1.9 Compaction

Geotechnical engineers regularly recommend the highest practical soil compaction

based on data correlating soil density by removal of air with increased mechanical
strength [3]. Foundations of heavy buildings, highway roadbeds, and airport runways
all require considerable levels of soil compaction for satisfactory performance [16].
Construction of earth-fill dams also involves heavy compaction to provide stable slope
faces as well as a uniform and controlled rate of seepage through. In this study, test
specimens have been compacted to field density and moisture content for cyclic shear
testing to replicate the natural state of the soil samples.

2.2.1.10 One-Dimensional Consolidation Test

When a soil layer is subjected to a compressive stress, such as during the construction of
a structure, it will exhibit a certain amount of compression. This compression is
achieved through a number of ways, including rearrangement of the soil solids or
extrusion of water [14]. The most often used method of consolidation testing is the one-
dimensional consolidation test. In this study, the test specimens have been consolidated
to determine the pre-consolidation pressure to use for simple cyclic shear test.

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2.2.1.11 Soil Classification

A soil classification should permit the engineer to easily relate the soil description to its
behavior characteristics. All soils are normally classified according to one of the
following two systems.

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS): This system is used primarily for
engineering purposes and is particularly useful to the Geotechnical Engineer.
Therefore, they should be used for all structural-related projects; such as bridges,
retaining walls, buildings, etc. Precise classification requires that a grain size analysis
and Atterberg Limits tests be performed on the sample.

AASHTO Classification System: This system is used generally to classify soils for
highway construction purposes and therefore will most often be used in conjunction
with roadway soil surveys. Like the Unified System, this system requires grain size
analysis and Atterberg Limit tests for precise classification

2.3 Shear modulus and Damping ratio

The stiffness and damping characteristics of cyclically loaded soil are critical to the
evaluation of many geotechnical earthquake engineering problems at low strains ( ≤10-
3 percent), medium strains (10-3< < 10-1percent) and large strains level ( >10-1 percent)
[4].

2.3.1 Method of determining shear modulus and damping ratio

The selection of testing techniques for measurement of the shear modulus and damping
ratio requires careful consideration and understanding of the specified parameters.
There are various procedures, including laboratory and field tests that have been used
to determine shear modulus and damping characteristics of soils. A summary of the
procedure and the approximate range of strain within which they have been used are
presented in the Table 2.3 [17].

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Table 2.3 Test procedures for measuring moduli and damping characteristics [17]
general procedure Test condition
Determination of Triaxial compression 10-2 to 5 % Shear Modulus;
hysteretic Damping
stress-strain Simple shear 10-2 to 5 % Shear Modulus;
relationships Damping
Tortional shear 10-2 to 5 % Shear Modulus;
Damping
Forced vibration Longitudinal 10-4 to 10- Shear Modulus;
vibration 2% Damping
Tortional vibration 10-4 to 10- Shear Modulus;
2% Damping
Shear vibration-lab 10-4 to 10- Shear Modulus;
2% Damping
Shear vibration-field 10-4 to 10- Shear Modulus
2%

Free vibration tests Longitudinal 10-3 to 1 % Shear Modulus;

vibration Damping
Tortional vibration 10-3 to 1 % Shear Modulus;
Damping
Shear vibration-lab 10-3 to 1 % Shear Modulus;
Damping
Shear vibration-field 10-3 to 1 % Shear Modulus
Field wave velocity Compression wave ~5× 100-4 % Shear Modulus
Measurement Shear wave ~5× 100-4 % Shear Modulus

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2.3.2 Computation of Shear modulus and Damping ratio parameters

2.3.2.1 Shear modulus

Soil stiffness is represented by either shear-wave velocity or shear modulus. Because

most soils have curvilinear stress-strain relationships, the tangent shear modulus (Gtan)
varies through a cycle of loading but, its average value over the entire loop can be
approximated by the secant shear modulus, Gsec, which is commonly called equivalent
shear modulus (G) [4]. The relationship between maximum shear modulus (Gmax),
secant shear modulus (Gsec), shear strain ( ), and shear stress (#) is illustrated in Fig.
2.4. In addition, the figure shows the relationship between the stress–strain hysteresis
loop for one cycle of loading and the material damping ratio. Using the equivalent-
linear analysis method, the secant shear modulus can be determined by the extreme
points on the hysteresis loop.

$% '(
Gsec = and D=
&% )*'+

Where: #, is shear stress , , is strain amplitudes at the tip and D is damping ratio

Figure 2. 2 Hysteretic stress-strain response of soil subjected to cyclic loading [9]

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2.3.2.2 Damping ratio

The second key dynamic parameter for soils is damping. Two fundamentally different
damping phenomena are associated with soils, namely material damping and radiation
damping.

(i) Material damping

Material damping (or internal damping) in a soil occurs when any vibration wave
passes through the soil. It can be thought of as a measure of the loss of vibration energy
resulting primarily from hysteresis in the soil. Mechanisms that contribute to material
damping are friction between soil particles, strain rate effect, and nonlinear soil
behavior. As the soil elements loose stiffness with the amplitude of strain, its ability to
dampen dynamic forces increases and damping decreases with confining pressure, void
ratio, geologic age, and plasticity index and sometimes with cementation. [7]. The
hysteretic damping ratio can be calculated by

/0
. =
42/3

Where Wd = energy dissipated in one cycle of loading, and Ws=maximum strain energy
stored during the cycle. As noted in Fig.2.4, the area inside the hysteresis loop is Wd,
and the area of the triangle is WS. Theoretically, there should be no dissipation of
energy in the linear elastic range for the hysteretic damping model. However, even at
very low strain levels, there is always some energy dissipation measured in laboratory
specimens. The damping ratio at very low strain levels is a constant value and is
referred to as the small-strain damping ratio (Dmin). At higher strains, nonlinearity in
the stress–strain relationship leads to an increase in material damping ratio with
increasing strain amplitude [18].

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(ii) Radiation damping

Radiation damping is a measure of the energy loss from the structure through radiation
of waves and it is a purely geometrical effect. The theory for the elastic half-space has
been used to provide estimates for the magnitude of radiation damping, Whitman and
Richart (1967) [ 2]. Radiation damping is frequency independent and only theoretical
values for a particular type of footing and its usefulness may be for qualitative rather
than quantitative assessments [2].

2.3.2.3 Normalized Shear Modulus and Material Damping Ratio Relationships

Normalizing shear modulus is a way to represent shear modulus degradation and

expressed as (G/Gmax). Characterization of the shear modulus of an element of soils
requires consideration of both Gmax and the manner in which the modulus ratio,
G/Gmax, varies with cyclic strain amplitude and other parameters. Small-strain shear-
wave velocity (VS) is directly related to small-strain shear modulus (Gmax) by
G567 = 893:

Where ρ =mass density of soil (total unit weight of the soil divided by the acceleration
of gravity).

When shear wave velocity measurement are not available, Gmax can be estimated in
different ways. Laboratory test data suggest that, the maximum shear modulus can be
expressed as [4]:
,
Gmax= 625F (e)(OCR)k(<=>?@ )(AB )D n (lb/ft2)

where
OCR is over consolidation ratio of the soil
σ’m is mean effective confining pressure
e is void ratio of the
Pa is atmospheric pressure in the same unit as σ’m
n is often equal to 0.5
a = k are parameters that depends on the plasticity index of the soil

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Figure 2.5, represents the strain-dependent shear modulus degradation factor

(G/Gmax) and damping ratio (D) of saturated soils, [Vucetic, 1994].

Figure 2. 3 Shear modulus reduction and damping ratio curves after [Vucetic, 1994] [9]

Table 2. 4 Typical soil behaviour

F G
E is nonlinearity threshold shear strain E is the volumetric threshold shear strain

2.3.3 Factors affecting Shear modulus and Damping ratio

The interest in the cyclic stress-strain characteristics of soil have already clarified in
many aspects using extensive laboratory and field studies [14]. The Non-linear
hysteretic behaviour of soil under cyclic loading dependent on some factors such as
confining pressure, void ratio, geological age, cementation, overconsolidation and
number of loading. Table 2.5 presents effect of each factor on shear modulus and
damping ratio of soil.

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Table2. 5 Effect of increase of various factors on G/Gmax, and D of normally

consolidated and moderately over-consolidated clays [19]

Increasing factor Maximum Shear modulus Shear modulus Damping

(Gmax) degradation ratio (D)
(G/Gmax)
Confining pressure Increases with σ Stays constant or Stays
(σ) increases with σ constant or
decreases
with σ
Void ratio (e) Decreases with e Increases with e Decreases
with e

Geological age (t) Increases with t May increase with t Decreases

with t

Cementation, (c) Increases with c May increase with c May

decrease
with c

Overconsolidation Increases with OCR Not affected Not affected

(OCR)
Plasticity index (PI) Increases with PI if increase with PI Decrease
OCR>1; stays about with PI
constant if OCR=1
Cyclic strain ( c) - Decreases with c Increases
with c

Number of loading Decreases after N cycles of Decreases after N Not

Cycles (N) large c but recover later cycles significant
with time of large c for
(Gmax measured moderate c
before N cycles) and N

Figure 2.6 indicate that the rate of increasing damping ratio with strain becomes greater
as the confining stress decreases. Similarly Figure 2.7 shows that the rate of reduction
in shear modulus with strain becomes greater as the confining stress decreases.

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Figure 2.4 Effects of confining stress on the strain-dependent damping ratio [20].

Figure 2. 5 Effects of confining stress on the strain-dependent shear modulus [20]

Figures 2.8 and 2.9 show that shear modulus and damping with strain is not
significantly influenced by consolidation history. Thus whether a clay at a given site
is in a normally consolidated state or in a state of overconsolidation, the modulus and
damping ratio do decrease or increase with the same proportion over a wide range of
shear strain.

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Figure 2.6 Effects of consolidation histories on strain-dependent modulus (Kokusho et al. 1982) [20]

Figure 2.7 Effects of consolidation histories on strain-dependent damping ratio

(Kokusho et al.1982) [20]

Figure 2.10 shows that for a given cyclic shear strain, as PI increases the value of
G/Gmax increases and damping ratio reduces. The soils having higher plasticity index
tend to have a more linear cyclic stress-strain response at small strains, and to degrade
less at larger strains than the soils having lower PI [19].

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Figure 2. 8 Relations between G/Gmax versus cyclic shear strain, and Damping
versus cyclic shear strain curves and soil plasticity for normally and overconsolidated
soils [19].

