ELECTRICITY

HVAC - AIR-CONDITIONING

SUPPLEMENT TO OPERATOR COURSE “HVAC” - EXP-PR-UT020

TRAINING MANUAL
Course EXP-MN-SE170
Revision 0
 Field Operations Training
Electricity
HVAC - Air-Conditioning

ELECTRICITY
HVAC - AIR-CONDITIONING

SUMMARY

This course EXP-MN-SE170, called “HVAC - AIR-CONDITIONING”, is a supplement

for the electricians, to course (on the same subject) EXP-PR-EQ170, called “HVAC”

1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................7
2. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................8
3. AIR-CONDITIONING .......................................................................................................9
3.1. TECHNICAL APPROACH.........................................................................................9
3.1.1. What is expected from air-conditioning?............................................................9
3.1.1.1. Thermal comfort ...........................................................................................9
3.1.1.2. Silence .......................................................................................................10
3.1.1.3. Hygiene ......................................................................................................10
3.1.1.4. Maintenance-free .......................................................................................11
3.1.1.5. Aestheticism...............................................................................................11
3.1.1.6. Low cost .....................................................................................................11
3.1.2. Air-conditioning techniques .............................................................................11
3.1.3. All-air air-conditioning ......................................................................................16
3.1.4. Advantages of the all-air air-conditioning and various types of systems .........17
3.1.4.1. Constant flow all-air system .......................................................................17
3.1.4.2. Constant flow and induction all-air air-conditioning ....................................17
3.1.4.3. Variable flow all-air air-conditioning............................................................18
3.1.4.4. Variable flow and induction all-air air-conditioning .....................................18
3.1.5. Advantages of induction all-air systems ..........................................................19
3.2. F.A.Q.......................................................................................................................20
3.3. RULES AND TOOLS OF DESIGN AND EXECUTION............................................24
3.3.1. How to approach a project...............................................................................24
3.3.2. Base hypotheses and preliminary calculations................................................24
3.3.3. Air flow determination ......................................................................................25
3.3.4. Determination of terminals and overall dimensions .........................................26
3.3.5. Determination of systems and overall dimensions ..........................................26
3.3.6. Selection of the air-conditioning system ..........................................................27
4. HEAT PUMPS AND APPLICATION ..............................................................................29
4.1. OPERATING PRINCIPLE .......................................................................................29
4.1.1. Heat pump or thermodynamic heating.............................................................29
4.1.2. Heat pump efficiency or COP ..........................................................................32
4.1.3. Heat pump cycle and reversible air conditioner...............................................34
4.2. HEAT COLLECTION TECHNIQUES ......................................................................36
4.2.1. Air collection ....................................................................................................36
4.2.1.1. Air/air heat pump........................................................................................36
4.2.1.2. Air/ Water heat pump .................................................................................36
4.2.2. Water collection...............................................................................................37
4.2.3. Ground collection ............................................................................................38
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4.2.3.1. Horizontal collector.....................................................................................38

4.2.3.2. Vertical collector.........................................................................................39
4.2.4. Summary of the three types of heat pumps.....................................................39
5. AIR-CONDITIONING (OR HEAT PUMP): FIELD OF APPLICATION ............................40
5.1. SELECTING THE HEAT SOURCE .........................................................................40
5.1.1. General criteria................................................................................................40
5.1.2. Ground water tables ........................................................................................44
5.1.2.1. What ground water table? ..........................................................................44
5.1.2.2. What drill hole? ..........................................................................................44
5.1.2.3. What heat?.................................................................................................45
5.1.2.4. What temperature? ....................................................................................45
5.1.2.5. Water quality ..............................................................................................46
5.1.2.6. Water discharge .........................................................................................46
5.1.2.7. Summary....................................................................................................46
5.1.3. Surface waters ................................................................................................47
5.1.3.1. Dimensioning parameters ..........................................................................47
5.1.3.2. Summary....................................................................................................48
5.1.4. Ground coils ....................................................................................................48
5.1.5. Geothermal probe ...........................................................................................50
5.1.5.1. Precision of dimensioning ..........................................................................51
5.1.5.2. Geothermal pile..........................................................................................51
5.1.6. Geothermal well ..............................................................................................53
5.1.7. Outside air .......................................................................................................53
5.1.8. Heat discharges ..............................................................................................54
5.1.9. Solar panels ....................................................................................................54
5.2. ROOM AIR CONDITIONER – THE SPLIT SYSTEM ..............................................55
5.2.1. Operating principle ..........................................................................................55
5.2.2. Typology of room air conditioners ...................................................................56
5.2.2.1. Portable air conditioner ..............................................................................56
5.2.2.2. "Window Unit" or window-type air conditioner ............................................57
5.2.2.3. "Split System".............................................................................................57
5.2.2.4. "Multi - split system" ...................................................................................58
5.2.2.5. Special case: Roof-Top System .................................................................59
5.2.3. Technological details .......................................................................................59
5.2.3.1. Evaporation unit .........................................................................................59
5.2.3.2. Condensation unit ......................................................................................60
5.2.3.3. Refrigeration and electric connections .......................................................60
5.2.3.4. Oil return ....................................................................................................60
5.2.4. “Heating” function ............................................................................................61
5.2.5. “Ventilation” function.......................................................................................61
5.2.6. Field of use......................................................................................................62
5.2.7. Control.............................................................................................................62
5.2.7.1. Ambient temperature control ......................................................................62
5.2.7.2. Compressor control....................................................................................63
5.2.7.3. Condenser control......................................................................................64
5.3. REFRIGERATION WITH VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW ................................65
5.3.1. Operating principle ..........................................................................................65
5.3.1.1. Cold operation only ....................................................................................65

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5.3.1.2. Reversible operation (cold or hot) ..............................................................66

5.3.1.3. With energy recovery (cold and hot simultaneously)..................................66
5.3.2. Technological details .......................................................................................68
5.3.2.1. Refrigerant .................................................................................................68
5.3.2.2. Outside unit ................................................................................................68
5.3.2.3. Distribution system.....................................................................................68
5.3.2.4. Inside units .................................................................................................69
5.3.2.5. VRF Control ...............................................................................................70
5.3.3. VRF temperature control .................................................................................71
5.3.3.1. "Only cold"..................................................................................................71
5.3.3.2. "Cold or hot": ..............................................................................................71
5.3.3.3. "Cold and hot" ............................................................................................73
5.3.4. Water loop energy recovery ............................................................................75
5.4. FAN CONVECTOR UNIT........................................................................................76
5.4.1. Operating principle ..........................................................................................76
5.4.2. Technological details .......................................................................................78
5.4.2.1. Particular fans ............................................................................................79
5.4.2.2. A few technological details .........................................................................80
5.4.3. Variant: the Air Treatment Module (ATM)........................................................81
5.4.4. Variant: the iced water modular system or "Hydrosplit" ...................................82
5.4.5. Field of application ..........................................................................................84
5.4.6. Layout and control diagrams for 2 tubes fans..................................................85
5.4.7. Layout and control diagrams for 4 tubes fans..................................................86
5.4.8. Layout and control diagrams for “2 tubes - 2 cables” fans...............................87
5.4.9. Advantages .....................................................................................................87
5.4.10. Disadvantages...............................................................................................88
5.5. CONDENSER AND COOLING TOWER .................................................................90
5.5.1. Overview .........................................................................................................90
5.5.1.1. 1° Air cooler................................................................................................91
5.5.1.2. 2° Closed cooling tower .............................................................................91
5.5.1.3. 3° Open cooling tower................................................................................92
5.5.2. Condenser operation .......................................................................................92
5.5.3. Cooling tower operation...................................................................................93
5.5.4. Air-cooled condensers.....................................................................................94
5.5.5. Water-cooled condensers................................................................................95
5.5.6. Air cooler (or dry cooler) ..................................................................................96
5.5.7. Cooling towers.................................................................................................97
5.5.7.1. Open cooling tower ....................................................................................97
5.5.7.2. Closed cooling tower..................................................................................98
5.6. HEAT PUMPS / WATER LOOP APPLICATION......................................................98
5.6.1. Did you say "heat pump"? ...............................................................................98
5.6.2. Types of heat pumps .....................................................................................100
5.6.3. Heat pump operating principle.......................................................................101
5.6.4. Various coefficients of performance ..............................................................101
5.6.4.1. Evaluating the instantaneous performance ..............................................101
5.6.4.2. Evaluating the instantaneous performance, auxiliaries included ..............102
5.6.4.3. Evaluating the annual performance, auxiliaries included .........................102
5.6.4.4. Theoretical evaluation of the annual performance ...................................103

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5.6.5. An efficiency which exceeds 100 %!? ...........................................................104

5.6.5.1. What heat pump energy balance? ...........................................................104
5.6.5.2. Is-it normal to encounter a machine whose "efficiency" exceeds 100 %? 104
5.6.5.3. What is the theoretical "ε" of a heat pump?..............................................104
5.6.5.4. And which practical COP?........................................................................105
5.6.6. Water loop heat pump ...................................................................................107
5.7. AIR TREATMENT UNITS......................................................................................108
5.7.1. Hot and cold from the same equipment.........................................................108
5.7.2. Difficult management during defrosting .........................................................109
5.7.3. Recover the extracted air? ............................................................................110
6. COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM............................................................111
6.1. REFRIGERATION INSTALLATION: OUTSIDE VIEW ..........................................111
6.2. REFRIGERATION INSTALLATION: INSIDE VIEW .............................................115
6.2.1. Everything is based on the physical properties of the refrigerant ..................115
6.2.2. In the evaporator ...........................................................................................116
6.2.3. In the compressor..........................................................................................117
6.2.4. In the condenser............................................................................................117
6.2.5. In the expansion valve...................................................................................118
6.2.6. Complete operation .......................................................................................118
6.3. OPERATION OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM IN PERMANENT BALANCE ....119
6.4. REGULATIONS CONCERNING REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS...........................122
6.4.1. Compressor control .......................................................................................122
6.4.2. Limiting maximum pressure at the compressor outlet: the HP controller.......122
6.4.3. Limiting the minimum pressure at the compressor inlet: the LP controller.....123
6.4.4. Avoiding overheating of the engine ...............................................................123
6.4.5. Lubricating the compressor ...........................................................................123
6.4.6. Avoiding liquid refrigerant jerks .....................................................................124
6.5. ENERGY EFFICIENCY OR COP-COLD...............................................................125
6.6. POWER CONTROL: REFRIGERATION UNITS ..................................................127
6.6.1. Two-point (on/off) compressor control ...........................................................127
6.6.2. Two-point (on/off) control by bleeding of the evaporator (or "pumpdown")....127
6.6.3. “Progressive” control of the evaporating pressure.........................................129
6.6.4. Control in “stages” .........................................................................................129
6.6.4.1. One evaporator and several compressors ...............................................130
6.6.4.2. Two distinct refrigeration systems in parallel............................................130
6.6.5. Rotational speed or "inverter" control ............................................................131
6.6.6. Taking the cylinders out of service ................................................................132
6.6.7. Closing the suction orifice..............................................................................132
6.6.8. Control by injection of hot gas .......................................................................132
6.6.9. Variable displacement control of the screw compressors..............................133
6.6.10. Pre-rotation of refrigerant in the turbocompressors .....................................134
7. REGULATION CONCERNING GREENHOUSE GAS .................................................135
7.1. GENERAL ASPECTS ...........................................................................................135
7.1.1. What are fluorinated gases?..........................................................................135
7.1.2. What is the European F- Gas Regulation? ....................................................135
7.1.3. What is the objective of the F- Gas Regulation? ...........................................136
7.1.4. Which gases are covered by the European Regulation?...............................136
7.1.5. What does the regulation prohibit?................................................................136

