Endocrine System

The endocrine system acts with our nervous system to coordinate and integrate the activity of
our body cells. It does this by influencing metabolic activity via hormones that are transported
in our blood. Responses are slower but longer lasting than that of the nervous system
responses and when we study how the endocrine system works. We refer to this as
endocrinology.

So how does the endocrine system actually control and integrate our body's processes?
It controls and integrates things like reproduction, maintenance of electrolytes, water and
nutrient balance, growth and development, regulation of our cellular metabolism and our
energy balance and mobilization of body defenses.

1. Metabolism. The endocrine system regulates the rate of metabolism, the sum of the chemical
changes that occur in tissues.
2. Control of food intake and digestion. The endocrine system regulates the level of satiety (fullness)
and the breakdown of food into individual nutrients.
3. Tissue development. The endocrine system influences the development of tissues, such as those
of the nervous system.
4. Ion regulation. The endocrine system regulates the solute control concentration of the blood.
5. Water balance. The endocrine system regulates water balance by controlling solutes in the blood.
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation. The endocrine system helps regulate the heart rate and
blood pressure and helps prepare the body for physical activity.
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients. The endocrine system regulates the levels of blood
glucose and other nutrients in the blood.
8. Control of reproductive functions. The endocrine system controls the development and functions
of the reproductive systems in males and females.
9. Uterine contractions and milk release. The endocrine system regulates uterine contractions
during delivery and stimulates milk release from the breasts in lactating females.
10. Immune system regulation. The endocrine system helps control the production and functions of
immune cells.

Two types of glands in our body.

1. Exocrine glands. These are going to produce non hormonal substances, so things like
sweat or saliva or oils, and these have ducts that carry these secretions to the surface of
the membrane. Exocrine glands are different from our endocrine glands, Examples such
as sweat, saliva, breast milk.
2. Endocrine glands. Which are going to produce hormones. Unlike exocrine glands,
endocrine glands do not have ducts.

So, the endocrine system is going to be made-up of several glands including the pituitary gland
found in the brain, the thyroid and the parathyroid glands found in the cervical region of the
body, the adrenal glands which are going to be attached to the kidneys and as well as the
Pineal gland which is also found in the brain.
The hypothalamus is also considered as a neuroendocrine gland because it has both nerves as
well as endocrine tissues and thus sends hormones to other endocrine glands. Some organs
also have exocrine and endocrine functions. This includes the pancreas, which is going to
secrete insulin, but also secrete some exocrine secretions as well. We also have our gonads,
which are the testes in males and the ovaries in females.

Also, in a pregnant woman, the placenta has both exocrine and endocrine function as well.
Other tissues and organs in the body that have the ability to produce hormones include our
adipose or fat cells, as well as our tiny cells in the walls of the small intestine, the stomach, the
kidneys and the heart.

So there are several different types of chemical messengers that our bodies use in order to
get signals to certain cells.
The endocrine system uses hormones which are long distance chemical signals that
travel from one place to another place by way of the blood or lymph tissue.
We also have our autocrines in our body. These are chemicals that are released by a
cell and exert effects on the same cell that secreted them. Examples are WBCs secreted
during an infection.
We have chemicals known as paracrines. Paracrines are locally acting chemicals that
affect cells that are nearby. These chemical messengers are secreted by one cell type
but affect neighboring cells of a different type.

So remember that autocrines and paracrines because of their local chemical messaging are not
considered part of the endocrine system. So when we're talking about the endocrine system,
we're usually specifically talking about hormones.

There are two main classes of hormones.

1. There are amino acid based hormones, which are amino acid derivatives, peptides and
proteins.
2. A second class of hormones are steroid hormones. These are going to be synthesized
from cholesterol and are going to make up our gonadal and adrenocortical hormones.

Some scientists also consider a third class of hormones known as our eicosanoids, but most
others really classify these paracrines

The word hormone is derived from the greek word hormon, which means to set in motion.

So how do hormones actually act to perform their function?

Though hormones are able to circulate all throughout the body, only cells with receptors for that
hormone are able to be affected by those hormones. These cells are referred to as our target
cells, and these are tissues that have receptors for specific hormones, and hormones will then
alter the activity of this target cell.

So how do hormones act on these target cells?