2.3.4 Shear modulus and damping ratio values of soils

2.3.4.1 Clay

I. Shear Modulus

Cohesive soils with low plasticity exhibit a high shear modulus at low strain levels [19].
For high strain levels, all soils regardless of their plasticity tend to converge, because the
shear modulus of low plasticity soils decreases rapidly with increases in shear strain, as
compared to cohesive soils with high plasticity. At very low strain levels an
approximately linear relationship between the shear modulus and shear strength exist
for a number of clays, but nonlinear for medium to high strain level [17]. The modulus
reduction curves for clay show a much larger scatter when shear strain increase and
seem to be related to the characteristics of individual clay [ 6]. Figure2.11 shows shear
modulus versus shear strain for undisturbed soft clays.

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Figure 2.9 Strain-dependent shear modulus of soft clays [20].

II. Damping Ratio

Previously published data of damping ratios for saturated clay soils are limited and the
results vary to such an extent that it is difficult to determine the main factors
influencing the damping ratios of these soils. The basic relationships between damping
ratio and strain levels for any particular clay soils is shown, in fig.2.12. This average
relationship may well provide values of damping ratio with sufficient accuracy for
many practical purposes [17].

Figure 2.10 Damping ratio for saturated clay [17]

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2.3.4.2 Sand

Figure 2.11: Variation of shear modulus with shear strain for sand [17]

Figure 2.12 Variation damping ratio with strain for sand [17]

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2.3.4.3 Other soil types

Properly established curves for dynamic properties of soils like silts are uncommon
compared to sand and clay. Figure 2.15 and 2.16 show comparisons of soils in
South of Tehran which is mainly silts with Vucetic and Dobry (1991) curves for
plasticity indexes of 30, 15 and 0. The results show that, the location of shear
modulus ratio values are comparable where as the damping ratio values are lower
than that of Vucetic and Dobry curves. This may give us some indication about silt
soil that it has lower damping ratio values as compared to literature [21].

Figure 2.13: Shear modulus ratio vs. Shear strain curves of soils in South of Tehran as
compared with Vucetic and Dobry (1991) curves [21]

Figure 2.14: Damping ratio vs. Shear strain curves of soils in South Tehran as compared
with Vucetic and Dobry (1991) curves [21]

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CHAPTER 3

DATA COLLECTION AND TEST RESULTS

3.1 General

Soil samples have been taken from five test pits at 3m depth. During the field work, the
field densities and natural moisture contents of the samples were determined using core
cutter method. The locations of all test pits are shown in Figure 3.1. Based on laboratory
test results of the study area, the soil is classifieds in to clay and silt soil based on USCS
classification. Hence, two representative pits are selected to conduct cyclic simple shear
testing.

Figure 3.1 Location of test pits

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3.2 Summary of some basic test results

Laboratory tests such as consolidation, compaction, free swell, Atterberg limit, sieve
analysis are conducted to gain a better understanding on important properties of soils
under consideration, and how the dynamic shear modulus and damping ratio is
influenced by plasticity index, stress history, void ratio and grain distribution. Field
density and field moisture content are determined to investigate field condition.

All tests were conducted according to ASTM procedures. ASTM D 2937-00 –field
density of Soil, ASTM D 4318 - Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit,
and Plasticity Index of Soils, ASTM D698 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory
Compaction, ASTM D422 - Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils
ASTM D 854-00 – Standard Test for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water
Pycnometer. The sieve analysis was performed to determine the distribution of the
coarser, larger-sized particles, and the hydrometer method was used to determine the
distribution of the finer particles. Table 3.1 presents both laboratory and field test
results.
Table 3 1 Field and maximum densities, water contents and specific gravities
Station Field field Field Dry Specific Maximum Free
density in moisture Density gravity MDD OMC Bulk swell
g/cm3 content in (%) density
%

Secha High 1.58 26.30 1.18 2.71 1.32 42.42 1.95 68

School
Muluwengel 1.56 30.20 1.17 2.67 1.28 43.6 1.84 66
Edigetber 1.51 18 1.15 2.68 1.26 26.5 1.63 35
kebele
(stadium )

Limat-wezy 1.52 17.12 1.16 2.69 1.27 25.81 1.64 35

kebele

AMU HSC 1.52 16.83 1.17 2.70 1.31 25.2 1.69 33

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The grain size distribution curve drawn below helps to make contrast on the grain size
distribution of different test pits.

Grain Size distribution curve

clay soil (Secha
100 Chamo-HSc)

90

80 clay soil
(Muluwengel)
70

60
Percentage finer(%)

silt soil ( AMU-

50 CSc)

40

30 silt soil (sikela

Limat kebele)
20

10
silt soil (Ediget
0 ber)
1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

Grain Size Boundary According To ASTM

Graain size (mm)

Figure 3. 2 Grain size distribution of all test pits

3.3 Soil Classification

The system of classifying soils for engineering purposes based on laboratory

determination of particle-size characteristics, liquid limit, and plasticity index is termed
as unified soil classification system. The unified soil classification system is popular for
use in all types of engineering problems involving soils. Thus, USCS shall be used to get
precise classification for further seismic investigation of the soil under study.

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Table 3. 2 Atterberg limits and Classification

Test pit name Secha Muluwengel Limat- Edigetber Keble AMU
High wezy (stadium ) CSC
school Keble
LL 91 88 55 54 51
PL 37 38 42 41 39
PI 54 50 13 13 12
% passing 4.75mm 100 100 100 100 100
sieve
% passing 0.075mm 94.90 94.35 96.21 96.42 96.22
sieve
Percent silt size (0.075- 53.70 54.32 73 72.31 73.02
0.005 mm) - ASTM
Percent clay size (≤ 41.20 40.03 23.21 24.11 23.21
0.005 mm) -ASTM
USCS Classification Clay (CH) Clay (CH) Silt (MH) Silt (MH) Silt(MH)

3.4 Organic Content Test

Acording to the USCS classification, Limat-wezy, Edigetber kebele and AMU-
community school test result shows the soil is either inorganic silt (MH) or organic
silt(OH), an additional simple test was conducted to check whether the soils are organic
or not. According to ASTM D2487 _ 98, a soil is an organic silt if the liquid limit after
oven drying is less than 75% of the liquid limit of the original specimen determined
before oven drying. However, the test results for Edigetber kebele and AMU-
community school soils indicate that the LL ratio is 85 % and 87 % respectively. These
values are greater than the 75 % boundary indicating that the soils are inorganic silts
(MH).

3.5 One-dimensional Consolidation

Here, the main purpose of one dimensional odemeter test is to get better understanding
on stress history of the soil under study. Inaddation, it helps to determine
preconsolidation pressure which is one of the parameters required to compute the
maximum shear modulus of the soil in this paper. The tests are based on ASTM D2435
- Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation. The one-dimensional
consolidation test results as shown figures 3.3 and 3.4 gives a preconsolidation pressure
of 198KPa for the clay soi and 135 kPa for the silty soil .

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Swelling
Void ratio Vs log Pressure curve secha high school
Loading

0.65
Void ratio, e

0.45

0.25

0.05 198kpa unit (kpa)

1 10 100 1000 10000
Pressure (log scale)

Figure 3.3 Void ratio vs. pressure (log scale) for clay soil

Swelling
Void ratio Vs log Pressure curve secha high school
Loading

0.65
Void ratio, e

0.45

0.25
135k

0.05 unit (kpa)

1 10 100 1000 10000
Pressure (log scale)

Figure 3.4 Void ratio verses pressure (log scale) for silt soil

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3.6 Cyclic simple shear testing system

3.6.1 General overview of the machine

The cyclic simple shear apparatus is generally used for research into the dynamic field
of soil behavior. This test most nearly duplicates the loading conductions thought to
occur during an earthquake.

Nowadays there are different types of cyclic simple shear apparatuses in use. In this
research the type of apparatus used is 31-WF7500 cyclic simple shear machine which is
developed by the Controls Group. The complete system is controlled by the UTS004
software application program [24]. The cyclic simple shear machine is designed to allow
a sample to be consolidated, drained and then sheared.

Figure 3.5 Cyclic simple shear machine (model 31-WF7500)

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3.6.2 Stages and Setup of Cyclic simple shear testing

Sample preparation, consolidation and cyclic shearing are common procudure in the
laboratory to carry out cyclic simple shear test. During simple cyclic shear test,
specimens were initially consolidated to a vertical effective stress level with no applied
static shear stress prior to commencement of constant volume (monotonic or cyclic)
shear loading.

The sample is set up in the machine, which has a rigidly fixed top half and a moving
bottom half. The top half houses the vertical ram. This is housed in a linear bearing to
allow vertical movement and prevent horizontal movement. The bottom half is
mounted on roller bearings as in a standard shear box. The sample is supported by a
rubber membrane placed and secured with O-rings. To maintain a constant diameter
throughout the test, the sample is supported by a series of slip rings. During shear the
rings slide across each other as shown Fig. 2-17. During the shearing stage of the test the
vertical height of the sample is maintained at a constant height by the vertical actuator
in a closed control loop with the vertical displacement transducer. The rings maintain a
constant sample diameter.

Figure 3 6: The movement rings during Shearing Stage

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3.6.1 Specimen preparation

In order to conduct the cyclic simple shear test, the disturbed soil samples have been
remolded to field condition (at field density and water content) to replicate the natural
state. The specimen is cylindrical in shape with 20 mm height and 70 mm diameter.
Once the specimen is prepared, it will be mounted on the cyclic simple shear test
machine for testing.

3.6.2 Consolidation Stage

The consolidation stage is simply the application of a static axial loading stress to the
specimen while the lateral loading (shear) axis is held stationary. Axial stress and
specimen displacements (axial and lateral) data are measured over time and logged by
the system. Logged data is also displayed to the operator in the form of charts and
tables as the test stage proceeds. The consolidation stage is manually terminated by the
operator once consolidation of the specimen is determined to be complete.

The effective pressure applied during consolidation stage of cyclic simple shear test is
taken to be 100Kpa, 200Kpa and 400Kpa. The reason behind to select 100Kpa, 200Kpa
and 400Kpa effective pressures is to account the stress history of the soil (normally-
consolidated, preconsolidaed and partially-preconsolidaed) and to compare with the
previous study results.