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HVAC - Air-Conditioning

7.1.6. Which aspects of the fluorinated gas uses are regulated? ............................138
7.1.7. Danish and Austrian situation........................................................................138
7.1.8. Entry into force of the regulation....................................................................138
7.2. OBLIGATIONS ......................................................................................................139
7.2.1. Which obligations have been changed by this regulation? ............................139
7.2.2. What does this change for the importer / producer?......................................140
7.2.3. Containment ..................................................................................................140
7.2.4. Obligations to report ......................................................................................142
7.2.5. Labelling requirements ..................................................................................144
7.3. TRAINING OF PERSONNEL ................................................................................145
7.4. PENALTIES ..........................................................................................................145
7.5. REVIEW OF THE REGULATION..........................................................................146
8. BASIC SERVICING .....................................................................................................147
9. CREATING AND MAINTAINING YOUR AIR-CONDITIONING ...................................150
9.1. INSTALLATION.....................................................................................................150
9.1.1. Safety above all.............................................................................................150
9.1.2. Installation principles .....................................................................................151
9.1.3. Course of an installation ................................................................................152
9.2. INSTALLATION ADVICE ......................................................................................157
9.2.1. Selecting the position ....................................................................................157
9.2.2. Connecting the condensate duct ...................................................................157
9.2.3. Connecting the fluid lines and electric cables................................................158
9.2.4. Refrigerant filling ...........................................................................................159
9.2.4.1. Test for leaks............................................................................................160
9.2.4.2. Creating a vacuum ...................................................................................161
9.3. SPLIT SYSTEM MAINTENANCE..........................................................................163
9.3.1. Servicing........................................................................................................163
9.3.2. Trouble-shooting - diagnostic ........................................................................164
10. GLOSSARY ...............................................................................................................165
11. FIGURES...................................................................................................................166
12. TABLES .....................................................................................................................170

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1. OBJECTIVES
With operator course EXP-PR-UT020, the maintenance electrician (and also the operator,
instrument technician, mechanic…) has already been introduced to a good amount of
information. Presently, it is necessary to see both courses together, or else, rather this one
before the operator course.

The technician / operator will have learned the following in the first course:

The operation theory of the refrigeration loops

The various elements which make up a refrigeration loop

Their technologies

The special features of the various refrigerants

The technologies for connecting the devices of a refrigeration loop with the material
and tools used

The refrigerant filling methods

The current repair and maintenance techniques

The defects and problems which could arise in the refrigeration system (and how to
solve them).

…etc.…

At the end of this additional course the technician (the same), when pertaining to HVAC,
should

Have extended his knowledge of air-conditioning in general

Be able to explain the operation of a refrigeration loop; the principles reviewed in

this course

Know how the heat pump operates

Be able to explain how a reversible system operates

Be able to list the various air-conditioning methods which produce cold and/or heat

Be astute and know all the tricks to install, put into operation and repair a split
system

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2. INTRODUCTION
The course for operators EXP-PR-UT020 is quite complete when pertaining to the
presentation of the refrigeration systems with the theory, the description of the
components, the various refrigerants and the maintenance.

Actually, this course should be in the maintenance portion. Consequently, the

maintenance technician should preferably read EXP-PR-UT020 after this course.

This course EXP-MN-SE0170 is more “general” extending the presentation to air-

conditioning in general.

While “plunging” back into the HVAC, I would first like to return to a theme brought up in
the operator course. On Total sites, I have always seen either, “no HVAC service /
department”, in this case the maintenance is usually carried out by the electricians; or “with
a HVAC service”, where the persons concerned are considered as sub-technicians. (The
less good ones go to HVAC and/or to Safety…..).

Personally, I have been trained in electricity and instrumentation having progressively

“slid” more generally towards mechanics and process, all the while staying more of a
“specialist” in instrumentation and electricity. I can assure you that a HVAC technician
(with self-respect…) must know these four disciplines (process, instrumentation, electricity
and mechanics) well.

This consideration (distressing and even scornful) of the HVAC technician at a negligible
level is maybe particularly French (so not specific to Total….) since when “one” does not
know something, “one” tends to consider this same something as less important. I did not
encounter this same behaviour of “neglectfulness” in the Americans or the Anglo-Saxons
which have an “environmental” department where good HVAC technicians are found.

So, PLEASE, on Total projects/sites, and when the HVAC installation is sufficiently
consistent, be sure to have a crew of good technicians with a good level of studies and
above all, respect / consider these technicians!

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3. AIR-CONDITIONING
The operator course was mostly centred on refrigeration. Now, let us expand upon the
subject.

3.1. TECHNICAL APPROACH

3.1.1. What is expected from air-conditioning?

What is the air-conditioning of a tertiary or industrial building (offices, residences,

laboratories, workshops, technical rooms…)? Is it really useful to define this term?

It is more important to hear the users define their needs. They know very well what they
expect from air-conditioning:

Thermal comfort

Silence

Hygiene

Maintenance-free

Aestheticism

Low cost

Figure 1: Thermal comfort of AC

3.1.1.1. Thermal comfort

On the sites, we speak, above all, of refrigeration since oil production is mainly found in
tropical and equatorial countries, and the reaction (systematically) consists of thinking of
creating cold.

But in the winter, it is cold in the Middle East (Arabia, Emirates, Iran, Yemen….) and
heating is necessary. As for Patagonia, Russia, China and soon Siberia along with the
Arctic and Antarctic regions, the tendency is inversed and heating is mainly the term used.

The “AC” represents, first of all, a thermal comfort in every season, meaning heating in
the winter and cooling in the summer, and both in midseason. Of course everyone should
be able to control their comfort according to their own wishes.

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3.1.1.2. Silence

Then there is the absence of noise. Usually the

air-conditioning is expected to be noiseless; it
should not cover up sounds of voices or computers
in the office, or keep you from sleeping (in rooms or
hotels); it should not make a “compressor noise” in
the control room or in the technical equipment
rooms (although there……., it is often noisy …)

Figure 2: AC = silence, in offices and elsewhere

The users will eventually tolerate a slight noise when starting up or triggering, indicating a
reaction to their request when they activate the thermostat: “It works!” and this is
“reassuring”.

3.1.1.3. Hygiene

Furthermore, the users do not wish to contract a disease because of their air-
conditioning. No drying up of the cornea, no respiratory infection, no transmission of the
cold from the neighbour in the office next door …

They want the air in their office to be

renewed more than twice every hour and
not 1 single time on average as is the
case today in many tertiary buildings.
“They” want an air-conditioning which
contributes to the improvement of the
hygiene in their workplace.

Figure 3: Hygiene for all the air

conditioned rooms

In a large majority of the cases, Legionnaires’ disease is found in the AC systems.

This is for the individual comfort, for everyone who complains when they are too hot (or too
cold). On site, it is also necessary to consider the hygiene and comfort of the equipment.
The electronic devices in the relay circuitry room, control room and supervisory room do
not like heat at all; they are liable to give way quicker than humans in case of a “heat
wave”.

The air changes in the technical rooms are also usually more demanding than those in the
offices. A battery room or a room containing supplies aided by a set of leakproof
maintenance free batteries demands an operation with rather limited temperature shifts
and a (very) large air change.

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3.1.1.4. Maintenance-free

Obviously their device must be reliable, and if it needs maintenance, the users do not
wish to be disturbed.

There is no need to exaggerate! I have seen people send away the poor guy who comes
to clean the filters in their office (while it was foreseen) but they demand an immediate
intervention when it breaks down (and still without being disturbed…).

There is a minimum of maintenance to be done, and it must be done.

3.1.1.5. Aestheticism

This air-conditioning device must also perfectly integrate in

the layout of the rooms which has often been studied carefully.

Away with ungraceful devices placed under windows or behind

desks. Time for devices which are integrated into columns, use a
false ceiling, which liberate space in the rooms; time for the
aesthetic diffusers.

Figure 4: The AC devices can be aesthetic

This is the advertised tendency while in reality, on site, we stay in

the “conventional” field.

3.1.1.6. Low cost

Finally, the users are aware that there is a price to pay for these advantages, but they
remark that when these expectations are not respected their productivity decreases. The
investor or the manager of the air conditioned room will try to satisfy everyone at the
lowest cost and in case of equal investment costs, the manager prefers the system which
consumes the least energy.

Summary: in air conditioned buildings, the users in general want the air-conditioning to
contribute to their well-being, never be the object of complaint, be able to be forgotten and,
in the whole, to cost as little as possible …

3.1.2. Air-conditioning techniques

Numerous techniques try to satisfy these criteria. Here they are reviewed according to the
criteria defined by the users

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Systems criteria Thermal comfort Silence Hygiene Maintenance-free Aestheticism Low cost Global note

NO
NO YES
NO NO -
NO Condensate tray in
the room. Used too often in True for a small
Split Window Blowing temperature Intervention in the System the least in
Noisy fan in the rooms with an surface but not
between 12 and room, change of accordance with the
room. Very small outside portion that applicable to a whole
15°C. filter, change of fan. expectations.
associated air is hard to hide. building.
change.

YES
NO
NO
+
Note the fan YES YES
Condensate tray in NO
Blowing temperature bearings are subject Has lower
Standard fan contact with recycled System not in
between 12 and to wear and may Integrated in the investment costs, to
convector unit in air. Intervention in the accordance with the
15°C. make noise. false ceiling, but the detriment of
false ceiling room, change of expectations but with
small selection of maintenance and
Very small filter, change of fan. a low investment
Must have 4 tubes to Silence at speed 1 diffusers. exploitation costs.
associated air cost
be comfortable. but no longer after 2
change.
years in operation.

NO
YES NO NO
NO
Intervention in the ++
YES
Note the fan Condensate tray in room or in the Higher investment
Blowing temperature
bearings are subject contact with recycled hallway, change of costs than the Better than the
between 12 and Integrated in the
Duct fan coil unit to wear and may air. filter. standard fan standard fan
15°C. false ceiling, and
make noise convector unit and convector unit but a
possibility of using
Very small Fan with better maintenance and more costly
Must have 4 tubes to an aesthetic diffuser.
Sound attenuation associated air performance than exploitation costs not investment
be comfortable.
thanks to the hoses. change. the one in the void.
standard fan.

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Systems criteria Thermal comfort Silence Hygiene Maintenance-free Aestheticism Low cost Global note

NO
NO
Intervention in the
NO NO
room, change of Higher investment
NO
filter. costs than for the fan ++
NO Fan and compressor Condensate tray in
convector unit and
in the room or the contact with recycled Often integrated in
Water loop heat Refrigeration circuit extra maintenance One of the most
Blowing temperature false ceiling. air. the false ceiling.
pump maintenance. costs because of the costly systems but
between 12 and
refrigeration circuit. which allows energy
15°C. Silence at speed 1 Very small Small selection of
Fan with better savings.
but no longer after 2 associated air diffusers.
performance than But high energy
years in operation. change.
the one in the efficiency so
standard fan exploitation savings.
convector unit.