 1. It can stimulate synthesis of enzymes or other proteins.
2. It can alter the plasma membrane permeability and or the membrane potential by opening and
closing certain ions in our target cells.
3. It can also activate or deactivate enzymes in the target cell.
4. It can induce secretory activity so that the target cell is going to release certain substances
5. It can also signal the target cell to undergo mitosis.

Hormones act usually in one of two ways

Depending on the chemical nature of the hormone as well as the location of the receptor on the
target cell,

Water soluble hormones such as our amino acid-based hormones except for the thyroid
hormone are going to act on receptors on the plasma membrane of the target cell. Usually these
are going to activate a G protein coupled second messenger and because they are water
soluble these types of hormones are not able to readily enter the cell.

Lipid soluble hormones however, such as our steroids and our thyroid hormone are going to act
on intracellular receptors, and these are receptors which are going to allow for the activation of
specific genes inside of the cell. Because these lipid soluble hormones are made-up of lipids,
they have the ability to enter the cell on their own without any help.

So what causes hormones to be released from their endocrine glands?

Most of the time, blood levels of hormones are controlled by a negative feedback system. This
happens when an increased hormone is going to affect the target organ and the effect on the
target organ will then inhibit further hormone release. The levels that are going to vary between
release and inhibition are very narrow and a very small range. Hormone release could be
triggered by endocrine gland stimuli as well as nervous system modulation.

So endocrine glands can be stimulated to synthesize and release hormones in response

to three different types of stimuli.
1. Humoral stimuli
With the humoral stimulus changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients are going
to directly stimulate the secretions of hormones. A good example of this is the calcium in
our blood. Declining blood calcium levels stimulate the parathyroid gland to secrete the
hormone parathyroid hormone. In turn, the parathyroid hormone causes the calcium
concentration to rise by activating osteoclasts, which break down the bone minerals and
release calcium into the blood. Once there is a sufficient amount of calcium in the blood,
the stimulus is removed and the parathyroid hormone is also removed.
2. Neural stimuli
With the neural stimulus, nerve fibers are going to stimulate hormone release. For
example, a sympathetic nervous system fibers stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete
catecholamines. Remember that the sympathetic nervous system is our fight or flight
system and also catecholamines are going to be hormones such as dopamine
norepinephrine and epinephrine, which you may know as adrenaline
 3. Hormonal stimuli
With the hormone stimulus, hormones are going to stimulate other endocrine glands to
release their hormones. A good example of this is the hormones of the hypothalamus.
Hypothalamic hormones stimulate the release of most of our anterior pituitary hormones.
Anterior pituitary hormones stimulate target cells to secrete more hormones. Activity of
the hypothalamic pituitary target endocrine organ feedback loop is going to cause
hormones from the final target organs to inhibit release of the anterior pituitary organs,
the anterior pituitary releases hormones that are going to trigger the release of things
like testosterone. Consequently, high testosterone levels inhibit the release of those
hormones.

Nervous System Modulation

The nervous system can make adjustments to hormone levels when needed. It can modify
stimulation or inhibition of certain endocrine glands. The nervous system can also override
normal and endocrine controls. An example of this is when you're under severe stress, the
hypothalamus and your sympathetic nervous system can override the insulin from the pancreas
to allow blood glucose levels to increase and prepare your body for the flight or fight response.

Target Cell Specificity

Target cells must have specific receptors for the hormone that will bind to them. For example,
the A/C TH hormone receptors are found only on certain cells of the adrenal cortex. Thyroxine
receptors on the other hand, are found on nearly all our body cells.

Target cell activation depends on three different factors.

1. The blood levels of the hormone
2. The relative number of receptors on the target cell
3. The affinity or strength of the binding between the receptor and the hormone.

The amount of hormone can influence the number of receptors for that hormone.

Up regulation
Target cells are going to form more receptors in response to low hormone levels again.This
allows for the cell to be more sensitive to the available hormones.
Down regulation
Target cells will lose receptors in response to high hormone levels. This is going to de-
synthesize the target cells to prevent them from overreacting to persistently high levels of
hormone.

Hormonal Activity/Circulation
Hormones are going to circulate in our blood, either freebound or bound. Steroid hormones and
thyroid hormones are usually attached to plasma proteins, while other hormones are going to
circulate without being attached to anything or without any carrier. The concentration of
circulating hormones usually reflects its rate of release. As well as the speed of which the
hormone is inactivated or removed from the body.