3.6.3 Cyclic Simple Shear Stage

The shear strain is induced by horizontal movement at the bottom of the sample relative
to the top. The horizontal diameter of the sample remains constant throughout the test
[22]. A lateral cyclic shear force or a displacement applied to the specimen, while the
axial axis is either maintained at the specified stress, or optionally, the specimen height
is maintained [21]. In this research, the cyclic shear test conducted is strain-dependent
which allows a lateral cyclic displacement to be selected to the specimen.

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The maximum and minimum levels of shear displacement allow the amplitude and
offset of the displacement to be specified. The specimen’s height is maintained constant
during cyclic shear test so that, the test is conducted under constant volume condition.
Both lateral force and specimen displacements are measured for each loading cycle.
Measured data is obtained from 50 sample points captured over a single cycle period
[25].

3.7 Presentation of Cyclic Shear Test results

3.7.1 Axial loads and Shear Strain Levels used

The cyclic simple shear testing machine enables one to conduct cyclic shear test within
the strain levels of 0.01 to 5 percent. This test can also be conducted with different axial
stress, which enables one to see its effect on the values of shear modulus and damping
ratio. In this study, axial loads of 100 kPa, 200 kPa and 400 kPa were used. Table 3.5
below summarizes the axial stress and shear strain values used in this thesis. It should
be noted here that, preparations of specimens and testing have been done for each
strain level and axial load for all samples of representative test pits.

Table3. 3 Axial stress and shear strain values used for this thesis

Test-pit Sample type Axial stress Shear strain (%)

( KPa)
Remolded to field 100 0.01 0.1 1 2.5 5
Clay soil condition 200 0.01 0.1 1 2.5 5
400 0.01 0.1 1 2.5 5
Remolded to field 100 0.01 0.1 1 2.5 5
silt soil condition 200 0.01 0.1 1 2.5 5
400 0.01 0.1 1 2.5 5

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3.7.2 Shear stress and strain parameters

During the cyclic shear stage of the test both lateral force and specimen displacements
are measured for each loading cycle with time. Measured data can be displayed to the
operator on Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. From the lateral force and displacement
recorded data, one can calculate the shear stress (τ) and shear strain (γ) values. Using
the specimen height after consolidation (< 20 mm) and its diameter, 70 mm, the shear
stress and shear strain of the specimen can be calculated based on the following
equation.

HI J ℎ L I J
#= = ∗ 10Q (R<L)
K L 2 ∗ 35:
∆T VW3XT=,FBF@E
= =
U YFWZ[E =\EF] ,^@3^TW0=EW^@

Table 3.9 below shows sample tabulation of shear strain and shear stress from the
lateral force and specimen displacement taken from the 5th cycle test result of silt soil
with peak-to-peak cyclic strain amplitude of 2.5%. The loading frequency used in this
study is 1 Hz, which is commonly used in laboratory tests. From the predefined shear
shape option such as, sinusoidal, triangular etc, the loading cycle shape has been
selected to be sinusoidal (see Figure 3.5) as it is the most common type of seismic wave
shape for analysis [2].

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Table 3. 4 Shear stress and shear strain values of the 5th cycle test result of silt soil with
2.5 % strain and 400 KPa axial loads.

Cycle No Time in sec. Lateral displacement Shear force γ = displacment # = d[F=] \^],F*10Q
18.25 *∗Qef
(mm) (kN)
5 0 -0.32071 -0.4509 -0.02036 -0.1172
0.019 -0.30666 -0.4088 -0.01770 -0.1062
0.038 -0.28661 -0.3516 -0.01654 -0.0914
0.057 -0.25988 -0.2808 -0.01500 -0.0730
0.076 -0.22652 -0.1993 -0.01307 -0.0518
0.095 -0.18492 -0.1124 -0.01067 -0.0292
0.114 -0.13574 -0.0251 -0.00783 -0.0065
0.133 -0.04081 0.0298 -0.00235 0.0078
0.152 0.034495 0.0871 0.00199 0.0226
0.171 0.083155 0.1495 0.00480 0.0388
0.190 0.121865 0.2120 0.00703 0.0551
0.209 0.156345 0.2723 0.00902 0.0708
0.228 0.188675 0.3285 0.01089 0.0854
0.247 0.217715 0.3792 0.01256 0.0985
0.266 0.243865 0.4233 0.01407 0.1100
0.285 0.267095 0.4603 0.01541 0.1196
0.304 0.286665 0.4896 0.01654 0.1272
0.323 0.303085 0.5111 0.01749 0.1328
0.342 0.323255 0.5187 0.01866 0.1348
0.361 0.333045 0.5282 0.01922 0.1373
0.380 0.337445 0.5322 0.01947 0.1383
0.399 0.340705 0.5334 0.01966 0.1386
0.418 0.341905 0.5312 0.01973 0.1380
0.437 0.341825 0.5266 0.01973 0.1368
0.456 0.340765 0.5199 0.01967 0.1351
0.475 0.337215 0.5051 0.01946 0.1312
0.494 0.329495 0.4793 0.01902 0.1245
0.513 0.316535 0.4370 0.01827 0.1135
0.532 0.296445 0.3790 0.01711 0.0985
0.551 0.271095 0.3087 0.01565 0.0802
0.570 0.237715 0.2268 0.01372 0.0589
0.589 0.196515 0.1386 0.01134 0.0360
0.608 0.147335 0.0507 0.00850 0.0132
0.627 0.066245 -0.0157 0.00382 -0.0041

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

0.646 -0.02468 -0.0771 -0.00142 -0.0200

0.665 -0.08133 -0.1355 -0.00469 -0.0352
0.684 -0.12001 -0.1952 -0.00693 -0.0507
0.703 -0.15617 -0.2566 -0.00901 -0.0667
0.722 -0.19236 -0.3164 -0.01110 -0.0822
0.741 -0.22332 -0.3679 -0.01289 -0.0956
0.760 -0.25079 -0.4129 -0.01447 -0.1073
0.779 -0.27585 -0.4513 -0.01592 -0.1173
0.798 -0.29648 -0.4819 -0.01711 -0.1252
0.817 -0.31336 -0.5048 -0.01808 -0.1312
0.836 -0.32592 -0.5199 -0.01881 -0.1351
0.855 -0.33404 -0.5289 -0.01928 -0.1374
0.874 -0.33879 -0.5332 -0.01955 -0.1386
0.893 -0.34151 -0.5334 -0.01971 -0.1386
0.912 -0.34188 -0.5312 -0.01973 -0.1380
0.931 -0.34191 -0.5266 -0.01973 -0.1368

Silt Soil
Sinusoidal shape strain
0.03

0.02

0.01
Shear Strain

0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

-0.01

-0.02

-0.03
Time in sec

Figure3.7 Sinusoidal wave shapes of 2.5 % strain of silt soil for two cycles at 400KPa
axial load

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Table 3. 5 Shear stress and shear strain values of the 5th cycle test result of silt soil with
2.5 % strain and with 400 KPa axial loads.

displacment d[F=] \^],F

Cycle No Time in sec. Lateral displacement Shear force γ=
18.32
#= *10Q
*∗Qef
(mm) (kN)
5 0 -0.3726 -0.180985 -0.0193 -0.0470
0.019 -0.3388 -0.125155 -0.0167 -0.0325
0.038 -0.2948 -0.061445 -0.0145 -0.0160
0.057 -0.2396 0.004495 -0.0118 0.0012
0.076 -0.1735 0.065515 -0.0085 0.0170
0.095 -0.0918 0.111025 -0.0045 0.0288
0.114 0.0089 0.131975 0.0004 0.0343
0.133 0.0856 0.151595 0.0042 0.0394
0.152 0.1512 0.169345 0.0074 0.0440
0.171 0.2041 0.187305 0.0100 0.0487
0.19 0.2481 0.205935 0.0122 0.0535
0.209 0.2851 0.225365 0.0140 0.0586
0.228 0.3171 0.243475 0.0156 0.0633
0.247 0.3439 0.259815 0.0169 0.0675
0.266 0.3678 0.273365 0.0181 0.0710
0.285 0.3878 0.283975 0.0191 0.0738
0.304 0.4045 0.292255 0.0199 0.0759
0.323 0.4169 0.298085 0.0205 0.0775
0.342 0.4270 0.302115 0.0210 0.0785
0.361 0.4333 0.302945 0.0213 0.0787
0.38 0.4349 0.300345 0.0214 0.0780
0.399 0.4336 0.294785 0.0213 0.0766
0.418 0.4305 0.286945 0.0212 0.0746
0.437 0.4231 0.273445 0.0208 0.0711
0.456 0.4083 0.249695 0.0201 0.0649
0.475 0.3845 0.216815 0.0189 0.0563
0.494 0.3470 0.177445 0.0171 0.0461
0.513 0.2924 0.137535 0.0144 0.0357
0.532 0.2157 0.106965 0.0106 0.0278
0.551 0.1158 0.089985 0.0057 0.0234
0.57 0.0345 0.069445 0.0017 0.0180
0.589 -0.0200 0.048895 -0.0010 0.0127
0.608 -0.0684 0.015515 -0.0034 0.0040
0.627 -0.1120 -0.020975 -0.0055 -0.0055

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

0.646 -0.1563 -0.060255 -0.0077 -0.0157

0.665 -0.2018 -0.098485 -0.0099 -0.0256
0.684 -0.2450 -0.138455 -0.0120 -0.0360
0.703 -0.2805 -0.172555 -0.0138 -0.0448
0.722 -0.3130 -0.204445 -0.0154 -0.0531
0.741 -0.3421 -0.232625 -0.0168 -0.0604
0.76 -0.3671 -0.254825 -0.0180 -0.0662
0.779 -0.3876 -0.273165 -0.0191 -0.0710
0.798 -0.4044 -0.286415 -0.0199 -0.0744
0.817 -0.4166 -0.295345 -0.0205 -0.0767
0.836 -0.4253 -0.300795 -0.0209 -0.0782
0.855 -0.4307 -0.302945 -0.0212 -0.0787
0.874 -0.4342 -0.302655 -0.0213 -0.0786
0.893 -0.4349 -0.299605 -0.0214 -0.0779
0.912 -0.4348 -0.294765 -0.0214 -0.0766
0.931 -0.4301 -0.282725 -0.0211 -0.0735

Clay Soil
Sinusoidal Wave Shapes
0.03

0.02

0.01
Shear Strain

0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

-0.01

-0.02

-0.03
Time in sec.