YES NO
YES YES
+++
Blowing temperature Higher investment
No condensates or Often integrated in
between 15 and YES costs than for the fan The system
condensates never the false ceiling.
20°C. convector unit but, preferred by the
All-air YES in contact with
No maintenance of very low users but it is difficult
recycled air Large selection of
Note the variable the terminal. maintenance costs to integrate in the
diffusers.
flow which does not and high energy structure of the
Procures a high air
procure a constant savings by free - building.
change. Liberates space.
stirring in the room. cooling

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Systems criteria Thermal comfort Silence Hygiene Maintenance-free Aestheticism Low cost Global note

YES
YES YES
YES Higher investment
costs than for the fan
No condensates or Often integrated in ++++
Blowing temperature YES convector unit, but
condensates never the false ceiling.
All-air with between 15 and very low
YES in contact with The system
induction terminals 20°C. No maintenance of maintenance costs
recycled air. Large selection of preferred by the
the terminal. and high energy
diffusers. users.
Very good comfort savings by free -
Procures a high air
even with 2 tubes cooling possible
change. Liberates space.
even with low
temperatures.

NO

No condensates.
YES NO ++
Note the risk of YES
YES
Resulting ceiling condensation High investment A system which does
Cold ceiling YES
temperature very if the ambient Constitutes the false costs. not allow the
No maintenance.
close to that of the humidity is elevated ceiling so invisible changing of the
room. Low power per m². ambient air.
Very small
associated air
change.

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HVAC - Air-conditioning

Systems criteria Thermal comfort Silence Hygiene Maintenance-free Aestheticism Low cost Global note

NO
NO NO NO
No condensates NO
++
except if the ambient
Blowing temperature Intervention in the Investment costs and
humidity is high, and Monobloc integrated
very close to that of room maintenance costs Has the most costly
Chilled beam. YES then the in the false ceiling
the room. higher than those for systems and they
condensation falls in but exposed surface
Unit needs cleaning. the All-air. risk condensing in
the room. and little aesthetic
Must have 4 tubes to the room.
choice
be comfortable No fan Low unit power
Small associated air
change.

NO
NO NO
NO Intervention in the
room, change of
Note the fan Average investment ++
NO Condensate tray in filter.
VRF bearings are subject NO costs and high
contact with recycled
to wear and may refrigeration Has the most costly
Blowing temperature air. Refrigeration circuit
Variable Refrigerant make noise Often integrated in maintenance costs. systems but they are
between 12 and maintenance.
Flow the false ceiling. adapted to
15°C. Very small
Silence at speed 1 But energy savings renovations
associated air Fan which performs
but no longer after 2 thanks to the COP of
change. better than the one
years in operation. the machines.
on the standard fan
convector unit.

Table 1: various air-conditioning techniques

Since this chapter is dedicated to air-conditioning and since the “split”, “window” refrigeration is discussed in detail in the operator course,
the air diffusion systems (not part of the operator course) are described hereafter.

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3.1.3. All-air air-conditioning

In this air-conditioning system the centrally treated air is distributed in a ductwork and then
blown into several rooms or specific zones. In order to control the atmospheres in each
room a flow controlling device is necessary, the expansion box for example, or a terminal
unit with hot water, iced water or both.

A double-flux is when the air is taken back into an aeraulic network towards the central
unit.

Figure 5: All-air air-conditioning

This unit can also be an AHU (for Air Handling Unit) or an air/air heat pump.

Figure 6: All-air distribution with induction terminals

In the light of the previous comparison on the table, the all-air distribution with induction
terminals (heat/cold exchanger at the head of the air distribution duct) appears to be the
air-conditioning system which best satisfies the expectations of the users. (In offices,
community houses and grouped technical rooms)

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Contrary to the Classic all-air air-conditioning (without induction terminals or even the
evaporator section of a split for example) it has the advantage of being able to use primary
air at low temperature (between 10 and 15°C) thus needing smaller air flows at equal
power.

3.1.4. Advantages of the all-air air-conditioning and various types of systems

3.1.4.1. Constant flow all-air system

By simply adjusting the temperature variation in the AHU it can be adapted to be used in
large rooms such as hallways, restaurants, briefing rooms, cinemas, living quarters
(offshore), plants, storage areas….

Figure 7: The all-air air-conditioning with constant flow

3.1.4.2. Constant flow and induction all-air air-conditioning

It procures the
intervention of a hot
and/or cold water terminal
unit fit with an induction
cone for each room.

Due to the Venturi effect

this device sucks air from
the room, mixes it with air
from the terminal unit and
blows it into the room.

Figure 8: The constant

flow and induction all-
air air-conditioning

The individual temperature control permits variations of the water flow in the unit and thus
control of the air’s temperature before it is mixed.

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3.1.4.3. Variable flow all-air air-conditioning

It procures the intervention of an air flow controlling device for either each zone, or even
better, for each room. The individual temperature control allows variations of the
discharged air flow.

Figure 9: Variable flow all-air air-conditioning

3.1.4.4. Variable flow and induction all-air air-conditioning

It procures the intervention of a flow controlling device for each room. Due to the Venturi
effect this device sucks air from the room, mixes it with pre-treated air and blows it into the
room.

The individual temperature

control allows variations of
the discharged pre-treated air
flow, but the discharged flow,
and thus the stirring, stays
almost constant.

Figure 10: Variable flow and

induction all-air air-
conditioning

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3.1.5. Advantages of induction all-air systems

This system is not generalized on our sites, but it should be since it has all the advantages
of other systems……, it is worth it to list these advantages.

The cold air treated by the terminal unit and the air from the room is mixed in the mixing
tube. The temperature difference between the discharge air and the ambient air lies
around 5°C.

The discharge diffuser is selected

conventionally to procure the best diffusion in
the room, avoid dead zones and contribute to
the pollution control of the room.

The terminal units have 4 tubes or 2 tubes or 2

tubes 2 cables.

Figure 11: Induction units with 4 or 2 tubes

These systems are static since there are no

revolving parts such as a fan. Therefore they are
silent even if the Venturi effect increases the air
flow.

Figure 12: Static induction units

The pre-treated air is effectively filtered in the AHU (upstream, usually outside).

The inlet air in the room is never in contact with the terminal unit in which condensates can
be found. Thus the users are protected against the bacterial invasion found in the
condensate trays of conventional devices.

These condensates are collected and

immediately and continuously removed
under pressure. They pose no threat to
the health of the users.

Figure 13: Upstream condensate

recovery

These static systems cannot go out of order. They do not have a filter on the suction. The
only part which can break down is the motorized water control valve.

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An “Induction all-air” air-conditioning installation is less expensive than a “Classic all-air”

installation since the air flows are weaker: the AHU and the ducts are smaller. This
installation costs about 20% more than an installation with standard fan coil units, but
almost the same as an installation with duct fan coil units.

In moderate regions energy savings are important: 3 months of winter with an energy
recovery in the AHU, then 7 months of midseason with a lot of free - cooling, even at a low
outside temperature (why not below 12°C?), and 2 months of summer with cheap
electricity and free - cooling during the night. The electrical efficiency from the only fan in
the installation (in the AHU), in the neighbourhood of 75%, furthermore increases the
installation’s energy efficiency.

The absence of a terminal air filter on the suction of the air in the room along with the
absence of a fan allow to save more than with an installation with fan coil units.

3.2. F.A.Q

F.A.Q. stands for “Frequently Asked Questions”, and here the focus stays (mainly) on the
“all-air” system.

Air condition or refresh?

“Air condition” is commonly used when it concerns the procuring of an ambient

temperature no matter what the outside temperature; at 35°C as well as at 15°C for
example. While “refresh” is used more when it concerns the procuring of an ambient
temperature where the inside temperature is a few degrees lower than, and changes along
with, the outside temperature.

Variable flow operation or constant flow operation?

A variable flow installation can have hot terminal units but no back-end regulating cooling
unit. So the cold power is delivered by the air cooled in the AHU at the same temperature
in all the rooms.

If the rooms have different, or even opposed thermal behaviours, the building must be
divided into different thermal zones, which is called a zoning.

If it is not possible to carry out this zoning, due to overall dimensions of the ducts for
example, it is necessary to switch to a constant air flow with back-end regulating unit.

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How is an air system balanced?

Balancing a classic all-air air-

conditioning installation equipped
with control dampers demands a
lot of patience…

Figure 14: Distribution system to be

balanced at the level of the
dampers

Not only is it possible to adjust the air flows at the level of each distribution damper
according to the volume of the room, its exposure and its heat losses and/or gains; it can
also be adjusted according to the characters of the occupants….., (I want less air, I want
more, I want more heat, I want more cold…..)

What is done when a building has facades that have very opposed heat properties?

Several possibilities:

Use “4 tubes” terminal units with a constant flow all-air system

Proceed to a zoning by facades and use:

Either “2 tubes” terminal units and proceed to a change - over by facade

when the AHU supplies the 2 facades with air.

Or flow rate controllers and vary the blowing temperature according to the
facade.

How many times must the air in air conditioned rooms be renewed?

The only regulation in effect is the obligation written in the labour code about the need to
renew the air in rooms where people work. The flow rates are 18 l/s for non-smoking
rooms and 36 l/s for smoking rooms.

Usually a minimum of 60 m³/h, or about 1 vol/h, is discharged in an office, but experience

shows that this is not enough and that a minimum of 2.5 vol/h is more hygienic

This concerns France.

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How are briefing rooms in an office block air conditioned?

These briefing rooms are often in the centre of the buildings, placed one above another.
Their use is more intermittent than that of an office. Rather than connecting to an air
distribution from the local distribution, it is preferable to create a specific network with an
AHU specifically for briefing rooms, and to provide motorized dampers which open when
the room is occupied or when the CTM commands this opening.

How are smoking rooms air conditioned?

First increase the air change rate of the smoking rooms by increasing the primary flow and
extracted flow.

Then avoid recycling the removed smoke with the primary air discharged into the non-
smoking rooms. This can be achieved by creating a specific aeraulic network. For these
smoking rooms an ALL-FRESH AIR SYSTEM is the only appropriate answer.

Terminals with 2 tubes or 4 tubes?

The 2 tubes change - over is the simplest solution (in moderate regions): in the middle of
winter the system contains hot water; iced water in the middle of summer. During
midseason, close to winter, the system contains hot water and the AHU allows cooling with
free - cooling. During midseason close to summer, the system contains iced water and the
AHU allows warming the rooms in the morning when the terminal unit valves are closed.

This solution is used for regions where the climate does not change much.

The 4 tubes is the most reliable solution: in all seasons each terminal unit has hot water
and iced water at its disposal. The AHU can free - cool when needed. This solution is used
to centrally treat areas with varying climate behaviour.

What is free - cooling?

This is the cooling of the rooms with cold outside air. For example outside air at 12°C in
February, a classic case in the Paris Region.

With an average flow of 250 m³/h per office, the ALL-AIR SYSTEM allows to really refresh
with cold air at 12°C: 1100 W to maintain at 25 °C! The other systems which do not often
change the air in the rooms cannot free - cool.

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Is it possible to use the All-air system in renovations?

It can be used for both new construction and in renovations. What limits its use is the
space available in the false ceilings in the rooms and circulations.