So how are our hormones removed from the body?

So hormones can be removed from the blood by degrading the enzymes, by the kidneys or by
the liver.

Measurement of the Hormonal Activity

We measure how long a hormone remains or is removed from the body by a measurement
known as the half life.
• Half life is the time required for the levels of the hormone in the blood to decrease by
half. This is going to vary anywhere from a fraction of a minute to almost a week,
depending on the hormone that we're talking about.
• Onset refers to the amount of time it takes for target cells to react to hormones.
Hormones have different response times. Some response times are going to be
immediate, whereas some, especially with steroids, can take hours to days for a
response to occur, and some will be inactive until they enter the target cell.
• Duration is a response that is usually very limited. The duration of the response
measures how long the hormonal response actually lasts. This can range anywhere from
10 seconds to several hours and the effect may disappear rapidly as the blood levels of
the hormone drop, but sometimes the effects may persist even after the hormone blood
levels are starting to dissipate.

Interaction of Hormones at target Cells

Multiple hormones may act on the same target at the same time

• Permissiveness
o Where one hormone actually cannot exert its effect without the presence of
another hormone. An example of this is the reproductive hormones that need
thyroid hormones in order to actually have an effect on their target cells.
• Synergism
o More than one hormone will produce the same effect on the target cell. This
causes an amplification of the effect. An example of this is Glucagon and
epinephrine which both are going to act on the liver to reduce glucose.
• Antagonism
o One or more hormones are going to oppose the action of another hormone. A
good example of this is insulin, which is going to decrease blood glucose level
and Glucagon, which increases blood glucose level.

Mechanism of actions of the different hormones in our body.

Hypothalamus and the Pituitary gland

The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland by a stock known as the infundibulum.
From there, the pituitary is going to secrete at least eight major hormones.

The pituitary gland has two major loaves.

The posterior, which is composed of mostly neural tissues and will secrete neural hormones.
The posterior lobe, along with the Infundibulum, makes up what is known as the
neurohypophysis.

The second major lobe of the pituitary gland is the anterior pituitary or the adenohypophysis.
This is going to consist of glandular tissue instead of neural tissue if you focus on the
posterior pituitary or the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

Posterior Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships

We find that it is made-up of neural tissue that is derived from a down growth of the brain. This
slope is going to maintain neural connections to the hypothalamus by way of the hypothalamic
hypophyseal tract. This track is going to run through the infundibulum.

The Posterior Pituitary Secretes 2 neural hormones.

1. Oxytocin
a. Which is a strong stimulant of uterine contractions that are released during
childbirth. These also act as a hormonal trigger for milk ejection. During lactation,
both of these processes are positive feedback mechanisms where the
introduction of these hormones causes the activity to continue. This hormone
also acts as a neurotransmitter into the brain.

2. Antidiuretic hormone
a. The hypothalamus contains osmoreceptors that monitor the solute concentration
if the concentration of a solute is too high the posterior pituitary is
triggered to secrete antidiuretic hormone. This hormone targets the kidney
tubes and causes the reabsorption of more water in order to inhibit or prevent
urine formation. So, this is where this hormone gets its name as diuresis means
urine formation and this anti diuresis release is also triggered by pain. Low
blood pressure and certain drugs, Antidiuretic hormone can also be inhibited by
alcohol and also certain drugs called diuretics. High concentrations of ADH
can also cause vasoconstriction and so sometimes ADH is referred to as
vasopressin.

Both of these hormones are going to be stored in the Axon terminals in the posterior pituitary.
When these neurons fire, these hormones are then released into the blood. These Axon
terminals come from the paraventricular neurons that produce oxytocin and the supraoptic
neurons that produce antidiuretic hormone, or ADH.
Anterior Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships
The hypothalamus also secretes releasing and inhibiting hormones to the anterior pituitary to
regulate hormone secretion The anterior pituitary can release 6 different hormones into the
blood. All six of these hormones are peptide hormones.
1. Luteinizing hormone
2. Follicle stimulating hormone
3. Thyroid stimulating hormone
4. Prolactin growth hormone
5. Adrenocorticotropic hormone