Figure 3. 8 Sinusoidal wave shapes of 2.5 % strain of clay soil for two cycles

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

3.7.3 Hysteresis loops of test results

The hysteresis loop of each cycle can be plotted using the results of shear strains and
shear stresses that can be computed and presented with excel program. In most seismic
events, the number of significant cycles is likely to be less than 20 [2]. For all practical
purposes, the values determined at 5th cycles likely to provide reasonable values [3].
Figure 3.7 shows the hysteresis loops of the 5th cycle plotted for each strain level of silt
soil tested under 400 KPa axial stresses. In this study, the number of cycles used in a
taste is 40 cycles and Figure 3.7 shows the hysteresis loops of 40 cycles together in each
strain levels of silt soil tested with 400 KPa. It has been shown in section 2.1.2 that the
deformation characteristics of soils vary to a large extent depending upon the
magnitude of shear strains to which the soils are subjected. And also the values of shear
modulus and damping ratio will depend on the magnitude of the strain for which the
hysteresis loop is determined. Figure 3.7 shows the hysteresis loops of the 5th cycles for
each strain level test together and it shows how the value of shear strain affects the
shape and size of the hysteresis loops. As the shear strain increases, the line connecting
the tips of the hysteresis loop rotate clockwise implying a decrease shear modulus
decreases. The width of the hysteresis loop becomes wider as the shear strain value
increases. As a result, the damping effect of the soil increases.

0.006
0.01% strain 0.1% strain
0.008

0.004 0.006

0.004
shear stress (MPa)

0.002
Shear Stress (MPa)

0.002
0 0
-0.05 0 0.05 -0.1 -0.05 -0.002 0 0.05 0.1
-0.002
-0.004
-0.004
-0.006

-0.006 -0.008
strain %
shear strain %

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

1 % Strain 2.5% strain

0.06
0.15

0.04
0.1

0.02
Shear stress(MPa)

0.05

stress
0
0
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-0.02
-0.05

-0.04
-0.1

-0.06 -0.15
strain % strain %

5% strain
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
Shear stress(MPa)

0.05
0.00
-6 -4 -2 -0.05 0 2 4 6

-0.10
-0.15
-0.20
-0.25
strain %

Figure 3. 9 Hysteresis loops of the 5th cycle of silt soil at 400 KPa of axial stress tests
for each strain levels

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

5thcycle fo0.25
each strain level
0.2
Axial stress
0.15

0.1
0.1%strain
0.05
stress(KPa)

0.01%strai
n 0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-0.05

-0.1

-0.15

-0.2

-0.25
strain in %

Figure3. 10 Hysteresis loops of the 5th cycle of silt soil at 100,200 &400KPa axial load &
for each strain level in percent

0.01% strain 0.1% strain

0.01
0.015
0.008

0.006 0.01

0.004
0.005
Shear Stress (MPa)

shear stress(MPa)

0.002

0 0
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
-0.002
-0.005
-0.004

-0.006
-0.01
-0.008

-0.01 -0.015
Strain(%) shear strain %

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

1% 2.5% strain
0.08
0.15
0.06
0.1
0.04
shear stress (MPa)

0.02 0.05

stress
0
0
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-0.02 -4 -2 0 2 4
-0.05
-0.04

-0.06 -0.1

-0.08
strain % -0.15
strain %

5% strain
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
Shear stress(MPa)

0.05
0
-6 -4 -2 -0.05 0 2 4 6

-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
strain %

Figure3. 11: Hysteresis loops of the 5th cycle of clay soil for each strain levels in percent
at 400KPa axial stress

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

5th cycle Hysteresis loop for each strain level

0.25

Axial stress
0.2

0.15

0.1
1% strain

0.05
Shear stress(MPa)

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-0.05 0.1% strain

0.01% strain

-0.1

-0.15

-0.2

-0.25
strain %

Figure 3. 12 Hysteresis loops of the 5th cycle of clay soil at 100KPa, 200Kpa & 400KPa
axial load for each strain level in percent

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS

4.1 Computation of shear modulus and damping ratio values

Direct determination of stress-strain relationships are used for obtaining shear modulus and
damping ratio by using cyclic simple shear test. As we have seen in section 3.3.4, the measured
values of shear force and lateral displacement have been translated to shear stress and shear
strain. And the hysteresis loops of each cycle can be plotted using the shear stress and strain
values obtained from 50 sample points in a cycle. These 50 sample point’s shear stress and shear
strain values in a cycle have been analyzed for the determination of shear modulus and
damping ratio values of the hysteresis loop. ASTM D3999 indicates that the shear modulus

and damping ratio values determined at 5th cycle is likely to provide reasonable values
for all practical purpose. Thus, in this research, the 5th cycle is selected for analysis
purpose. For the determination of shear modulus, G, and damping ratio, D, a typical
calculation is presented below.
#
g=
/V KT^^X
.= =
42/d 42K∆

KT^^X = 0.5 ∗ (#W − #Wh> ) ∗ ( W + Wh> )

K∆ = 0.5 ∗ j + k

j= B=l − ,F@EF]

k = #B=l − #,F@EF]

Since, the center of the hysteresis loop is at the origin; both the stress and strain value at
centre is zero. The shear strains and stresses are computed in Table 4.1. The shear
modulus and damping ratio are calculated as indicated in Table4.2Using the shear
strain and damping ratio values of Table 4.1, the hysteresis loop of a given cycle is
plotted in Figure 4.1.

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

SILT SOIL 5th Cycle of 2.5% strain at 400kpa axial stress

hysteresis loop
0.15

0.1

0.05 X
stress

0
-0.03 -0.02 -0.02 -0.01 -0.01 0.00 0.01 Y 0.01 0.02 0.02
-0.05

-0.1
mLn moD

-0.15
strain

Figure 4.1 The hysteresis loop and triangle plotted using table 4.1 stress and strain values.

Table 4.1 computation of shear strains and shear stresses

displacment d[F=] \^],F
Cycle No Time in sec. γ= # *10Q (MPa) ;;#W #Wh> ∗ ; W i Wh>
18.25 *∗Qef

5 0 -0.017573 -0.087868 0.0003761

0.019 -0.016803 -0.079664 0.0004827
0.038 -0.015704 -0.068526 0.0005514
0.057 -0.014240 -0.054715 0.0005639
0.076 -0.012412 -0.038845 0.0005094
0.095 -0.010132 -0.021898 0.0003985
0.114 -0.007438 -0.004889 0.0001380
0.133 -0.002236 0.005814 0.0000051
0.152 0.001890 0.016979 -0.0001045
0.171 0.004556 0.029136 -0.0001825
0.19 0.006678 0.041322 -0.0002387
0.209 0.008567 0.053068 -0.0002761
0.228 0.010338 0.064020 -0.0002934
0.247 0.011930 0.073903 -0.0002899
0.266 0.013362 0.082499 -0.0002690
0.285 0.014635 0.089706 -0.0002311
0.304 0.015708 0.095418 -0.0001801
0.323 0.016607 0.099598 -0.0000680

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

0.342 0.017713 0.099684 -0.0000890

0.361 0.018249 0.099790 -0.0000386
0.38 0.018490 0.099791 -0.0000107
0.399 0.018669 0.099846 0.0000213
0.418 0.019735 -0.099696 0.0000444
0.437 0.018730 -0.099684 0.0000654
0.456 0.018672 0.098975 0.0001429
0.475 0.018478 0.098431 0.0002451
0.494 0.018055 0.093399 0.0003890
0.513 0.017344 0.085157 0.0005063
0.532 0.016244 0.073852 0.0005675
0.551 0.014855 0.060165 0.0005933
0.57 0.013025 0.044204 0.0005456
0.589 0.010768 0.027008 0.0004300
0.608 0.008073 0.009889 0.0002020
0.627 0.003630 -0.003055 0.0000364
0.646 -0.001352 -0.015032 -0.0000882
0.665 -0.004456 -0.026415 -0.0001711
0.684 -0.006576 -0.038046 -0.0002412
0.703 -0.008557 -0.049998 -0.0002970
0.722 -0.010540 -0.061662 -0.0003047
0.741 -0.012236 -0.071695 -0.0003036
0.76 -0.013742 -0.080461 -0.0002885
0.779 -0.015115 -0.087960 -0.0002493
0.798 -0.016245 -0.093921 -0.0001985
0.817 -0.017170 -0.098376 -0.0001375
0.836 -0.017858 -0.099684 -0.0000847
0.855 -0.018303 -0.099790 -0.0000413
0.874 -0.018564 -0.099791 -0.0000013
0.893 -0.018713 -0.099846 0.0000213
0.912 -0.019735 -0.099696 0.0000449
0.931 -0.018730 -0.099684 0.0007925

The equivalent shear modulus of soil (G) can be determined from the shear modulus
and confining pressure relationship or from the hysteresis loop directly. Because most
soils have curvilinear stress-strain relationships, the tangent shear modulus (Gtan) varies
through a cycle of loading but, its average value over the entire loop can be
approximated by the secant shear modulus (Gsec,) which is commonly called
equivalent shear modulus (G)[13]. Thus secant shear modulus describes the general
inclination of the hysteresis loop.

AAiT 45
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

In order to determine the shear modulus and damping ratio values of a hysteresis loop,
consider the following procedure: The equivalent (secant) shear modulus, the
maximum and minimum shear stresses and shear strains are obtained from the cycle.
Then, the magnitude of the difference between the maximum and minimum shear
stresses and shear strains are determined. Thus, the equivalent shear modulus of the
hysteresis loop will be calculated by using based on figure 4.1
#B=l − #BW@
g=
B=l − BW@

To determine the damping ratio value of the hysteresis loop, the area of the loop and
the triangle should be first determined.

KT^^X = 0.5 ∗ p(#W − #Wh> ) ∗ ( W + Wh> )

The area of the triangle was calculated using the maximum values of shear stress and
strain as:
K∆ = 0.5 ∗ j +Y
Then, the damping ratio (D) value is calculated as:
KT^^X
.=
42K∆
Table 4.2 Typical calculation of shear modulus and damping ratio using
Calculation of Shear Modulus Calculation of Damping ratio
Calculation Value Calculation Value
#B=l KT^^X = 0.5 ∗ p(#W − #Wh> ) ∗ ( W + Wh> )
0.099846 0.0013

#BW@ -0.099846 K∆ = 0.5 ∗ j + k 0.001

=0.5*0.099846*0.01974
#B=l − #BW@ 0.199 KT^^X 0.1514
=.
B=l 0.01974 42K∆
BW@ -0.01974
B=l − BW@ 0.040 q (%) 10.30
$rst ?$ruv
g= &rst ?&ruv
4.96MPa

Based on Table 4.2, the values of shear modulus and damping ratio of each cycle in a test can be
determined. In this study, a single specimen was tested up to 40 cycles and Table 4.3 below shows
shear modulus and damping ratio values of each cycle of silt soil tested with 400 KPa axial loads.