When and how is an air-conditioning system chosen?

It is chosen at the earliest possible moment of the design process since it may prove
necessary to ask the architect to increase the heights of the false ceilings, change the
position of the shafts…

Is it true that an all-air system uses too much fresh air?

Yes an all-air installation uses a lot of air, but an all-air installation is not necessarily ALL-
FRESH AIR and is very often accompanied by an efficient energy recovery. This depends
on the AHU.

So an AHU can consist of a mixing unit where fresh air is mixed with the partially recycled
air from the building. This AHU operates with a minimum of fresh air and a maximum of
recycled air in the middle of summer and in the middle of winter, which saves energy. But
in midseason the AHU operates a long time in practically all-fresh air mode to optimize the
free - cooling.

The AHU can also be equipped with an energy recovery system such as a plate heat
exchanger, a heat pipe, a wheel… These systems are indispensable starting from the
moment the AHU operates in ALL-FRESH AIR.

Lastly the Unit can be an air/air heat pump, preferably with a heat pipe.

What are the maintenance constraints?

Like all other systems an all-air installation consists of an AHU or an air/air heat pump, a
heat production unit, a cold production unit, an air distribution unit and a water distribution
unit. All these units need maintenance. The maintenance of these centralised units, along
with their frequency, is pretty much identical whatever the system.

The particularity of the ALL-AIR SYSTEM lies in the larger size of the ducts which makes
maintenance easier, and in the larger size of the AHU which increases the price of the
filters.

On the other hand the terminal units are either static (terminal units with or without
induction, stationary dampers), or motorized (expansion box, flow controllers with or
without induction).

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3.3. RULES AND TOOLS OF DESIGN AND EXECUTION

3.3.1. How to approach a project

First the goal must be defined:

ALL-FRESH AIR or RECYCLING?

It is forbidden to recycle the air in a care facility, so there it will be ALL-FRESH AIR. On the
other hand, in an office block there is no problem with using a mixing unit which recycles
part of the air in the rooms in the middle of both winter and summer, but which procures a
lot of ALL-FRESH AIR during a large portion of the midseason.

Heating? Cooling? Or air-conditioning?

This is substantially the designer’s choice. This choice influences the calculations of the
thermal loads and temperatures of the systems and rooms. So the temperatures desired in
the rooms must be decided while keeping in mind the extreme conditions of the outside
temperature.

Then the following design stages must be followed:

Base hypotheses and preliminary calculations

Determination of the air flows in the rooms and sizes of the terminals

Determination of the aeraulic networks

Selection of the system: constant or variable air flow, 2 tubes or 4 tubes

Selection of the diffusers

Selection of the control

3.3.2. Base hypotheses and preliminary calculations

Base hypotheses

Set the primary blowing temperature: 20°C for a constant air flow with terminal unit, 12°C
for a variable air flow with induction terminal.

Set the iced water temperature: 6- 11°C for example

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Set the hot water temperature: 45-40°C for example

Set a minimum primary air flow for each room: 120 m³/h for an air change rate of 3 vol/h
for example.

Input method

Determine the sensible inputs of the rooms, the static losses of the rooms.

Air change rate method

Determine the minimum air change rate of every treated room

3.3.3. Air flow determination

Calculation of the air flows of a wing, floor or portion of a floor with properties characteristic
of the building.

Input method:

If the terminal unit outlet temperature is 9°C, the primary flow is:

sensible inputs
qp = in m³/h
0,34 × ((25 − 9 )

For a variable air flow, where the primary air is 12°C, the primary flow is:

sensible inputs
qp = in m³/h
0,34 × ((25 − 12 )

Air change rate method

For each air change rate, the primary flow is:

Qp = rate x volume of the room in m³/h

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3.3.4. Determination of terminals and overall dimensions

For each room whose primary flow has been determined, a terminal is quickly chosen so
as to know the overall dimensions.

Take, for example, 250 m³/h.

Terminal unit

Selection of an induction terminal unit Ø200, connected in Ø 160 upstream and in Ø 250
downstream.

The minimum downstream distance is 6 times the downstream diameter, i.e. 1.500 mm.

The plans or sketches are checked to verify if:

the false ceiling is high enough to insert the Ø 250 tube

the room is long or large enough to insert the 500 mm long unit, the 250 mm long
induction instrument, the 1.500 to 2.000 long tube and the diffuser.

Flow rate controller

Selection of an induction flow rate controller Ø160, connected in Ø 160 upstream and in Ø
200 downstream.

The minimum downstream distance is 6 times the downstream diameter, i.e. 1.200 mm.

The plans or sketches are checked to verify if:

the false ceiling is high enough to insert the tube Ø 200

the room is long or large enough to insert the 500 mm long controller, the 250
mm long induction instrument, the 1.200 to 2.000 long tube and the diffuser.

If the terminal and its auxiliaries can be inserted in the space available in the false ceiling
the next stage may be commenced.

3.3.5. Determination of systems and overall dimensions

Sum up the air flows of a wing, floor or portion of a floor with properties characteristic of
the building. This total is the flow rate of the air distribution.

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Calculate its section and check if it can be inserted into the false ceiling of the circulation.

Take, for example, 12 x 250 = 3.000 m³/h.

The speed in the duct depends on the type of rooms treated.

Offices, labs

Air velocity at the beginning of the air distribution: 7 to 8 m/s

Ex.: 3.000 m³/h at 8 m/s gives a duct Ø365.

Choose between:

- Ø 400 and v= 6.6 m/s

- Ø 355 and v= 8.4 m/s

- 250 x 420 and v= 8 m/s

Sleeping rooms

Air velocity at the beginning of air distribution: 5 m/s

Ex.: 3.000 m³/h at 5 m/s gives a duct Ø460.

Choose between:

- Ø 500 and v= 4.2 m/s

- 300 x 550 and v= 5 m/s

If the ducts can be inserted in the space available in the false ceiling, the next stage may
be commenced.

If the ducts are too large it will be necessary to return to the previous stage.

3.3.6. Selection of the air-conditioning system

At this stage of design it is necessary to choose between a constant and variable flow; and
between 2 tubes and 4 tubes.

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Constant or variable air flow?

Variable air flow: it is forbidden

if the AHU has to produce both hot and cold at the same time in different
adjoining rooms,

if, to prevent this problem, it is impossible to divide the building into different
thermally distinct zones.

Constant air flow: the primary air is pre-treated in the AHU and induction terminal units,
which adjust the blowing temperature in function of the needs, are placed. It is also
necessary to add 1 or 2 water networks depending on whether 2 tubes or 4 tubes are
used.

2 tubes or 4 tubes?

Only used for an installation with constant air flow.

The all-air system allows basic heat treatment with the AHU and adjustment with the
terminal unit.

The 2 tubes change - over is the simplest solution: in the middle of winter (moderate
regions) the system contains hot water; in the middle of summer it contains iced water.

During midseason, close to winter, the system contains hot water and the AHU allows
cooling with free -cooling. During midseason, close to summer, the system contains iced
water and the AHU allows warming the rooms in the morning when the terminal unit valves
are closed.

This solution is used for regions where the climate does not change much.

The 4 tubes is the most reliable solution: in all seasons each terminal unit has hot water
and iced water at its disposal. The AHU can free - cool when needed...

This solution is used to centrally treat zones with varying climate behaviour.

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4. HEAT PUMPS AND APPLICATION

In operator course EXP-PR-UT020, the heat pump has only been explained “vaguely”.
Even if this term is used often in the media it is necessary (all the same) to discuss and
demystify it.

The heat pump was introduced as a heating instrument for installation in moderate
European regions, but nowadays the term “reversible” is used. This is when both hot and
cold are created with the same device by reversing the “system”. So this principle also has
a future in countries in the Middle East where heat is needed in the winter.

Heat pump, refrigeration, it is the same thing! There is always a classic cycle with
condenser, evaporator, compressor, expansion valve and refrigerant circulating in the
assembly. A condenser cools the fluid but blows hot air and the evaporator does the
opposite; so it is enough to place either the evaporator or the condenser in the room which
needs to be heated or cooled. But, all the same there is no need to take apart /
interchange these 2 devices between summer and winter since they will work fine with a
conjuring trick and a simple switch or an automatic control …..

But careful, do not do just anything, like for example

In refrigeration, install the condenser inside the garrets (aesthetic reasons…) where
it gets hotter than 60°C during the day. The fluid exits the compressor at 55/60°C
and the exchanger / condenser is supposed to cool this same fluid, not heat it
(exists on Total sites…)

In heating, have an outside evaporator (with ambient air heat exchanger), and ask it
to operate when the temperature outside is -10°C. The fluid exits the condenser at
between 4 and 8°C and needs to be warmed, not cooled. (Also exists….)

Since we already know the operating principle of the refrigeration and since the heat pump
uses the (exact) same materials, we will have a look at the principles and operation of
heating with “mixed” systems.

4.1. OPERATING PRINCIPLE

4.1.1. Heat pump or thermodynamic heating

Our environment, the ground beneath our feet, the water from the ground water tables and
the air which surrounds us, all store energy from the sun every day. Thanks to the heat
pump it is possible to recover this free and inexhaustible energy to use it for heating.

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Figure 15: The heat pump recovers natural energy

The heat pump allows saving fossil energies like fuel oil or gas and direct electrical energy.

There are several types which draw heat from the air (aerothermodynamic heat pump), the
ground (geothermal heat pump) or the water from the ground water tables (Aquathermal
heat pump).

Just like in your refrigerator, heat is drawn inside, lowering the temperature, and is then
sent back outside into the air in the kitchen. The small sound that you hear in your
refrigerator is the electric compressor which "compresses" a fluid called refrigerant which
is able to transfer cooling and heating by means of its state changes (gas/liquid).

The heat pumps operate according to the same principle, but it is the outside environment,
ground, air or water, which supplies the heat and the inside of the accommodation which
recovers it.

So the heat pump draws heat from this abundant and free environment and returns it to
the accommodation at a very economic cost. This equipment, fit with an electric
compressor, allows energy savings up to 70% when compared to a classic heating
solution.

The diagram shows the heat pump operation principle; revise the Mollien cycle in the
operator course in chapter 6

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Figure 16: Cycle and principle of the heat pump

1. Evaporation: when in contact with heat drawn from the environment, the refrigerant,
thanks to its low boiling point, changes from liquid into vapour.

2. Compression: this is high-pressure vapour.

3. Condensation: the vapour will transfer its heat to the heating system. The refrigerant
(still compressed) returns to a liquid state.

4. Expansion: the refrigerant pressure is reduced. The fluid is ready for a new absorption
of heat from the environment.

5. Reversibility: the cycle can be reversed in the case of a reversible heat pump which
can also refresh an accommodation in the summer by absorbing the heat from the room to
release it outside.

The heat pump and refrigeration is the same thing but the principle is reversed.

Q2 is heat supplied to the room that is to be heated

Q1 is heat supplied to the evaporator to warm the fluid

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4.1.2. Heat pump efficiency or COP

(COP = coefficient of performance)

By using 1 kWh of electricity to operate the heat pump you can recover, for free, up to 3 or
4 kWh naturally present in the environment while saving it.

To achieve this heat transfer, only the system’s compressor and fans (or pumps) are
electrically connected.