All but two of these hormones are Tropic hormones that are going to regulate the
secretion of another hormone.
1. Growth Hormone (GH)
The growth hormone is referred to as Somatotropin because it is produced by
somatotropic cells. It has direct actions on metabolism and indirect actions on
growth promotion.
• The direct actions on metabolism by growth hormone include glucose sparing.
Glucose sparing actions decrease the rate of cellular glucose uptake and
metabolism. So basically, this is an anti-insulin effect. Growth hormone can also
trigger the liver to break down glycogen into glucose and it can increase blood
levels of fatty acids for use as fuel and encourage cellular protein synthesis.

• Indirect actions on growth by the growth hormone include the growth hormone
triggering the liver, skeletal muscles and bones to produce insulin like growth
factor or Igf.
o Igf's then stimulate cellular uptake of certain nutrients that are used to
synthesize DNA and proteins that are needed for cell division. They also
are going to be responsible for formation of collagen and the position of
bone matrix. Growth hormone can also stimulate cells to enlarge and
divide, but major targets are going to be the bone and the skeletal
muscle.

2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

This is a Tropic hormone that is also sometimes referred to as thyrotropin and it is
produced by thyrotropic cells. This stimulates the normal development and secretory
activity of the thyroid Is released is going to be triggered by thyrotropin releasing
hormone in the hypothalamus. It is inhibited by rising blood levels of thyroid hormone
that then act on the pituitary and the hypothalamus. It is also inhibited by the growth
hormone inhibiting hormone.
Negative feedback loop for the thyroid stimulating hormone
We find that the (1) hypothalamus is going to release thyrotropin releasing hormone which goes
to the (2) anterior pituitary this stimulates the release of thyroid stimulating hormone which then
act on the (3) thyroid gland, causing the thyroid to release thyroid hormones which will then go
to our (4) target cells. However, increasing blood levels of thyroid hormone act as a negative
feedback loop and it inhibits the release of thyrotropin, releasing hormone from the
hypothalamus as well as thyroid stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary.

3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
This hormone is also called corticotropin because it is secreted by the corticotropic
cells. The precursor to corticotropin is pro opiomelanocortin. ACH stimulates the
adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids such as cortisol and aldosterone.
Regulation of ACTH release is triggered by the hypothalamic corticotropin releasing
hormones in daily rhythms, with the highest levels of this hormone being released in the
 morning. Internal and external factors that alter the release of this corticotropin releasing
hormone include things like fever, hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar and stressors. For
example, stress triggers the release of corticotropin releasing hormone, which then leads
to the production of cortisol, which we sometimes refer to as a stress hormone.

4. Gonadotropins
These are follicle stimulating hormones and euthanizing hormones. These are going to
be secreted by the gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary follicle stimulating
hormone that is going to be responsible for stimulating the production of gametes in the
male with sperm and the female with ovum, luteinizing hormone produces the production
of gonadal hormones. In females, luteinizing hormone helps the amateur follicle of the
ovum and rigorous ovulation as well as the release of estrogen and progesterone. In
males, the luteinizing hormone stimulates the production of testosterone.

Luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone are both absent from the blood in
pubertal boys and girls. So before puberty, regulation of gonadotropin release is
triggered by gonadotropin releasing hormone during and after puberty and is suppressed
by gonadal hormones by the way of negative feedback.

5. Prolactin
Prolactin is going to be secreted by the prolactin cells
of the anterior pituitary. This directly stimulates male
production and females, and in males, although they
have prolactin, the role in males is not well
understood.
Regulation of prolactin release is controlled by the
prolactin inhibiting hormone known as dopamine.
Prolactin inhibiting hormones are going to prevent the
release of prolactin until the prolactin is needed for
lactation. With decreased levels of prolactin inhibiting
hormone, you get lactation after childbirth. Prolactin is
also going to be stimulated by the increased estrogen
level. This is the reason why during the menstrual
 cycle, breast swelling and tenderness occurs. Rising blood levels of prolactin usually are
going to happen toward the end of pregnancy. Also, suckling is going to stimulate
prolactin release and promote continued milk production after childbirth.

Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a butterfly shaped gland in the anterior of the neck on the trachea inferior to
the larynx, and consists of a structure known as the Isthmus which is a mass that connects 2
lateral lobes. Within the thyroid gland we have follicles which are made-up of hollow Spears of
epithelial follicular cells that are going to produce glycoprotein thyroglobulin.

Within the follicle we have a fluid known as colloid. This is going to contain thyroglobulin plus
iodine and is the precursor to the thyroid hormone. Located on the outside of the follicles are the
parafollicular cells which are going to produce another thyroid hormone known as calcitonin.
Thyroid Hormone
The thyroid gland releases the thyroid hormone which is the body's major metabolic hormone
and found in two forms:
• The T4 also known as thyroxine, which
is a major form consisting of two
tyrosine molecules and four bound
iodine atoms.
• The T3 form or the triiodothyronine,
which is going to be a form that has two
tyrosines and only three bound
iodine atoms. This can also be created
from T4 by enzymes found at the tissue
level. Both are going to be our iodine
containing amine hormones.

The thyroid hormone is a unique hormone that affects virtually every cell in the body. So there
are receptors on pretty much every cell in our body. It enters the target cell and binds to
intracellular receptors within the nucleus of the target cell. It then triggers transcription of various
metabolic genes. The effects of the thyroid hormone can include things such as an increase of
the basal metabolic rate as well as heat production, which we refer to as calorigenic effect.

It also regulates tissue growth and development, and it is critical for normal skeletal and nervous
system development and reproductive capacities. The thyroid hormone is also responsible for
maintaining blood pressure, and it increases the adrenergic effect in the blood vessels in order
to maintain blood pressure.

Calcitonin
Calcitonin is produced by the parafollicular cells in response to high blood calcium levels. It is
the antagonist to parathyroid hormone, which we will talk about shortly. There is no known
physiological role in humans at normal physiological levels for calcitonin. However, at higher
than normal doses, it's going to work to inhibit osteoclast activity in the bone and prevent the
release of calcium from the bone matrix. It also is going to stimulate calcium uptake and
incorporation of the calcium into the bone matrix.

Parathyroid Gland
The parathyroid glands are 4 to 8 tiny yellow brown glands that are embedded in the posterior
surface of the thyroid. They contain two types of cells, oxyphil cells, in which the function is not
really clear, and parathyroid cells, which are going to secrete the parathyroid hormone.

Parathyroid Hormone
Parathyroid hormone is another important hormone in calcium homeostasis. It is going to be
secreted in response to low blood calcium levels and triggers osteoclast activity to break
down bone and release calcium into the blood. It is inhibited by a negative feedback loop
with rising levels of calcium. The target organs of the parathyroid hormone include the skeleton,
the kidneys and the intestine.
• Parathyroid hormone is going to
stimulate osteoclasts to digest
bone matrix and release calcium
into the blood.
• It also works by enhancing the
absorption of calcium and
secretion of phosphate by the
kidneys.
• Parathyroid hormones are able to
promote activation of vitamin D by
the kidneys. Vitamin D leads to an
increased absorption of calcium
by our intestinal mucosa.
Adrenal Gland
This is a paired pyramid shaped organ that sits on the top of the kidneys and so sometimes it is
referred to as the suprarenal gland. Structurally and functionally, the adrenal gland is actually
2 glands in one.
• The outer portion of the adrenal gland is referred to as the adrenal cortex. This is a
three-layer granular tissue that synthesizes and secretes several different hormones.
• The inner portion of the adrenal gland is the adrenal medulla. This is made-up of
nervous tissue that is part of the sympathetic nervous system.

Do you remember the other gland that is made-up of two types of tissue?
Recall that the pituitary gland, which contains the posterior pituitary and the and the anterior
pituitary, is also made-up of nervous tissue and glandular tissue.

The adrenal cortex or the outer portion of the adrenal gland is going to produce over 24
different hormones, collectively called the corticosteroids because the steroid hormones are
not stored in cells. The rate of release of these hormones is going to depend on the rate of
synthesis of these hormones by the adrenal cortex. Recall that the adrenal cortex is made-up of
three layers of glandular tissue. Each of these layers is going to be made-up of cortical cells that
produce different corticosteroids.
• The most superficial layer is the zona glomerulosa. It is going to be responsible for
the production of mineralocorticoids.
• The middle layer is the Zona fasciculata. This is going to be responsible for the
production of glucocorticoids
• The bottom most layer which is closest to the medalla known as the Zona reticularis.
This is going to be responsible for the production of gonadocorticoids.