AAiT 46
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Table 4.3 Values of shear modulus and damping ratio for silt soil tested at 400 KPa axial loads

Strain Level 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5% 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5%

No. Cycle Shear Modulus G(MPa) Damping Ratio q(%)
1 15.5358 11.3832 7.6873 4.4016 1.6843 0.2309 2.7625 6.6833 11.2194 15.7684
2 15.6117 11.6757 7.8779 4.5572 1.7735 0.1141 2.5287 6.6138 10.9418 14.6161
3 15.7654 11.7297 8.4404 4.6094 1.8215 0.1148 2.4524 6.4891 10.6526 14.4927
4 16.2122 12.5596 8.5153 4.6433 1.8959 0.1134 2.4524 6.3138 10.3680 14.4854
5 17.1575 12.6919 8.6933 4.9556 2.0929 0.1156 2.3207 5.8972 10.3304 14.3869
6 17.2293 12.6400 8.8614 4.8629 2.1943 0.1086 2.2742 5.6841 10.2835 14.1163
7 17.7242 12.7388 8.8626 4.9164 2.3026 0.2070 2.5533 5.6100 10.2835 13.6621
8 17.8646 13.3657 8.9442 4.9601 2.3364 0.1070 2.2666 5.5095 10.2786 13.8089
9 17.8477 13.1350 8.9091 5.0376 2.3371 0.0930 2.2531 5.3739 10.1737 13.8492
10 18.2807 13.1435 9.0992 5.0455 2.3400 0.0972 2.2696 5.0380 10.0269 13.7092
11 17.5100 13.0971 9.2664 4.7560 2.3018 0.0901 2.1272 4.9753 9.7105 13.6591
12 17.6646 13.0403 9.3252 4.8066 2.3080 0.0880 1.9516 4.9721 9.7185 13.5891
13 17.8376 13.1879 9.3501 4.8279 2.3144 0.0857 1.8857 4.8975 9.8903 13.5438
14 18.2178 13.1993 9.3572 4.8560 2.3156 0.0824 1.8800 4.8751 9.7430 13.5429
15 18.2386 13.6048 9.3764 4.8629 2.3230 0.0792 1.8798 4.8595 9.9502 13.5247
16 18.3620 13.6495 9.4117 4.8821 2.3401 0.0792 1.8543 4.7919 9.9002 13.4645
17 18.4602 13.6285 9.4565 4.9071 2.3403 0.0758 1.8427 4.4576 9.8826 13.5356
18 18.5047 13.7285 9.4583 4.9120 2.3425 0.0566 1.7985 4.4530 9.0024 13.5803
19 18.5660 13.7318 9.5005 4.9547 2.3433 0.0521 1.9019 4.4524 9.6272 13.4774
20 18.6130 13.7232 9.8912 5.2066 2.3513 0.0421 1.8217 4.4451 9.5099 13.2875
21 17.6159 13.5546 9.2131 5.0973 2.3404 0.0464 1.7595 4.4312 9.0612 13.4738
22 18.6421 13.6370 9.2317 5.1143 2.3427 0.0501 1.7414 4.4229 8.9535 13.3494
23 18.6602 13.7320 9.2403 5.1224 2.3522 0.0490 1.6394 4.4074 8.9220 13.2374
24 18.6872 13.7747 9.2642 5.1360 2.3539 0.0481 1.5945 4.4068 8.8255 13.2274
25 18.7184 13.8238 9.2842 5.1523 2.3564 0.0470 1.5278 4.3975 8.7726 13.2064
26 18.7714 13.9787 9.2860 5.1644 2.3564 0.0448 1.5267 4.3974 8.7186 13.3701
27 18.7829 13.9798 9.2884 5.1848 2.3564 0.0403 1.5898 4.3656 8.4992 13.2592
28 18.8184 14.1343 9.3002 5.2147 2.3566 0.0392 1.4941 4.3575 7.9585 13.3768
29 18.8642 14.1823 9.3044 5.2355 2.3591 0.0359 1.5053 4.3482 7.9429 13.3103
30 18.9169 14.4514 10.2547 6.1094 2.3548 0.0367 1.5275 4.3171 7.8808 12.7563
31 18.2804 14.5985 9.5601 5.3959 2.3620 0.0311 1.5682 4.2876 8.9568 13.1765
32 19.0248 14.7308 9.5548 5.3777 2.3668 0.0282 1.5567 4.2857 8.9219 13.2015
33 19.0944 14.7502 9.5987 5.3671 2.3696 0.3104 1.5275 4.2823 8.7669 13.1881
34 19.1717 14.8135 9.5884 5.3298 2.5234 0.0307 1.5170 4.2706 7.9610 13.1759
35 19.1917 14.8607 9.5313 5.3668 2.5243 0.0289 1.5249 4.2651 7.9501 13.1613
36 19.2210 14.9763 9.5466 5.3501 2.5262 0.0238 1.4831 4.1583 7.9403 13.0891
37 19.2769 15.0643 9.5785 5.3450 2.5334 0.0376 1.4604 4.0666 7.8851 12.2145
38 19.2942 15.1050 9.5701 5.5089 2.5400 0.0360 1.4355 4.0586 7.8153 11.8941
39 19.3149 15.1193 9.5904 5.5275 2.5400 0.0359 1.4849 4.0489 7.7038 12.2294
40 19.4642 15.2287 10.5972 6.7998 2.5410 0.0369 1.4581 4.0124 7.5600 11.4051

AAiT 47
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Using the values of shear modulus and damping ratio, the shear modulus and damping
ratio curves can be plotted. Figure 4.2 shows the shear modulus and damping ratio
curves for some selected sites.

Shear Modulus for Silt Soil at 400KPa

25.0

20.0 Cycle No.

1
shear modulus (MPa)

5
15.0
10

10.0 20
30
5.0 40

0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
strain(%)

Figure 4.2 Shear Modulus curves of silt soil for selected cycles

Damping ratio for Silt Soil at 400KPa

18.0

16.0
Cycle No.
14.0
1
12.0
Damping ratio (%)

5
10.0
10
8.0
20
6.0
30
4.0
40
2.0

0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
strain(%)

Figure 4 3 Damping Ratio curves of silt soil for selected cycles

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Table 4. 4 Shear modulus and Damping ratio values of clay soil, at 400KPa axial stress

Clay soil, 400KPa

Strain Level 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5% 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5%
No. Cycle Shear Modulus G(MPa) Damping Ratio q(%
1 15.4650 12.1386 8.4585 4.6041 1.2429 0.2209 2.3094 5.7188 10.8304 14.6127
5 16.7660 12.3680 8.5512 4.6421 1.3077 0.1133 2.2469 5.4473 10.2274 14.0222
10 17.6413 13.4498 9.2958 6.3419 1.5336 0.0948 2.0790 4.7283 9.6814 12.9067
20 18.2729 14.2506 10.5766 6.7117 2.0042 0.0814 1.5620 4.2671 9.3633 12.2808
30 19.2695 15.7776 11.6445 7.4225 2.3559 0.0569 1.3105 4.0936 8.3087 11.4658
40 20.1448 16.6251 12.0341 8.1499 2.7285 0.0261 1.1114 3.5717 7.3651 9.9707

22
Clay soil Shear Modulus at 400KPa
20 Cycle No.
18
Shear Modulus(MPa)

16 1
14 5
12
10
10
8 20
6 30
4
40
2
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Clay Soil Damping Ratio at 400KPa

16.0
Cycle No.
14.0

12.0 1
Damping ratio (%)

10.0 5
10
8.0
20
6.0
30
4.0
40
2.0

0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
strain(%)

Figure 4.4: Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio curves of clay soil for selected cycles

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

4.2 Effect of number of cycles and Axial Loads

Previous study shows strength degradation would occur from cycle to cycle as cycling
loading continues. As indicated in figures 4.2 to 4.4 the variation of both shear modulus
and damping ratio for different cycles are nearly the same. The effect of number of
cycles with increase axial loads shows slight difference on the shear modulus and
damping ratio values.

As mentioned in the previous sections it is the consolidation stress which has a

significant influence on shear modulus and damping values. In this research samples
were consolidated under an axial stress of 100, 200 and 400KPa in order to evaluate the
influence of consolidation stress. The variation of both shear modulus and damping
ratio at different axial stress showed in figures 4.5 to 4.8.

Silt soil at 5th cycle

18

16

14
Shear Modulus(MPa)

Increasing Axial load

12

10

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Figure 4. 5 Effect of axial loads on shear modulus of the Silt soil

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Clay soil 5th cycle

20

18

16

Increasing Axial load

14
Shear Modulus(MPa)

12

10

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Figure 4 6 Effect of axial loads on shear modulus of the clay soil

Figures 4-5 and 4.6 (for both silt and clay soil), it can be seen that samples consolidated
to a higher consolidation stress have higher shear modulus values.

Silt soil 5th cycle

35.0

30.0
Decreasing Axial load
Damping Ratio (MPa)

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain (%)

Figure 4 .7 Effect of axial loads on damping ratio of silt soil

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Clay soil at 5th cycle

30

25

Decreasing Axial load

20
Damping Ratio(%)

15

10

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Figure 4. 8 Effect of axial loads on damping ratio of clay soil

4.3 Computation of maximum shear modulus

The maximum shear modulus, modulus of reduction and damping ratio of the soil are
important parameters for dynamic analysis of the soil. The maximum shear modulus
can be obtained from low strain seismic geophysical test which involves the
measurements of body wave velocities which can be easily related to low-strain soil
moduli or by using empirical correlations with index properties of soil. The maximum
shear modulus, Gmax which corresponds to very low strain levels cannot be determined
using cyclic simple shear tests. Therefore, for the sake of comparison in this study,
computation of Gmax is done using the expression in Equation (4.1) and presented
below.
(:.yzQ?F)f
gB=l = 14760 ({|})= (A′B )~.e
>hF

Where Gmax is the maximum shear modulus (lb/ft2) and e is void ratio of the soil
•€ &•
= − 12
&‚
Where; a is a parameter that depend on the plasticity index of the soil and determined
using Table 4.5.