Figure 17: Heat pump efficiency

Since the heat taken from the natural environment is free and a large portion of the
electricity supplied to the compressor is changed into heat, a thermodynamic heater
consumes less energy than it supplies.

This passing from 1 to 3 (or even up to 4) is called COP (coefficient of performance of the
heat pump), meaning the efficiency. Yes, the heat pump efficiency is much higher than 1,
in this example the COP = 3!

In other words, in terms of consumption, you use 3 kWh to heat and only pay for one! Or, if
your heating bill comes from direct electric current, for example with convectors, it is
divided by 3!

So the energy saved is substantial compared with a standard electric heating system.
Countries like Sweden, although situated in northern Europe, have been amongst the top
class of users for years.

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France, becoming more conscious and engaged where concerning the preservation of
energy and the environment, has known a remarkable growth as can be seen on the table
below:

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Ground / Ground and
7 700 5 400 6 800 7 800 9 600
Ground / Water
Water / Water 3 600 4 900 5 400 8 850
Air / Water 4 400 4 700 5 600 12 000 35 050
Air / Air Non-representative data
Total 12 100 13 700 17 300 25 200 53 500

Table 2: Development of implementation of heat pumps in France

Example of efficiency:

Figure 18: Example of heat pump efficiency

Order of magnitude of performances of a heat pump drawing heat from the outside air at
+7°C to warm the water in a heating system from 30 to 35°C.

In these operating conditions, the coefficient of performance (COP) of the heat pump is:

Heating capacity sup plied Condenser power 10

COP = = = 3,33
Heating capacity consumed Compressor power 3

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4.1.3. Heat pump cycle and reversible air conditioner

To understand the operation of heat pumps, it is necessary to be convinced that even

when it is cold, the outside air contains a lot of heat.

A refrigeration system can be used to “cool outside air” which comes down to drawing heat
and discharging this recovered heat into the room which is to be heated.

Figure 19: Heat pump cycle

The air conditioner operates in heat pump mode when it supplies heat inside the rooms,
meaning when it operates in a mode reversed to refrigeration. The ideal operating
temperatures are shown on the figure.

Figure 20: Temperatures for a heat pump

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The air conditioner is reversible when it can operate in both air-conditioning mode and in
heating mode…In winter you could say that it operates in hot mode.

Figure 21: Movement of the cycle switchover valve of a reversible air conditioner

The mode of the reversible air conditioners is switched from “cold” to “hot”, and inversely,
by means of a cycle switchover valve which can be controlled by a double threshold room
thermostat.

Remark:

It could also be said that the air conditioner operates in “heat pump” mode, but from a
fiscal point of view, a simple reversible air conditioner is, today, not considered to be a real
heat pump (except for special conditions).

Here we tackle official texts, with their “haziness”, and the possibilities for a grant
issuance, a tax concession etc…: this is not the subject here. This does not change the
interest of selecting a reversible air conditioner when air-conditioning is necessary.

The whole interest of heat pumps lies in the fact that to supply 10 kWh of heat, the
energy consumption lies around only 3 kWh, usually electric.

Actually the term “heat pump” is an aberration since, in the refrigerant circuit, we do not
pump, we compress! And an oil site operator knows the difference well! But since this term
is recognized fiscally in France…

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4.2. HEAT COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

We will not “return to” the operation cycle refrigeration loop (see operator course EXP-PR-
UT020), but to the heat source which the heat pump draws from. How is this outside heat
recovered?

As a rule, if you wish to install and use a heating system with heat pump, you will have to
study civil engineering! (Except for all-air systems)

A variety of solutions exist according to the type of heat collection.

4.2.1. Air collection

The heat is collected from the outside air. There are two types of heat pumps:

4.2.1.1. Air/air heat pump

Hot air returned to the ambient

air in the room by
cassettes/grids, split system,
multi -split:

Figure 22: Air/ Air heat pump

The evaporator is the outside unit which ”removes” the cold from the refrigerant with a
forced draught heat exchanger (LP side). Inside, the air propelled in the ducts recovers
heat in the exchanger / condenser, HP side, downstream the compressor.

4.2.1.2. Air/ Water heat pump

Heat returned to the heating installation’s hot water circuit by hot water heaters, heated
floor or heated - cooled floor, fan coil units (for a reversible heat pump). So the condenser
(inside) is a heat exchanger with refrigerant on one side and a pumped water circuit on the
other; like a hot water central heating system where the boiler is replaced by a heat pump.
In practice, the heat pump is doubled (is in parallel) with a heating source (boiler, electric
heaters…, see application, paragraph hereafter)

Advantages:

space gained at the level of the heat collection

least expensive systems

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Constraints:

Large impact of the outside temperature on the performance of the heat pump

Make sure the outside unit has good sound isolation

4.2.2. Water collection

The heat is collected from the ground water table, a water reservoir... There is only
one type of heat pump for this configuration: ⇒ The Water/water heat pump

The heat or cold is returned by a heated floor or a heated - cooled floor (with reversible air-
conditioning):

Figure 23: Collection from the ground water table for heat pump and/or reversible air-
conditioning

The energy is also drawn from the subterranean ground water tables at temperatures
around 14°C; which could seem cold, but which are high enough to be collected and
increased tenfold with a COP of 3 or 4 to a heating installation via a heat pump.

The water temperature at this level procures an efficiency in the summer, during air-
conditioning mode operation, which is much more interesting than the one supplied by any
WATER/WATER heat pump.

Collection at the ground water table level procures high energy efficiency (constant and
elevated temperature the whole year between 8 and 12°C).

Constraints: It is more expensive (drilling + discharge of the water from which the heat
has been drawn into a water body or double drilling to reinject the water drawn from the
ground water table).

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This solution can also be subject to a tax decided by the town/city hall.

Note: water exploitation is subject to a specific regulation.

4.2.3. Ground collection

The heat is collected from the ground using two types of collectors:

The temperature at ground level is on average 12°C and descending down into the subsoil
it increases on average 4°C every 100 m; this is called the geothermal gradient.

So the energy is drawn from the ground by horizontal collectors buried at 80 cm or vertical
collectors, up to 100 meters deep. These last ones take up less space on the land, but
require well controlled drilling operations.

4.2.3.1. Horizontal collector

Figure 24: Horizontal ground collection system

Advantages:

Less expensive systems than the vertical collectors

Constraints:

Need for a large surface of land for the collector: 1,5 to 2 times the dwelling area

Forbidden to plant trees in the area occupied by the heat collector system (placed
more than 2 m away from trees)

loose soil preferable to rocky soil

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4.2.3.2. Vertical collector

Figure 25: Vertical system ground collection

Advantages:

systems more efficient than the horizontal collectors

10 W gained per linear meter

Constraints:

Drilling costs,

regulation for protection of the subsoil

4.2.4. Summary of the three types of heat pumps

Earth/water heat pump: only with buried horizontal collector, heat or cold is
returned by heated floor or heated - cooled floor. Refrigerant circulates in the
heat collector system and water circulates in the heat transducers.

Earth/earth heat pump (direct expansion system): only with buried horizontal
collector, heat or cold is returned by heated floor. The refrigerant circulates
directly in the heat collector system and the floor.

Glycol water/water heat pump: with horizontal or vertical collector, heat or cold
is returned by heated floor or heated - cooled floor. Water with added antifreeze
circulates in the collectors and water circulates in the heat transducers. The
refrigerant stays confined in the heat pump.

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5. AIR-CONDITIONING (OR HEAT PUMP): FIELD OF

APPLICATION
Air-conditioning is more general than “heat pump”. The heat pump which is in fact the
compressor / condenser assembly is used in both refrigeration and heating mode.

5.1. SELECTING THE HEAT SOURCE

The whole reasoning shown below comes from the household sector. It is not as easy to
carry out a project in the industrial or tertiary sector where the heating powers, alone
together, are much larger. However, for small satellite dwellings and offices it might be
interesting to think about it all the same.

5.1.1. General criteria

It is difficult to compare the heat sources (currently

called "cold sources") since various parameters
change the balance.

The most arduous task of the designer consists of

coordinating the heat pump properties with the
available flow and temperature properties of the
heat source.

A badly designed heat source can have catastrophic

repercussions for the safety of the exploitation, its
power and heat efficiency.

Figure 26: Ground temperature according to

month in Europe

The curves (shown right) describe the variability of the temperatures encountered in the air
and ground during the year.

Note: these values have been established for Switzerland but their development is similar
to France’s (we also have an average annual temperature around 10°C) but here the
amplitude of the variations is a little bit lower since the average temperature is + 3°C in
January and + 17°C in July. So in France the various curves are more "crammed".

When pertaining to energy savings and protection of the environment, the decisive factor
is the temperature level and constancy.

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For this reason the classification can be drawn up as follows:

1. heat discharges

2. ground water table

3. subsoil heat

4. outside air

Each heat source has its advantages and disadvantages which is why only a meticulous
analysis of the project can give the expected answer. The following table resumes the
main heat sources and properties to be taken into account during the design:

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Installation ε (*)
Source Source properties Installation conditions Remark
costs (estimate)

Similar to that of the

Heat discharges Small temperature
Air/ Water or Installation more or less
from industrial variations. Current system for hot
Water/Water heat large depending on the
processes or air- Low. domestic supply water
pump according to the configuration of the
conditioning Possible flow variation production.
cold source source.
systems. depending on the case.
properties.

Proximity of adequate
Passage through
Variable quantity of water
intermediate water
Small temperature according to necessary.
Surface water Excellent: 4,5 to 5 (2) circuit.
variations the proximity
of the water. Protection system
Loading possible.
against freezing.

Existing wells can

reduce the costs.
Need for enough quality
Very small temperature Need for an
ground water.
Ground water table variations. (+ 6°C to Excellent: 4,5 to 5 (2) intermediate circuit.
+ 10°C)
Local legal restrictions.
Low maintenance cost.

Very strict dimensioning.

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Installation ε (*)
Source Source properties Installation conditions Remark
costs (estimate)

Horizontal or vertical
exchangers.
Small temperature
variations (larger for use Surface needs in case Ground and surface
of coils at small depth). Average to of a horizontal heat conditions influence the
Ground Good: 4,5 (3)
high. exchanger and an anti- design.
Knowledge of the ground freeze protection.
heat properties required. Low maintenance costs.

Very strict dimensioning.

Defrosting and
Large temperature Universal system,
Average: sometimes back-up
Outside air variations (- 0°C to Low. source available in
3 to 4,5 (1) heating system
+ 15°C) large quantities.
necessary.

Table 3: Comparative heat sources and efficiency

(*) The instant energy efficiency values “ε“ depend on the model of heat pumps chosen. The values given here are only orders of magnitude allowing
understanding of the influence of the cold source. Annual performance values would be more realistic
(1)
For an Air/ Water heat pump with starting temperature of 35°C and outside air at 7°C.
(2)
For a Water/water heat pump with starting temperature of 35°C and heat source temperature of 2°C to 10°C.
(3)
For a starting temperature of 45°.

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5.1.2. Ground water tables

5.1.2.1. What ground water table?

The term "ground water table"

designates all the waters found in
the subsoil.

Figure 27: The various ground water

tables

In hydrogeology 2 types of ground

water tables are distinguished: the
aquifers with interstitial porosity and
the fractured aquifers.