Adrenal cortex Mineralocorticoids

The mineralocorticoids that are produced by the adrenal cortex are going to be
responsible for the regulation of our electrolyte concentration such as our sodium and
potassium concentrations found in our extracellular fluids, the importance of sodium is that it's
going to affect our extracellular fluid volume as well as our our blood volume, blood pressure
and the levels of other ions in our body. Potassium is going to be important as it is responsible
for setting the resting membrane potentials of cells.

Aldosterone is the most potent of our

mineralocorticoids. It is responsible for
stimulating sodium reabsorption by the
kidneys, and sodium reabsorption results in
an increase in our blood volume and our blood
pressure as the fluids in the kidneys are going
to follow the sodium molecules out of the
kidneys and into the blood. Aldosterone is
also important for the stimulation of
potassium elimination by the kidneys in
order to maintain potassium homeostasis.

Aldosterone Secretion
There are several different factors that are going to regulate our aldosterone secretion
1. Renin angiotensin aldosterone mechanism
2. Plasma concentrations of potassium.
3. A/C TH Adrenocorticotropic hormone
4. Atrial natriuretic peptide.

Adrenal Cortex Glucocorticoids

This influences the metabolism of most of
our cells and helps us resist stressors. It
keeps our blood glucose levels relatively
constant and maintains blood pressure by
increasing the action of vasoconstriction.

Adrenal Cortex Cortisol

The prime metabolic effect of cortisol is
gluconeogenesis, which is the formation of
glucose from our fats and our proteins. It
encourages ourselves to use fatty acids for fuel
so that we can save our glucose that we need for
the brain. Recall that our brain can also use
glucose for energy. Other functions of cortisol
include the enhancement of vasoconstriction.
Vasoconstriction causes a rise in blood pressure, which allows for a quick distribution of
nutrients to cells in that area.

Excessive levels of glucocorticoids

1. Depress cartilage and bone formation.
2. It can inhibit inflammation by decreasing the release of inflammatory chemicals, which is
why sometimes people who are in pain get steroid shots.
3. It can also depress the immune system.
4. Cortisol has the ability to disrupt normal cardiovascular neural and gastrointestinal
functions.

Glucocorticoid drugs can also control symptoms of many inflammatory diseases. Such as
arthritis and allergies. But while this can help alleviate the symptoms of these inflammatory
diseases, they can also cause these undesirable effects.

Adrenal Cortex Gonadocorticoids

These are going to secrete weak androgens which are then going to be converted to
testosterone in males and estrogen in females. This may contribute to the onset of puberty as
well as the appearance of secondary sex characteristics, and it can also contribute to the sex
drive in women and as a source of estrogen and postmenopausal women.

Adrenal medulla
The adrenal medulla contains medullary chromaffin cells which are going to synthesize our
catecholamines such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. The catecholamines are going to be
responsible for vasoconstriction, increased heart rate, increased blood glucose levels and also
blood that has been diverted to the brain, heart and skeletal muscles. Both hormones have
basically the same effect, but epinephrine is more of a stimulator of our metabolic activities Nor
epinephrine on the other hand is going to have more of an influence on our peripheral
vasoconstriction of blood and blood pressure Responses to stressors by the adrenal medulla
are usually brief, unlike what we see with the adrenocortical hormones.

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is a small gland that's going to hang from the roof of the third ventricle. It
contains pinealocytes, which are going to secrete the hormone melatonin, which is derived from
serotonin. The effects of melatonin, the hormone released by the pineal gland, include the
timing of sexual maturation and puberty. Our day and night cycles are also referred to as our
circadian rhythm, the physiological processes that show rhythmic variations such as our body
temperature, our sleep and our appetite and as well as the production of antioxidants and the
toxification molecules and cells.

Other endocrine Organs

Pancreas
The pancreas is a triangular gland located partially behind the stomach. This is a unique organ
and that it can contain both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine cells of the
pancreas are called acinar cells. These are going to produce enzyme rich juice that is used for
digestion. The endocrine cells are going to be bound in what's known as pancreatic islets or the
islets of langerhans. These endocrine cells include alpha cells, which are responsible for the
production of Glucagon, and beta cells, which are responsible for the production of insulin.