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Table 4 .5 values of a with respect to plasticity index [26]

PI a
0 0
20 0.18
40 0.30
60 0.41
80 0.48
≥ 100 0.5

The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) of soil is expressed as:

ƒ′
{|} = ƒ′ %
„

Where σc' is pre-consolidation pressure of a specimen

σp' is present effective vertical pressure
σm' is mean principal effective stress (lb/ft2)
…† hƒf hƒ‡
AB =
Q

Where σ1 is the axial stress and σ2 = σ3 are the lateral confining stresses

Using K0 loading condition, lateral stresses can be determined from the applied axial
stress as:

8Q = A: = ˆ^ A>

K0 is coefficient of earth pressure at rest and estimated reasonably to 0.5 for these silt
soils.
From Table 4.5, the value of a range from 0 to 0.41 as the PI value goes from 0 to 60.
Linear interpolation was used for the determination of a for each test pit (see Table 4.8).
Table 4.6 Values of the parameters PI, a and e for all test pits

Parameter Secha Chamo High School AMU-community School(Sikela)

PI 54 12
a 0.377 0.108
e 1.3051 1.3077

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Computation of Gmax has been made for both silt and clay soil using the above
procedures and tabulated in Table 4.7. For the sake of comparison Gmax values for
different soil types are presented in Table 4.8.

Table 4. 7 Typical Gmax values of soils [9]

Type of soil Initial shear modulus Gmax (KPa)

Soft clays 2750 - 13750
Firm clays 6900 -34500
Silty sands 27600 -138000
Dense Sands and Gravel 69000 -345000

Table 4. 8 Computed Gmax values with different axial stresses

Axial loads 100KPa

Soil type Clay Soil Silt Soil
Pre-consolidation 198 135
pressure(KPa)
AB (lb/ft2) 1392.37 1392.37

OCR 1.98 1.35

Gmax(lb/ft2) 859936.383 683674.849
Gmax(KPa) 41173.9767 32734.5288
Axial loads 200KPa
Soil type Clay Soil Silt Soil
Pre-consolidation 198 135
pressure(KPa)
AB (lb/ft2) 2784.74 2784.74
OCR 0.99 0.675
Gmax(lb/ft2) 936468.154 897125.8314
Gmax(KPa) 44838.3378 42954.6171
Axial loads 400KPa
Soil type Clay Soil Silt Soil
Pre-consolidation 198 135
pressure(KPa)
AB (lb/ft2) 5569.48 5569.48
OCR 0.495 0.3375
Gmax(lb/ft2) 1019811.025 1177218.613
Gmax(KPa) 48828.816 56365.5321

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

4.4 Modulus reduction (G/Gmax) values

The modulus reduction curves are the most widely used way of characterizing the
modulus of soil under cyclic loading. Table 4.9 shows the modulus reduction values
determined using the G values of 5th cycle and the calculated Gmax values of table 4.8.
The value of Gmax is used to obtain the normalized shear modulus which is then
compared with those obtained from literature.
Table 4 9 Modulus ratio (G/Gmax) values

Axial Load 100KPa

Shear Strain (%) 0.01 0.1 1 2.5 5
G/Gmax
Secha Chamo High School (Secha)
0.35412 0.27016 0.18044 0.10855 0.00559
AMU-Community School (Sikela)
0.3579 0.2928 0.1593 0.0982 0.0472
Axial Load 200KPa
Shear Strain(%) 0.01 0.1 1 2.5 5
G/Gmax
Secha Chamo High School (Secha)
0.3458 0.2568 0.1661 0.0974 0.0269
AMU-Community School (Sikela)
0.3387 0.2416 0.1265 0.0763 0.0378
Axial Load 400KPa
Shear Strain(%) 0.01 0.1 1 2.5 5
G/Gmax
Secha Chamo High School (Secha)
0.3274 0.2433 0.1551 0.0951 0.0268
AMU-Community School (Sikela)
0.27044 0.2252 0.1242 0.0779 0.0371

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

CHAPTER 5

COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS WITH LITERATURES

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Previously, some researchers developed different modulus reduction and damping

ratio for different soil types. Modulus reduction and damping ratio curves of sand and
saturated clay developed by Seed and Indriss,(1970), modulus reduction and damping
ratio curves of different PI soil developed by Vucetic and Dobry (1991), modulus
reduction and damping ratio curves of silt soil developed by Ayalew ,and modulus
reduction and damping ratio curves of silty clay soil developed by Abu are used to
compare the test results of soils under study.

5.2 Shear modulus reduction

The computed shear modulus reduction values from Table 4.9 are plotted on the curves
developed by Seed and Indris (fig. 5.1 -5.4). Similar plot is done on the curve of Vucetic and
Dobry (fig. 5.5-5.6). Regarding local soils a comparsion is made with the curve done by Ayalew
and Abu (fig. 5.7 -5.10).

1.2 Clay soil Comparison with Sand

limits
0.8
ts Axial load
G/Gmax

100kpa
0.6
Axial load
0.4 200kpa

Axial load
0.2 400Kpa

0
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain (%)

Figure 5. 1 location of modulus reduction values of Clay soil) as compared with curves
developed for sand by Seed and Indriss (1970)

AAiT 56
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Silt soil Comparison with Sand

1.2

1 Axial load
100kpa
0.8
limits
G/Gmax

Axial load
0.6 200kpa

0.4
Axial
Load
0.2
400kpa
0
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain (%)

Figure 5. 2 location of modulus reduction values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed for sand by Seed and Indriss (1970)

From the above figure, it can be seen that the obtained normalized shear values are
located lower than those suggested by literature at lower strains ( =0.01%). For higher
strains the obtained normalized shear values agree with those suggested by literature.

1.2
Clay soil Comparison with Saturated clay

1
Axial
0.8 load
Damping ratio

100kpa
Axial
0.6
load
200kpa
0.4 Axial
load
0.2 400kpa

0
1E-05 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5. 3: Location of modulus reduction values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed for saturated clay by Seed and Indriss (1970)

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Silt soil Comparison with Saturated clay

1.2

1
Axial load
100kpa
0.8
Damping ratio

Axial load
0.6 200kpa

Axial load
0.4 400kpa

0.2

0
1E-05 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5. 4: Location of modulus reduction values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed for saturated clay by Seed and Indris (1970)

Clay soil Comparison with Vucetic and Dobry curves

1.2

1
Axial load
100kpa
0.8
Axial load
G/Gmax

0.6 200kpa

Axial load
0.4
400kpa

0.2

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5 .5: Location of modulus reduction values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed by Vucetic and Dobry (1991)

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Silt soil Comparison with Vucetic and Dobry

1.2 curves
Axial load
1 100kpa

Axial load
0.8
200kpa
G/Gmax

0.6 Axial load

400kpa

0.4

0.2

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5 .6: Location of modulus reduction values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed by Vucetic and Dobry (1991)

0.4 Clay soil Comparison with Ayalew

Axial
0.35 load
100kpa
0.3 Axial
load
0.25 200kpa
G/Gmax

Axial
0.2 load
400kpa
0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Figure 5. 7 Location of modulus reduction values of Clay soil as compared with

Ayalew’s curves developed for silt soil (2012)

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

0.4 Silt soil Comparison with Ayalew

0.35 Axial
load
0.3 100kpa
Axial
0.25 load
200kpa
G/Gmax

0.2 Axial
load
0.15 400kpa

0.1

0.05

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Figure 5. 8 Location of modulus reduction values of Silt soil (Sikela AMUCSc) as compared with
Ayalew’s curves developed for silt soil (2012)

Clay soil Comparison with Abu Gemech curves

0.6

0.5
Axial load
100kpa
0.4
G/Gmax

Axial load
0.3 200kpa

0.2
Axial load
400kpa
0.1

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5. 5 Location of modulus reduction values of Clay soil as compared with ABu’s curves
developed for silt clay soil (2011)

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Silt soil Comparison with Abu Gemechu curves

0.6

Axial load
0.5 400kpa

0.4 Axial load

100kpa
G/Gmax

0.3
Axial load
200Kpa
0.2

0.1

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5 6: Location of modulus reduction values of Silt soil (Sikela AMUCSc) as compared with
Abu’s curves developed for silt soil (2011)

At lower strains ( ≤0.01%) as shown (figures 5.5 and 5.6) that the obtained normalized
shear values are located lower than those curves developed by Vucetic and Dobry
(1991). Similalrly, figures 5.1 to 5.4 show similar trainds compared with the curve (at
lower strains, ≤0.01%) doveloped by Seed and Indris (1970). However, at higher
strains ( ≥0.01%) the computed normalized shear values agree with those suggested by
Seed and Indris (1970), and Vucetic and Dobry (1991). Regarding coparision with local
soils (figures 5.7 & 5.10) the computed normalized shear values slightly higher than the
curves developed by Ayalew for silt soil of Awassa (2012) but well fitted with curves
developed by Abu for silty clay soil of Adama (2011).

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

5.3 Damping ratio

The computed damping ratio values of silt and clay soil (Tables 4.3 - 4.4) can be plotted
and compared with different damping ratio curves from literatures. Figures 5.11 - 5.20
show location of damping ratio test results as compared with different literature curves.

clay soil comparison with sand

30
Axial load
25 100kpa

20
Damping ratio

Axial load
200kpa
15

10
Axial load
400kpa
5

0
1E-05 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
strain(%)

Figure 5 .11 Location of damping ratio values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed for sand by Seed and Indriss (1970)

Silt soil comparison with sand

40

35 Axial load
100kpa
30
Damping ratio

25 Axial load
200kpa
20

15
Axial load
10 400kpa

0
1E-05 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
strain(%)

Figure 5.7 Location of damping ratio values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed for sand by Seed and Indriss (1970)

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

clay soil comparison with S.Clay

35

Axial load
30
100kpa

25
Damping ratio

Axial load
20 200kpa

15
Axial load
10 400kpa

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain(%)

Figure5.8 Location of damping ratio values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed for saturated clay by Seed and Indriss (1970)

Silt soil comparison with S.Clay

40

35

30
Damping ratio

25

20

15

10

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain(%)

Figure 5.9 Location of damping ratio values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed for saturated clay by Seed and Indriss (1970)

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Clay soil Comparison with Vucetic and Dobry curves

30

25 Axial load
100kpa
20
Damping ratio

15 Axial load
200kpa
10

5 Axial load
400kpa
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5.10 Location of damping ratio values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed by Vucetic and Dobry (1991)