In the first, the most frequent and most exploited, the water circulates in the pores of the
rock consisting of gravel, sand or alluvion. In fractured aquifers, the rock is impermeable
and the water circulates in the fractures or fissures of rocks such as granite, limestone,
chalk.

The risk of unsuccessful drilling is higher for fissured or fractured aquifers, and it
essentially depends on the local knowledge of the fracture. In aquifers with interstitial
porosity, the ground water flow rate is proportional to the permeability of the rock (size of
the grains), to the slope and to the section of the aquifer at this place.

5.1.2.2. What drill hole?

The drill hole consists of two parts: the pumping chamber and
the collection chamber.
Figure 28: Type of drill hole

The upper part, the pumping chamber, is a steel casing

which crosses the layers of ground where there is no
collection. A cementing prevents the mixture between an
eventual upper layer and the pumping layer. It also keeps
the hole from falling in.

The lower part, the collection chamber, contains a bed of

filtering gravel (to prevent loading caused by fine
particles), a decantation tube and a bonnet which closes
the well

1 – water level in the well 3 - variable speed pumps 5 – filtering bed

2 – steel casing 4 – strainer 6 - decantation tube and bonnet

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5.1.2.3. What heat?

Waters from the ground water table are an ideal heat source for the following reasons:

ideal temperature level for the heat pump

relatively constant temperature

size of the deposits

cleanliness

The heat capacity of water indisputably pleads in favour of a liquid source:

the heat gain from 1 m³ of cooled water at around 5 K comes to 5,8 kWh.

in comparison; for an identical heat gain it would be necessary to cool about

3 500 m³ of air at 5 K!

But the water flow rate is still important. Imagine a building of 5 000 m²; if it is well
insulated you can count on a heat demand limited to 60 W/m² (at - 10°C outside).

Or a total installed power of 300 kW. The power which can be collected at the evaporator
will be 225 kW (if COP = 3).

Based on a water cooling of 5 K, the necessary water flow rate will be :

225 kW / 5,8 kWh/m³ = 45 m³/h!!!

5.1.2.4. What temperature?

The phreatic groundwater temperature without infiltration of surface water lies around 10°C
to 12°C. This average temperature is slightly higher than the annual average temperature
of the outside air (9,5°C). This difference is mostly due to solar radiation. The geothermal
energy from the depths in the subsoil is insignificant at this level.

The larger the depth, the smaller the influence of the air temperature on the ground water
temperature. The seasonal deviation between the maximum and minimum values
decreases with the depth.

The maximum variation reaches about 5 K. Infiltrations of surface water can have a
decisive influence on the groundwater temperature, just as for industrial wells.

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5.1.2.5. Water quality

In most cases, the ground water table is not aggressive water. However, an analysis is
highly recommended.

The following values must be respected:

pH-value >= 7

iron oxide content <= 0,15 mg/l

manganese content <= 0,1 mg/l

Mechanical pollution (sand) can only occur if the water filtration installation is not installed
properly. Also be wary of clogging caused by water which is too calcareous or rich in fine
mud. The well must be guaranteed by the specialized firm.

In practice, the indicative values for the drill diameter are:

150 mm for 50 to 150 l/min

300 mm for 150 to 300 l/min

800 mm for 600 to 1 200 l/min

5.1.2.6. Water discharge

After the heat absorption, the withdrawn water is sometimes returned to a surface water
stream. If, on the other hand, the ground water reservoir has a low capacity, or if the
withdrawn water cannot be returned to the surface due to its chemical composition, this
water must be reinjected using a second well (reinjection well) in the withdrawal layer.

This second well must be downstream and sufficiently far away from the first so that there
is no heat interference. Anyhow, authorisation is required for withdrawals from the ground
water table.

5.1.2.7. Summary

In summary, it can be said that:

A soil study prior to drilling is recommended.

In the proximity of a water stream or lake; take into account a possible infiltration.

The collection and redelivery of the water must respect the hydrologic principles.
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A water analysis is strongly recommended.

Official authorizations are necessary (they are only given when the water is not
used later as drinking water).

5.1.3. Surface waters

The large temperature variations of the surface

waters (water stream, lakes) do not usually allow
univalent exploitation with direct use. So there are
more cases of indirect use: the heat source transfers
its energy to a heat exchanger which is connected to
the heat pump with an intermediate circuit. This
circuit contains an antifreeze solution to allow the
evaporating temperature to go down below 0°C.

Figure 29: Operation with surface waters

In theory the surface water collection can be carried out in 2 ways:

By installing a heat exchanger submerged in the water stream; a very large quantity
of water passes through the exchanger and Delta T° of the cooling is proportionally
very small;

the water is gathered in a filter well and pumped to a heat exchanger.

The fact that the water withdrawn from the well is practically clean is the advantage of the
solution with a filter well. The submerged exchanger is easily clogged by plastics,
branches....

5.1.3.1. Dimensioning parameters

If the solution with submerged exchanger is chosen, it is recommended to take into

account an average logarithmic deviation of the T°C of 5 to 6 K. To dimension the surface
of the heat exchanger, it is usual to allow a coefficient k of 200 to 300 W/m²K (velocity of
flow > 0,5 m/s). It is strongly recommended to foresee a safety margin of around 20 % in
case the exchanger chokes.

The velocity of flow of the heat source (river, flood) prevents the formation of frost. The
spacing between the tubes must be at least 4 cm. Furthermore the exchanger must be
protected from drift rubble by an adequate structure.

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For stagnant water this solution can only be used under certain conditions; the main
inconvenience being the decrease of the coefficient of heat dissipation by free convection
due to the absence of a water flow.

5.1.3.2. Summary

In summary, the following points can be raised:

An intermediate circuit involves lower temperatures and thus smaller power

coefficients.

Flows often variable (ex: river).

Realization rather difficult (especially for the solution with submerged exchanger).

With a submerged exchanger, the maintenance and authorization procedures can,

in certain cases, be costly.

5.1.4. Ground coils

The heat is collected horizontally with glycol water coils.

Remark: if a mixture of water -glycol circulates in the closed

circuit between a heat source and evaporator, the heat
pumps will sometimes be designated as brine/water or
brine/air heat pump.

Up to around a depth of 2 m the subsoil heat is, for a large

part, due to solar radiation. The geothermic heat only
represents a few percent. The heating value of the subsoil
depends on the nature of the ground and, above all, of its
water content. Close to the surface, the temperature varies
from - 5 to + 17°C. At about 15 meters, it wavers between 8
and 12°C.
Figure 30: Ground coils

The following heating values can be extracted (source: “Revue Installateur”):

dry sandy ground 10 to 15 W/m²

dry clay ground 20 to 25 W/m²

moist clay ground 25 to 30 W/m²

swamp ground 30 to 35 W/m²

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So it is clear that the quantity of infiltrated rain is an essential factor in ground heat
extraction, which is logical because of the high water heat capacity.

The coils are polyethylene tubes. They should rather be described as "solar collectors",
given that they use the heat capacity of the subsoil heat. They are placed at a depth
between 0.8 (frost limit) and 1.5 meters, in an area where the nature of the ground and the
weather conditions influence the heat gains, but where the temperature of the source does
not waver too much.

For a minimum ground temperature of 2°C (larger heat absorption could cause ice crystals
to form around the coils, causing a decrease of their efficiency), the heat extraction per
running meter "q" is about:

10 W/m: dry sandy ground

25 W/m: moist clay ground

35 W/m: saturated clay ground

Figure 31: Connection: coils and solar panels

Frequent heat bleeds cause a relatively large

decrease of the subsoil temperature.

If the surface of the collectors is not large enough, it is recommended to combine the
installation with a rechargeable system (for example solar absorbers, with or without
window). The solar collector will cool first in the heat pump to prevent the environment
around the coil from drying too much causing a decrease of exchange power.

To limit excessive cooling of the ground, a minimum spacing between the tubes must be
respected:

1 m for dry ground

0,7 m for moist ground

0,5 m for saturated sandy or rocky ground

If placed to close to each other the water around the tubes could freeze causing a
hermetical closure. So the collectors are spaced at a distance to be calculated according
to the site (order of magnitude: 0.8 m). The configuration of the ground and the annual
operating time are important dimensioning parameters.

The large surfaces necessary (2 to 3 times the surface to be heated for the residential)
and the resulting costs, limit the applications, along with the fact that it is not allowed to
plant trees on the surface of the collector (often a garden).

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Example of installation

The heat losses of a domestic dwelling constructed on clay ground go up to 12 kW. Floor
heating with an inlet temperature of 45°C is provided. When choosing a heat pump with a
heating power of 13,3 kW for an absorbed electric power of 3,85 kW (manufacturer’s
value), it would be necessary to extract 13,3 - 3,85 = 9,45 kW from the ground. So
9 450 W/ 25 W/m = 378 m i.e. 4 coils of 100 m are necessary.

So applications of this technique in the tertiary sector seem reduced... but the possibility of
cooling the building with the same exchanger increases the interest! In practice, horizontal
exchangers are only interesting for major works where it is possible to economically place
the tubes in the subsoil or inside a blinding coat.

These components can also be integrated alternately, between the foundations. The
placement under the building allows prevention of the sensitivity to weather conditions in
the summer (dryness) but includes the risk of the foundation freezing in the winter...

For large projects, an understanding of the heat fluxes of the grounds close to the surface
is necessary for a precise enough calculation of the heat exchanges of the ground. Before
covering, it will be necessary to perform an expertise/analysis of the ground so as to
determine its geological situation at the place of construction.

The dates of the analysis (summer/winter – recent rains -...) will be taken into account to
obtain the ground thermal parameters necessary for the exact calculation and simulation
of the configuration.

5.1.5. Geothermal probe

The heat is collected vertically with geothermal probes. It is

possible to drill holes of 16 to 18 cm up to a depth of 50 to
150 m.

Figure 32: Geothermal probe

The advantage de these probes is the profit, below 10 m,

of a heat source which is more or less constant all year
round. Every 33 meters, the ground temperature increases
1°C, i.e. 3°C per 100 meters.

The heat extraction goes from 30 to 100 W/m of depth (according to the nature of the
ground). If one third of the power comes from the compressor and two thirds from the
ground (COP = 3), about 12 meters of probe per kW of heating power (counting 55 W/m
on average) should be provided.

Make sure the drill hole is placed transversally to the flow of the ground water to prevent
excessive cooling of the zones around the piles downstream. A distance of 5 to 6 meters
between the wells is also recommended for the same reasons.
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Figure 33: Heat exchange with geothermal probe

When cooling, the ground creates a kind of cold funnel which depends on the specific
power of the probes (W/m). Intensive bleeds cause the temperature of the probe to
decrease and the funnel to enlarge. The smaller the heat bled per meter of probe length,
the higher the annual COP. During shutdowns, the area of land around the probe
regenerates once more.

This phenomenon is absolutely necessary since the weak heat flow from the subsoil is not
enough to maintain the dimensioning conditions. So a correct determination of the probe
lengths is of a large importance to avoid overexploitation which would prevent a
regeneration of the source.

5.1.5.1. Precision of dimensioning

A correct dimensioning allows good operation of the units (circulator pump, compressor)
and efficient control. The importance of dimensioning is even larger for geothermic or
ground water heat pumps. An overdimensioning of the pump could result in a demand
which is too high for the cold source to regenerate. We will notice a drop in performances.
Underdimensioning would bring the need for make-up, considerably reducing the
installation’s ACOP.