Pancreatic Hormones
Glucagon is released by the alpha cells of the pancreas. This is an extremely potent
hyperglycemic agent that is triggered by decreases in our blood glucose levels, rising levels of
our amino acids or by the sympathetic nervous system. The brain in particular has an absolute
requirement for glucose in order to perform its metabolic functions. So this hormone is
important because it helps to maintain our blood glucose homeostasis, especially during
periods of fasting and starvation. Glucagon is going to raise our blood glucose levels by
targeting the liver to break down glycogen into glucose, also known as glycogenolysis, also
triggering the liver to synthesize glucose from lactic acid and other noncarbohydrates in a
process known as gluconeogenesis.

Insulin is going to be produced by the beta cells of the pancreas. It is going to be secreted
when our blood glucose levels are high and is synthesized as pro insulin that is then further
modified insulin's going to serve to lower our blood glucose levels in three ways.

1. First, it enhances the membrane transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells.
2. It also inhibits the breakdown of glycogen to glucose by the liver.
3. Finally, it's going to inhibit the conversion of amino acids or fats to glucose.

Factors that are going to influence the

release of insulin include elevated
blood glucose levels, rising blood
levels of amino acids and fatty acids,
the release of acetic acetylcholine by
our parasympathetic nerve fibers, the
hormones Glucagon, epinephrine,
growth hormone, thyroxine or thyroid
hormone, and glucocorticoids and
also by somatostatin and sympathetic
nervous system, which is going to
inhibit insulin release.
Gonads which are the testes in males and the ovaries in females, produce the same steroid sex
hormones as those of the adrenal cortex. The ovaries in the females are going to produce
estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is going to be responsible for the maturation of our
reproductive organs. The appearance of secondary sexual characteristics and with
progesterone it is also going to cause breast development and the cyclic changes in the uterine
mucosa that we refer to as the menstrual cycle. The testes which are the gonads in males are
going to produce testosterone. This is going to initiate the maturation of our male reproductive
organs and cause the appearance of male secondary sexual characteristics as well as
contribute to the male sex drive.It's necessary for the normal production of sperm and maintains
the reproductive organs in a functional state.
Placenta
Which is found during pregnancy. The placenta is going to be responsible for the secretion of
estrogens, progesterone and a human chorionic gonadotropin, which is what is tested for during
pregnancy tests since it is only present during pregnancy.

Endocrine Function throughout Life

So most in the endocrine glands are going to operate well in our old age. However, we find that
our growth hormone levels begin to decline with age and accounts for things like muscular
atrophy as we get older. The thyroid hormones also decline with age and contribute to our
lowering of our basal metabolic rate or how our metabolism slows as we age. The parathyroid
hormone levels are going to remain fairly constant with age, however in older women, because
of the lack of estrogen, they can become more vulnerable to bone demineralization. This is an
effect of the parathyroid hormone. Glucose tolerance can also deteriorate with age and is
usually associated with insulin and Glucagon. Also, as we age, the ovaries undergo significant
changes and become unresponsive to gonadotropins. This problem is associated With an
estrogen deficiency in males, testosterone also begins to diminish with age, but the effects are
usually not seen until very old age.

So to conclude our lecture on the endocrine system

-we find that the endocrine system acts with the nervous system to coordinate and integrate the
activity of body cells.
-Hormones are going to act by binding to specific target cells and altering those target cells'
activity.
-There are several endocrine glands throughout the body which secrete specific hormones and
target specific cells. The pituitary gland secrets eight different hormones, 2 from the posterior
pituitary and six from the anterior pituitary and many of these hormones control other endocrine
glands.
-The thyroid gland is going to secrete thyroid hormone, which is an important regulator of our
metabolism in our body. The parathyroid is going to secret parathyroid hormone which is
important for calcium levels in our body.
-The adrenal gland secretes hormones that are responsible for several different body activities,
including the regulation of our blood pressure and also our responses to stress.
-The Pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin, which has several functions including the
regulation of our circadian rhythm.
-And finally, there are also other organs in the body that have endocrine functions.These include
our pancreas, the gonads and the placenta.
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