Silt soil Comparison with Vucetic and Dobry curves

40

35
Axial load
30 100kpa
Damping ratio

25

20 Axial load
200kpa
15

10
Axial load
400kpa
5

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5. 11 Location of damping ratio values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed by Vucetic and Dobry (1991)

AAiT 64
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

30
Clay soil Comparison with Ayalew's curve

25 Axial load
100kpa
20
Damping ratio

Axial load
15
200Kpa

10
Axial load
5 400kpa

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5.12: Location of damping ratio values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed by Ayalew (2012) for silt soil of Awassa

Silt soil Comparison with Ayalew's curve

40

35 Axial load
100kpa
30
Damping ratio

25
Axial load
20
200kpa
15

10
Axial load
5 400kpa

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Strain (%)

Figure 5.13: Location of damping ratio values of silt soil as compared with curves
developed by Ayalew (2012) for silt soil of Awassa

AAiT 65
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

30 Clay soil Comparison with Abu's curve

25
Axial load
100kpa
20
Damping Ratio

15 Axial load
200kpa
10
Axial load
5 400kpa

0
0.001 0.01 0.1(%)
Strain 1 10

Figure 5.14 : Location of damping ratio values of Clay soil as compared with curves
developed for silt by Abu (2011)

Silt soil Comparison with Abu's curve

40

35
Axial load
30 100kpa

25
Damping Ratio

Axial load
20
200kpa

15

10
Axial load
400kpa
5

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain (%)

Figure 5.15: Location of damping ratio values of Silt soil as compared with curves
developed for silt by Abu (2011)

AAiT 66
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

The observed trends of damping ratio-shear strain (%) development under cyclic
loading for both silt soil and clay soil are generally slightly less as compared to those
previously noted literature curves developed by Seed and Indriss(1970) shown in
figures 5.11-5.14. Similar trained are seen on curves developed by Vucetic and Dobry
(1991) as shown figures 5.15 - 5.16. Regarding comparison with local soil damping ratio
literature curves, both silt soil and clay soil are similar with silty clay soil (Adama town)
and silt soils (Awassa town) as shown in Figures 5.17 – 5.20.

In reality, the position of damping ratio curves for silt soil test result would be expected
to be in between the curve for sand and clay. However, this is not the case for the silt
soil considered in this study compared to curves developed by Seed and Indriss (1970)
and Vucetic and Dobry (1991) as shown in figures 5.13 -5.16. The test results lie around
the lower side of the literature curves for clay soil. This divergence may be due to the
following factors.

For this study samples are remolded to field density and moisture content which
cause significant changes to the particle structure and different to the
conditioned of the soil in the literature.
All laboratory devices have its own limitations and effect on the values, the
cyclic ring shear test has some limitations, such as stress and strain non-
uniformities associated with some specimen dimensions, difficulties in
performing undrained testing, and friction that develops along the walls of the
specimen confining rings. Most previous tests were conducted using cyclic
triaxial testing machine. Thus, the type of the testing machine may cause
variation on the values.
The difference in testing conditions, as it was not possible to fully saturate the
soil during consolidation.
And other unknown factors.

In general the damping ratio results are relatively lower than literature results caused
by the above and other factors.

AAiT 67
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion

This study has investigated of dynamic property of soil of Arba Minch Town from five
test pits. A series of cyclic simple shear tests for two types of soil (clay and silt) have
been performed using cyclic simple shear testing machine on remolded samples to
determine the shear modulus and damping ratio of the soils. In addition, index
property tests were conducted in the laboratory. From the index property, the soils are
classified in to silt (Sikela town) and clay (Secha town). Field density and natural
moisture content are determined so as to replicate some natural state during
remoulding the sample in the laboratory. Based on the investigation obtained the
following conclusions may be drawn.
1. The shear modulus and damping ratio obtained for both the silt and clay soil
show similar trained compared with silty clay in Adama and silt in Awassa.
2. The shear modulus and damping ratio curves show similar trained comparing
with the curves presented in the literature by Seed and Indriss (1970). Similar
trained observed with curve developed by Vucetic and Dobry (1991).
3. The location of the shear modulus curves for both silt and clay soil (at a strain
≤ 0.01%) are lower than the literature curves developed by Seed and Indriss
(1970). This shows that the testing conditions and sample preparation appear to
have significant effect on the shear modulus values at small strain ( ≤ 0.01%).
4. The location of the damping ratio curves for both silt and clay are generally lower
than the literature curves developed by Seed and Indriss (1970), and Vucetic and
Dobry (1991). This shows that testing condition and sample preparation appear to
have significant effect on the damping ratio compared with its effect on the shear
modulus values for all strain level.
5. The computed maximum shear modulus for silt is higher than for clay soil.

AAiT 68
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

6. As the axial load increases, shear modulus increases while damping ratio
decreases for both silt and clay.
7. The maximum shear modulus (Gmax) increased with increasing confining
pressure.
8. As the strain rate increases, shear modulus decreases while damping ratio

increase

6.2 Recommendation
From this study the following recommendation can be drawn:

• The test should be repeated using cyclic triaxial testing machine to have a better
understanding and characterization of the dynamic properties of the soils by
comparing with the literature.
• Better to carry out tests with different moisture content to observe the effect of
consistency on the shear modulus and damping ratio of the soil.
• Conducting field tests like standard penetration test helps to see the consistency
of laboratory test results with field condition and estimate the potential sample
disturbance effect on results of laboratory shear strength tests values.

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Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

LIST OF REFERENCES
1. ASTM, “American society for testing and materials”, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards,1998
2. Das, B.M., “Principles of Soil Dynamics”, California State University, Scramento:
Brooks/Cole ltd, 1993.
3. Das, B.M., “Principle of Geotechnical Engineering”, California state University,
Sacramento, 2006.
4. Kramer.L., “Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering”, New Jersey:Printice-Hall,Inc, 1996.
5. Seed H.B., Wong R.T., Idriss I.M. and Tokimatsu k., (1984), Moduli and Damping Factors
for Dynamic Analysis of Cohesionless Soils, Report No. UCB/EERC-84/14, Berkeley,
California
6. Sun, I.J., Golesorkhi, R. and Seed, H.B., “Dynamic moduli and Damping factors for
cohesive soils”, USB/EERC-88/15, collage of Engineering ,university of California at
Berkeley,1988
7. Luna, R., and Jadi, H., “Determination of dynamic soil properties using Geophsical
methods”, department of Civil Engineering, University of Missouri-Rolla, 2000.
8. Jun Wang, (2005), The Stress-Strain and Strength Characteristics of Portaway Sand, Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Nottingham.
9. Design Guidance, “Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering for Highways”, Volume I, US
Department of transportation, Geotechnical Engineering Circular No.3,Washington, 1997.
10. Vicetic, M., “Soil properties and seismic response”, Earthquake Engineering, tenth world
conference, Balkema, Rotterdam.University of California at Los Angeles,
11. Rowe ,R.K.,Geotechnical and Geoenviromental Handboook,2001.
12. Venkatramaiah, C., “Geotechnical Engineering, department of civil Engineering”, revised
third edition, S.V.University College of Engineering Tirupati, India, 2006.
13. Soils and Foundations Handbook, Department of transportation, State Materials Office
Gainesville, Florida, April 2004
14. Braja M. Das, ‘’Advanced Soil Mechanics’’, published by Taylor & Francis 270 Madison
Ave, seventh edition, New York, USA, 2008
15. Girmachew Yimer, “Shear modulus and Damping ratio of dry koka sand using cyclic
simple shear test”, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa,2010.

AAiT 70
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

16. Braja M. Das ‘’Principles of Foundation Engineering’’ Seventh Edition, United States of
America, 2011
17. Pitilakis, K.D., Anastassiais, A. and Raptakis, D., “Field and laboratory determination of
Dynamic properties of natural soil deposits”, Earthquake engineering, tenth world
conference, 1992
18. JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ©
ASCE ‘’Normalized Shear Modulus and Material Damping Ratio Relationships’’ Zhang
et.al / APRIL 2005
19. ClaysAli Fırat Çabalar ‘’Dynamic Properties of Various Plasticity clays ‘’ Volume
14,Department of Civil Engineering University of Gaziantep, Turkey, 2010
20. Ishihara, K., “Soil behavior in Earthquake Geotechnics”, department of civil Engineering,
Science University of Tokyo, by Oxford University Presss Inc.,NewYork, 1996
21. Jafari1 M.K., Shafiee2, A. and RaZmkhah3, A., ‘Dynamic properties of fine grained soils in
South of Tehran”, Iran. JSEE: Spring 2002, Volume 4, 2002
22. Wykeham Farrance, (2007), Soil Mechanics Testing Systems
23. AYALEW GASHAW ‘’Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio values of soils commonly found
in Hawassa using simple cyclic shear’’, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa,2012.
24. Seed, H.B. and Idriss, I.M., “Soil Moduli and Damping factors for dynamic response
analyses”, EERC/70-10, College of Engineering university of California, Berkeley, 1970
25. UTS004, “Simple shear test software reference”, Universal testing system, IPC Global
limited, 2003
26. Pitilakis, K.D., Anastassiais, A. and Raptakis, D., “Field and laboratory determination of
Dynamic properties of natural soil deposits”, Earthquake engineering, tenth world
conference, 1992.