5.1.5.2. Geothermal pile

The geothermal probe is a particular form of geothermal pile. When the drilling of piles is
necessary for the foundation of a building, part of the piles can serve as probe and be
connected to a classic heat pump. Contrary to water wells, geothermal probes do not need
authorization.
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5.1.6. Geothermal well

Deep wells allow recovery of geothermic heat (due to

volcanic activities) at higher temperatures (more than
150°C). Depending on their temperature the waters
drawn at these depths can be used directly or raised
by a heat pump to the desired level.

To guarantee a cost effective solution the annual COP

must not be situated below 4.

Figure 34: Geothermal well

The geothermal application of heat belongs to the domain of the heavy technologies and
will not be developed further here. Actually, unless you’re in a specific area (the region of
St Ghislain close to Mons (Belgium) is one thanks to the presence of faults in the rock
which allow the hot water to rise and be accessible at a reasonable depth), such
temperatures can only be reached with wells whose depths are measured in kilometres.

5.1.7. Outside air

As heat source, the outside air has the precious advantage of being available everywhere
and of not being subject to any authorization. But it does have some disadvantages which
decrease the interest of using it in a monovalent system:

contrary development of the temperature of the heat source and of the temperature
of the heating system,

at T° out. of 6 to 7°C, the water coming from the condensation of the ambient air
starts to freeze and needs defrosting,

problems with noise due to the large quantity of air moved,

a very low annual global performance,

Need for more space.

Whether for an outside or inside installation, it is essential to, very precisely, find out about
the sound protection techniques. The regulations concerning sound insulation and the
local prescriptions must be carefully studied. If need be, a sound specialist should be
consulted.

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5.1.8. Heat discharges

In most cases the heat discharge does not correspond with the heat demand; so an exact
analysis proves indispensable. It is a matter of knowing if the problem can be solved by
addition of an accumulator (cold side and/or hot side).

Rational exploitation of the accumulator allows optimal use when the heat requirements
are average; it also allows limitation of power peaking (financial advantage).

Wastewaters represent a particularly interesting heat source, especially due to their

relatively high temperature. However it is necessary to take the following remarks into
account:

for reasons of pollution, they can often only be used indirectly (be careful what
material you choose, foresee an automatic cleaning system),

quantities offered are often too small to allow profitable use,

use of the public waste water system is subject to authorization.

Foul air is a heat source often used in installations which use heat discharges, and this
without heat pump. For indirect use with heat pump, polluted air is interesting, especially
for heating the water. It can be corrosive (agriculture, industry).

5.1.9. Solar panels

The combination of a heat pump with solar

panels may prove interesting. Actually, the
efficiency of the solar panel improves if the
temperature of the circulating water
decreases.

Figure 35: Heat pump and solar panels

A heat pump whose evaporator is connected to the solar collector circuit will allow working
at lower temperature in the collectors, which doubles their efficiency (and thus dividing the
necessary surface and investment in two) and lengthens their annual operating time. The
heat pump will dispose of a cold source at higher temperature.

So the operation of both devices is optimized. Supplementary heating will be necessary in

the winter, when the outside temperature is very low and there is little sun.

Still the cost of the assembly stays difficult to recover...

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5.2. ROOM AIR CONDITIONER – THE SPLIT SYSTEM

Principle already covered (and revised at the end of the course), but let us deal with a bit
more theory; this is never useless since this system is the most used; most current on the
sites (window and split types).

5.2.1. Operating principle

A room air conditioner is a refrigeration system used

to extract the heat from the rooms to discharge it
outside.

Figure 36: Principle of the room air conditioner

The operation of an air conditioner is based on the phase change of a refrigerant: in the
evaporator, the fluid collects the heat in the air of the room and evaporates; in the
condenser, the fluid becomes liquid again since it is cooled by the outside air.

Figure 37: Run cycle

The compressor compresses the gas; an operation accompanied by a high rise of

temperature which will make it possible for the refrigerant to yield its heat to the outside
air.

The expansion valve releases the pressure; operation accompanied by a high drop of
temperature necessary for the heat exchange with the ambient air.
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5.2.2. Typology of room air conditioners

There are several types of air conditioners:

The portable air conditioner

The window-type air conditioner (“Window Unit”)

The “split system”

The multi “split system”

The Roof top system

5.2.2.1. Portable air conditioner

This is a device with a low cooling capacity (max 2,5 kW), mainly meant for local use. It
requires leaving a vent half-open, which decreases the sealing of the room against the
outside air and noise!

Figure 38: Portable monobloc air conditioner and portable split system

This system is used less and less. Its use is often limited to temporary use.

If it is monobloc, the condenser cooling air can be taken in either the room (power loss up
to 30 % compared to the required cooling capacity), or from outside (most favourable
case). It is systematically discharged outside by a flexible duct;

If, for mobility reasons, it is separated from the outside unit, the compressor is placed in
the inside unit. The distance between both units is usually limited to 2 m.

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5.2.2.2. "Window Unit" or window-type air conditioner

The “window” air conditioner is a

monobloc air conditioner installed in a
hole made in the exterior wall (wall or
pocket).

Figure 39: Window unit

Usually, a single motor drives the

compressor and both fans at the same
time. And any noise from the operation
is mostly heard in the room!

Only dabblers of American hard-boiled crime fiction (where there is always a window unit
vibrating behind the inspector who is leaning in his chair with both feet on his desk...) can
appreciate this type of comfort...!. While in the oil industry, the American sites are
generously equipped with “window units” especially the digs, where it is “very pleasant” to
sleep when the AC is indispensable at +40°C outside (at night).

5.2.2.3. "Split System"

"Split System" means "air conditioner with separated units"; namely that the condensation
unit is separated from the evaporation unit.

With a split, the evaporator is often placed in the room that is to be treated (in refrigeration
– the most common), while the condenser and compressor are placed outside (on a
terrace, the ground...), which allows decreasing the noise.

Table 4: Various split system combinations

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1: air recirculation from the room

2: power supply
3: air recirculation temperature probe
4: inside unit control
5: condensate removal
6: remote control
7: deflecting damper
8: air discharged in the room
9: air filter
10: refrigerant connection
11: electric connection
12: air recirculation from outside
13: air discharged outside

Figure 40: Application in air / air split system

In all cases, the units are linked by a refrigeration connection (refrigerant) and an electric
cable, whose lengths can be adapted to the situation, permitting a great flexibility of
installation.

Split or multi - split systems are reversible air/air heat pumps, if they are equipped with an
inversion system.

The direct distribution in the rooms is simple and provided by a bi - tube network in which
the refrigerant circulates (disadvantage: the risk of leakage). The power range for hot and
cold is rather large, the distribution lengths sufficient.

5.2.2.4. "Multi - split system"

The condensation and evaporation units are separated and linked by refrigeration and
electric connections whose lengths can be adapted to the situation, permitting a great
flexibility of installation.

Figure 41: Multi - split system

The evaporation units can be installed in

various places, including an annex room with
blowing ducts in 1 or several rooms.

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When the number of heat exchangers is

multiplied, we speak of a multi - split system. The
various inside exchangers, for example one per
room, are then connected to one (or several)
outside heat exchanger(s). So various "loops"
are "juxtaposed" with as only interconnection the
outside unit(s).

Figure 42: Application in multi – split

5.2.2.5. Special case: Roof-Top System

The condensation unit

and the evaporation unit
are integrated in the same
device installed on a roof
and linked by a duct to a
separate air diffuser.

Figure 43: Roof-top

system

5.2.3. Technological details

5.2.3.1. Evaporation unit

A centrifugal fan circulates the inside air through a filter, then through the evaporator,
before discharging it through diffuser grids whose inclinations are adjustable. Diverse
positions are possible for insertion of the evaporator (in refrigeration):

On the ceiling
Under the window

In a cassette inserted into a false ceiling

Table 5: Various installation possibilities for the evaporator

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5.2.3.2. Condensation unit

The refrigerant (at vapour state) is compressed by

the moto - hermetic compressor, and then cooled in
the condenser, before being expanded and returning
towards the room.

Figure 44: Outside condenser in refrigeration

5.2.3.3. Refrigeration and electric connections

To simplify the task on the site (and make the installation accessible to laymen), the
copper connection pipelines can be pre-loaded with refrigerant and equipped with quick
couplers. During assembly, the caps are perforated automatically.

Their length does not surpass 10 to 15 m, usually to limit the head losses.
The tubing which brings the expanded fluid to the evaporator will be carefully insulated
since the heating of the fluid in the line...

This is a loss of cooling capacity for the

evaporator. And even if it is still sufficient,
it is a loss which decreases the efficiency
of the machine: its coefficient of
performance.

Figure 45: Multi split connections:

3 evaporators are connected to one
common condenser.

5.2.3.4. Oil return

The oil is naturally driven to the evaporator by the liquid refrigerant. But it is necessary to
make sure the oil returns voluntarily to the compressor when the fluid is in a vapour state:

Either the compressor is placed lower than the evaporator so that gravity can do the
work based on a descending gradient of 1 cm per meter.

Or the compressor is placed higher than the evaporator, and a siphon should be
provided; thus an oil plug is voluntarily created so that the vapour, by forcing its
passage, brings the oil with it. Since this system only works over a few meters, such
a siphon should be provided at least every 5 meters of difference in elevation.

By lack of doing this the lubrication of the compressor risks being insufficient, along with
the longevity… (See operator course UT020)

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5.2.4. “Heating” function

If a “heating” function is desired, three systems are possible.

Solution 1: fit an extra electric resistor, in direct operation

Figure 46: Heating with electric resistor

This solution is costly to exploit, due to the price of daily kWh.

Solution 2: fit a hot water unit powered by the heating system of the building

This solution is used little since it comprises a costly investment. A

room thermostat controls the heat supply, either via a 3-way valve
modulating the temperature of the water, or directly via the fan.

Figure 47: Heating with hot water unit

Solution 3: select a “reversible” refrigeration system capable of operating in heat

pump mode

In a refrigeration system, the cycle can be reversed thanks to

the use of a 4-way valve at the compressor outlet: the
evaporator becomes condenser and the condenser becomes
evaporator. This is a so-called “reversible” air conditioner.

Figure 48: Reversible heating

We speak of “heat pump” operation because it is the heat

from the outside air which is used to heat the air in the room.

5.2.5. “Ventilation” function

Certain devices have fresh air recirculation allowing the addition of a

ventilation function to the equipment.

Figure 49: ventilation function

Not to be confused with the stirring of the air with complete recycling proposed by all the
devices: in this case, the fan operates alone and the air in the room simply passes by the
pre filter which restrains the largest particles of matter in suspension. It is, for example,
impossible to improve the air quality of a smoking room with this principle. Only an actual
dilution by fresh air will bring the desired improvement.

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5.2.6. Field of use

This type of device allows cooling the rooms at low costs.

The range of cooling capacities goes from 1,5 to 15 kW.

But the comfort is not very high:

:
on the one hand, the moisture content in the room is not controlled,

on the other hand, the cold air flow risks being uncomfortable for the occupants.