AAiT 71
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

APPENDICES

AAiT 72
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix – A .1 Test Results of Index Properties of Soil
Table A .1 : liquid limit and plastic limit test values

Secha Chamo High School

Liquid Limit Plastic Limit
Trial No 1 2 3 4 1 2 3
No of blows 43 35 22 14 ----- ------ ------
Water content,( %) 66.19 83.87 90.24 114.28 29.71 36.88 43.82
Average (%) For 25 blows------91 37

Muluwengel
Liquid Limit Plastic Limit
Trial No 1 2 3 4 1 2 3
23
No of blows 41 37 16 ----- ------ ------
68.32 74.86 89.12 105.41 30.12 37.69 46.82
Water content,( %)
Average ( %) For 25 blows------88 38

AMU-CSc
Liquid Limit Plastic Limit
1 2 3
Trial No 1 2 3 4
39.74 47.69 55.64 60.94 ----- ------ ------
No of blows

Water content,( %) 46 36 23 14 35.1 38.61 43.29

Average ( %) For 25 blows------51 39

Limat-wezy Keble
Liquid Limit Plastic Limit

Trial No 1 2 3 4 1 2 3

No of blows 42.86 51.43 60.00 65.71 ----- ------ ------

Water content,(%) 43 34 20 13 37.8 41.58 46.62

Average ( %) For 25 blows------55 42

AAiT 73
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Edigetber Keble (stadium )

Liquid Limit Plastic Limit

Trial No 1 2 3 4 1 2 3

No of blows 42.08 50.49 58.91 64.52 ----- ------ ------

Water content,(%) 45 35 22 14 36.90 40.59 45.51

Average ( %) For 25 blows------54 41

120 Secha chamo high school

115
110
105
100
95
Water Content, %

90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
10 No of blows 100

120 Muluwengel
115
110
105
100
95
Water Content, %

90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55

10 No of blows 100

AAiT 74
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Flow Curve
60
55
50
Water Content, %

45
40
35
30
10 No. of blows 100

70
Limat-wezy Keble
65
60
55
Water Content, %

50
45
40
35
30
10 No. of blows 100

Edigetber Kebele
70
65
60
Water Content, %

55
50
45
40
35
30
10 No. of blows 100

Figure A 1: Liquid limit graphs

AAiT 75
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Spendix B 1 Hysteresis loop of the 5th cycles of each test pits

5th cycle Hysteresis loop for each strain level

0.1
0.08
Axial stress
0.06
0.04
Shear stress(MPa)

0.02
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -0.02 0 1 2 3 4 5

-0.04
-0.06
-0.08
-0.1
strain in %

5th cycle Hysteresis loop for each strain level

0.15

Axial stress 0.1

0.05
Shear stress(MPa)

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-0.05

-0.1

-0.15
strain in %

Figure B 1: Hysteresis loops of each strain levels with axial stresses indicated for silt
soil

AAiT 76
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

5th cycle Hysteresis loop for each strain level

0.1

Axial stress 0.08

0.06

0.04
shear stress(MPa)

0.02

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-0.08

-0.1
strain %

5th cycle Hysteresis loop for each strain level

0.15

Axial stress
0.1

0.05
Shear stress(MPa)

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-0.05

-0.1

-0.15
strain %

Figure B 2:Hysteresis loops of each strain levels with axial stresses indicated

AAiT 77
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Appendix – C. 2 SHEAR MODULUS AND DAMPING RATIO VALUES OF SELECTED

CYCLES
Table C 1 Shear modulus and Damping ratio values of AMU-Community School (silt soil) pit

AMU-Community School pit,100KPa

Strain 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5% 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5%
Level
No. Cycle Shear Modulus G(MPa) Damping Ratio q(%)
1 10.9914 9.2963 4.7957 2.5758 1.3651 4.1482 6.5363 11.6687 18.1908 38.3090
5 11.7161 9.5853 5.2161 3.2141 1.5446 3.6572 5.4187 10.0878 18.0283 34.9570
10 12.6423 10.5862 5.3605 3.4834 1.6744 3.6797 5.1873 8.5846 16.5474 33.1679
20 13.4862 10.8491 5.7949 3.6944 1.7238 3.0612 3.5846 8.4778 15.6242 30.2538
30 13.9445 11.2133 5.8955 3.6772 1.7679 2.0263 3.6194 7.1554 14.0497 26.1496
40 14.3146 11.3119 5.9033 3.9062 1.8124 1.9069 3.3739 6.9518 13.4994 24.9741

AMU-Community School pit,200KPa

Strain 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5% 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5%
Level
No. Cycle Shear Modulus G(MPa) Damping Ratio q(%)
1 13.6480 10.1366 5.1012 2.8844 1.1413 2.2232 6.6345 11.5946 18.1599 33.0478
5 14.5508 10.3792 5.4336 3.0186 1.1944 2.0257 5.9707 10.6309 17.2875 30.0479
10 15.7611 11.1388 5.5718 3.4208 1.3756 2.2386 5.0993 10.1714 16.6995 28.3520
20 16.0936 11.6890 6.8953 3.6715 1.4926 1.7962 4.4475 8.6150 13.7984 27.1374
30 17.1207 13.5034 6.7877 3.8010 2.1425 1.7529 2.7874 7.5206 11.5978 24.5783
40 17.9597 13.5389 7.2431 4.1800 2.2780 1.3344 2.0631 6.1638 9.5414 19.9321

Table C.2 Shear modulus and Damping ratio values of clay soil (Secha Chamo High School pit)

Secha Chamo High School pit,200KPa

Strain Level 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5% 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5%
No. Cycle Shear Modulus G(MPa) Damping Ratio q(%)
1 14.0731 11.0444 6.9337 3.7278 1.1980 1.5708 3.8201 7.4510 13.6759 21.4663
5 15.5045 11.5166 7.4456 4.3652 1.2040 1.4841 3.6609 7.3099 13.3784 18.8300
10 16.2369 11.9875 7.9849 4.6859 1.3273 1.4446 3.4746 7.0942 12.0833 16.5236
20 16.8911 12.5330 8.4291 5.1862 1.4320 1.2039 3.0586 6.0167 10.5498 15.0264
30 17.4135 13.5932 9.1237 5.5440 1.6111 1.1300 2.8580 5.2763 9.3475 13.1892
40 18.5119 14.0629 9.5550 5.8535 1.8137 1.0008 2.3354 4.1548 8.0100 11.1266

Secha Chamo High School pit, 100KPa

Strain Level 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5% 0.01% 0.1% 1% 2.5% 5%
No. Cycle Shear Modulus G(MPa) Damping Ratio q(%)
1 11.3703 9.7882 5.3632 3.0039 1.6932 3.1279 4.8725 8.0098 15.6923 31.0421
5 12.1497 10.1142 5.7148 3.4373 1.7699 3.0458 4.2436 7.6981 14.5443 28.2645
10 13.2613 10.7376 6.0879 3.7686 1.8526 2.7900 4.0034 7.2212 13.6605 26.3497
20 13.8227 11.4217 6.6905 3.8679 1.9121 2.2614 3.6355 6.5423 12.5238 22.3038
30 14.2469 11.8407 7.1601 4.2251 2.0033 2.1436 3.2307 6.0035 12.3218 20.1398
40 14.8904 12.1275 7.5453 4.4884 2.1544 1.9033 3.0226 5.5353 11.9526 18.7488

AAiT 78
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Silt soil Shear Modulus at 100KPa

16 cycles
no.
14
1
12
Shear Modulus(Mpa)

5
10
10
8
20
6
30
4
40
2

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain (%)

Silt soil Damping Ratio at 100KPa

45

40 Cycle No.

35 1

30
Damping Ratio(%)

25 10
20 20
15
30
10
40
5

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain (%)
Figure C 1: Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio curves of Silt soil for selected cycles at 100Kpa

AAiT 79
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Silt soil Shear Modulus at 200KPa

20
18 Cycle No.
16
Shear Modulus(MPa)

1
14
12 5
10 10
8
20
6
4 30
2 40
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain (%)

Silt soil Damping Ratio at 200KPa

35

30

cycle
25 No.
Damping Ratio(Mpa)

1
20
5

15 10

20
10
30

5 40

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain (%)

Figure C 2 Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio curves of Silt soil for selected cycles at
200Kpa

AAiT 80
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Clay soil Shear Modulus at 200KPa

20
18 Cycle No.
16
1
Shear Modulus(MPa)

14
5
12
10
10
8 20

6 30
4
40
2
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Clay soil Damping Ratio at 200KPa

25

Cycle No.
20
1
Damping Ratio(200KPa)

5
15
10
20
10 30
40
5

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Figure C 3: Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio curves of clay soil for selected cycles at
200Kpa

AAiT 81
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

clay soil Shear Modulus at 100KPa

16

14 Cycle No.

12
1
10 5
Axis Title

8 10
20
6
30
4 40

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Axis Title

Clay soil Damping Ratio at 100KPa

35
Cycle No.
30
1
25
5
Damping Ratio(%)

20
10

15 20

10 30

40
5

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Figure C 4: Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio curves of clay soil for selected cycles at 100Kpa

AAiT 82
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Appendix – D 3 Shear modulus and Damping ratio curves under

different axial loads and number of cycles for both silt and clay

18 Shear Modulus Secha and Sikela

secha-400Kpa-
16
Cycle 5
14 Sikela-400Kpa-
Shear Modulus (MPa)

12 cycle 5
Secha-200KPa-
10 cycle 5
8 sikela 200Kpa-
cycle 5
6
Secha 100KPa-
4 cycle 5
2 Sikela 100Kpa-
cycle 5
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Figure D 1: Shear modulus curves for different axial loads of silt and clay soil

Damping ratio for silt and clay soil

35

30
Secha,400kpa,
Cycle 5
25
Damping Ratio(%)

Sikela,400Kpa,
Cycle 5
20
Secha-
200Kpa, Cycle 5
15
Sikela-
200KPa,Cycle 5
10
Secha-
100Kpa,Cycle5
5
Sikela
0 100KPa, Cycle 5

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

Strain(%)

Figure D 2 : Damping ratio curves for different axial loads of silt and clay soil

AAiT 83
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

0.4
Silt soil
0.35 Axial load 100KPa

0.3

0.25
G/Gmax

Axial load 200KPa

0.2

0.15

0.1
Axial Load 400KPa
0.05

0
0.01 0.1 1 10
strain %

Clay Soil
0.4

0.35 Axial Load 100Kpa

0.3

0.25
G/Gmax

Axial Load 200Kpa

0.2

0.15

0.1
Axial load 400Kpa
0.05

0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain %

Figure D 3 Shear modulus reduction curve

AAiT 84
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Silt soil at 400KPa

25.0

Cycle No.

20.0
1
shear modulus (MPa)

15.0 20

40
10.0

5.0

0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
strain(%)

Figure D 4 Effect of number of cycles on shear modulus of the silt soil

Clay soil at 400KPa

22
20
18
Cycle No.
16
Shear Modulus(MPa)

14
12 1
10 20
8 40
6
4
2
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Strain(%)

Figure D 5 Effect of number of cycles on shear modulus of the clay soil

AAiT 85
Investigation of Dynamic property of soil found in Arba Minch Town

Clay Soil at 400KPa

16.0 Cycle No.

14.0

12.0 1
Damping ratio (%)

10.0 20

40
8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
strain(%)

Figure D 6 Effect of number cycles on damping ratio of clay soil

Silt Soil at 400KPa

18.0

16.0 Cycle No.

14.0
1
Damping ratio (%)

12.0
20
10.0
40
8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
strain(%)

Figure D 7 Effect of number of cycles on damping ratio of silt soil

AAiT 86