This last point can be explained as follows: in air conditioning, it is sought to procure a
limited blowing difference (difference between the temperature of the discharge air and the
temperature in the room). It is possible to go up to 10°C of difference (i.e. an air pulse at
14°C if the room is at 24°C) but then grids with high induction ratios are used to be sure
that the mixture with the ambient air is maximal.

While for an air conditioner, the manufacturer tries to supply a peak output with minimal
overall dimensions. So the evaporator has a small surface... and works at very low
temperature! The air in the room is greatly cooled when it is turned on, causing a "flow" of
cold air which could greatly bother the occupants...

This having been said, it is an easy solution when a few rooms are to be treated,
especially in renovations. And the limited comfort can be accepted if the air conditioner is
used sporadically to overcome periods of overheating.

The sound power level is relatively acceptable, at average speed and on the basis of a
careful selection.

5.2.7. Control

5.2.7.1. Ambient temperature control

The ambient temperature in the air-conditioned room is controlled by a room

thermostat which acts on the operation of the compressor. The forced
draught fan operates at the same time as the compressor, or continuously.

Figure 50: Remote control

This second operation mode is more comfortable since it maintains a

continuous stirring of the air and prevents any uncomfortable stagnation of
hot or cold air.

To the simple ambient temperature control we must add the programming functions of the
occupation, with stop and rerun (eventually anticipated) done intelligently.
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5.2.7.2. Compressor control

An air conditioner, dimensioned to overcome the maximum heat gains (solar, for example),
very often operates at partial load. The classic ON/OFF control of the air conditioner
involves uncomfortable temperature fluctuations in the room and bad conditions for the
compressor efficiency.

Figure 51: Run cycle of a two-point

(on/off) controlled compressor

The air conditioners equipped with

variable speed compressors can adapt
their cooling capacity to the thermal load
of the room. This type of control is called
"Inverter". It allows variation of the
compressor velocity without high
efficiency losses.

So the compressor is started at low speed, which reduces the peak current at start-up.

When an outside unit feeds several inside units (multi split system), it must be possible to
separately control the atmosphere in each room (including a cut when the room is not
occupied).

In this case, a variable speed control of the

compressor will allow adapting the cold
production unit power according to the actual
total needs.

Figure 52: Operation cycle of a speed

controlled compressor

Thanks to this new type of control, the

conventional technique of the reciprocating
compressor (piston and crankshaft), of
legendary reliability, is progressively being
replaced by: (see operator course PR-UT020)

The rotary compressor:

similar efficiency,

lower noise level,

variable speed operation.

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The scroll compressor:

higher efficiency,

even lower noise level,

variable speed operation.

5.2.7.3. Condenser control

Certain rooms with high internal charges (for example, the computer rooms) must be air
conditioned in the summer, but also in midseason or even in the winter. In this case, when
the temperature of the outside air decreases, the condenser cooling capacity increases.

Paradoxically, this situation disrupts the correct operation of the evaporator and leads to a
power loss therein. So the comfort in the room is no longer ensured. In the worst case, the
low pressure safety controller of the device can command the stop of the installation.

Thus, an air conditioner which has to operate at outside temperatures lower than 17°C
must be equipped with a variable speed condenser fan. The decrease of the fan speed is
then controlled by a pressure controller or thermostat placed on the condenser, whose
exchange power is thus kept constant whatever the season.

At the very least, the operation of the fan will be controlled by a two-point (on/off) control.
Ideally the speed will be modulated, either continuously or intermittently.

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5.3. REFRIGERATION WITH VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW

5.3.1. Operating principle

Remark: VRF (Variable Refrigerant Flow) = VRV (Variable Refrigerant Volume):

depending on the manufacturer.

5.3.1.1. Cold operation only

We already know the principle of "direct expansion" (the refrigeration system evaporator
directly cools the air in the air treatment unit).

Figure 53: Distribution type VRF

This time, direct expansion is realized in each room because the refrigerant is transported
to the exchanger of the room which is used as evaporator! It is neither air nor water which
circulates in the ducts, but refrigerant.

It is possible to feed up to 32 inside units from an outside unit… The outside units
available on the market today have cold powers going from 15 to 90 kW in monobloc
version for the connection of an independent refrigeration circuit. These can be multiplied,
for as far as there is place available for the outside units. But these are installations which
will then operate in parallel (no exchange between circuits connected to different outside
units).

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5.3.1.2. Reversible operation (cold or hot)

Certain systems are limited to "cold" mode while others are reversible: the same inside
exchanger can then be used as condenser when the room needs heat! This flexibility
comes from a sophisticated electronic control, particularly based on the use of electronic
expansion valves and of a communication bus between all the equipment.

But it is the assembly of exchangers which supply cold or heat. The “mode switch” of the
exchangers takes place in the outside unit by a 4-way cycle switchover valve.

5.3.1.3. With energy recovery (cold and hot simultaneously)

Even better: some systems simultaneously procure hot and cold in the rooms. For
example, a conference room can need cooling (the cassette integrated in the false ceiling
works as evaporator) while the neighbouring office needs heating (the device under the
window will work as condenser).

The system will simultaneously procure both demands, with minimal energy consumption
because the heat extracted from one side is upgraded on the other side, with an
unbeatable COP!

By way of illustration, this is the energy balance announced by an engineer when the
building demands a heating load identical to the cooling load:

The cooling capacity demand is procured with a refrigeration COP of 4.

We deduce that 4 kWh of heat extracted from a room will involve a demand of
1 kWh from the compressor.

If this heat is returned to a neighbouring room on demand, 5 kWh will be delivered

therein.

Insofar as the total energy consumption of the rooms is 9 kWh, for 1 kWh spent, we
can speak of an equivalent COP of 9...!

Careful, this is a theoretical value, ideal and instantaneous, not an average of the whole
year... And it supposes that the demands complement each other: the heat demand
corresponds exactly with the cooling demand.

In practice, for an average situation and taking into account the consumptions of the
auxiliaries, the engineer announces a COP of 2,7 for cold operation only and a COP of 4,2
when the heat extracted from a room is recovered to supply it to another neighbouring
room.

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Figure 54: Distribution type VRF hot and cold

A few constraints (by way of illustration, since they vary from one manufacturer to
another):

Maximum distance of 120 m between the outside

unit and the inside unit placed the farthest away (the
elbows included, on the basis of
1 elbow = equivalent 2 m, for example).

Vertical difference in elevation between outside and

inside unit limited to 50 m.

Difference in elevation between 2 inside units limited

to 15 m (i.e. 5 stories).

Figure 55: Constraints of realization with VRF

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5.3.2. Technological details

5.3.2.1. Refrigerant

Today these systems are available with the new refrigerant gas R407C. (See operator
course PR-UT020). The various components have then been dimensioned to use this
new gas.

The heart of the system is still a refrigeration system and the criteria applicable to this type
of installation are still of the hour. For example, the sump must be heated during 48 hours
before start-up for the preparation of the oil.

5.3.2.2. Outside unit

The outside unit is usually placed on the roof (not a specific

technical room). This allows the condenser to be cooled easily by
the outside air.

Figure 56: Outside unit on the roof

The outside units are modular and can be aligned side by side according to the power
necessary.

By lack of available space, a technical room

will be used and an air duct will supply and
remove the cooling air, in return for a
supplementary consumption to overcome the
head losses.

Figure 57: Outside unit in series on the ground

5.3.2.3. Distribution system

The copper piping used has a very small diameter. This allows a larger space gain
compared with conventional systems and low losses due to the transportation of the heat.

The distribution can be of the type parallel bitube or octopus bitube.

Figure 58: “two tubes” distribution

For reversible installations, a “two tubes” network will be created. In

“cold” operation, a tube will transport the liquid refrigerant and return the fluid to a vapour

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state. In “hot” operation, the first tube will convey the "hot gases" coming from compressor
and will return the cooled and condensed fluid.

Figure 59: “three tubes” distribution

In the installations with energy recovery, a "three tubes" network will

transport the "hot gases" (or high pressure vapour), liquid fluid and low
pressure vapour.

They will be selected according to the demand by a distribution module at the entrance of
each room or of each zone of rooms controlled in common.

Remark: Some manufacturers provide an energy recovery system with only "two tubes”

Figure 60: Energy recovery system with two tubes

In that case, the simultaneous hot and cold will be achieved by the creation of a two-phase
flow in one single tube (a gaseous phase for the heating and a liquid phase for the
cooling).

This high pressure two-phase flow will be separated in the distribution chamber. This
distribution chamber also contains an assembly of valves which brings the gas and liquid
to the hot and cold units.

5.3.2.4. Inside units

The refrigerant runs through the inside unit.

Figure 61: Classic inside unit

A helical fan forces the air of the room through the exchanger.

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It can operate either in cooling, heating, air

stirring, or dehumidification mode. An electronic
expansion valve permanently controls the
refrigerant flow according to the internal charge.

Figure 62: Inside unit and its control module

before the covering is placed

5.3.2.5. VRF Control

It has only been possible to design this product by incorporating the integration of a
sophisticated numerical control. It is not surprising that the Japanese are among the first to
put this type of air conditioner on the market.

Each piece of equipment has its own specific "address" on the communication bus and an
"intelligent" control is possible.

For the user, a remote control action is possible. For the maintenance personnel,
numerous self-diagnostic functions are integrated to help detect the origin of an eventual
breakdown.

Distribution chamber (with the arrival of 3 Control integrated in the front face of the
tubes) chamber

Figure 63: Control systems

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5.3.3. VRF temperature control

5.3.3.1. "Only cold"

The inside units only procure the cooling and the control of the ambient temperature is
procured by:

the speed control of the evaporator fan,

An electronic expansion valve which modulates the fluid flow by controlling the inlet-
outlet temperature difference of the fluid in the evaporator (similar to adjustment of
the superheating).

The outside unit has a variable

speed hermetic compressor
(scroll compressor or rotary
compressor), with an
"inverter" control; i.e. variable
speed by adjustment of the
supply frequency.

Figure 64: Only cold control

In practice, a probe is placed

on the compressor suction
pressure.

This pressure is kept constant by action on the compressor velocity. Automatically, the
evaporating temperature is kept constant. Thus, if the thermal load of the building
increases, the compressor speed increases and the refrigerant flow is increased!

If the cooling power is large, a cascade of two (or three) compressors is installed. But one
works at variable speed. The second has a two-point (on/off) control. At start-up, only the
INVERTER compressor works. The moment the load surpasses the power limit of this
compressor, the 2nd compressor is turned on to take over the load and the INVERTER
compressor starts to modulate again starting from 0 %.

5.3.3.2. "Cold or hot":

The inside units are reversible. In this case, it is the whole system which works either in
cold, or in hot mode. This reversibility is carried out by a cycle switchover valve, in the
outside unit.
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When changing from one mode to another, the direction of fluid circulation in the ducts is
inversed. The exchanger in the room changes from evaporator to condenser, and vice
versa.

Of course, once the general mode has been decided, each room keeps its own internal
control: an electronic expansion valve compares the return air with the set value and
adapts the refrigerant flow accordingly.

In cold mode, the inlet

temperature of the evaporator is
equal to the evaporating
temperature of the fluid; the
outlet temperature is this same
temperature increased by the
superheating. It is classically
adjusted at 6...7°.

Figure 65: Hot or cold control in

cold mode

So the expansion valve will be

adjusted to maintain these
7 degrees: if the thermal load
increases, the fluid flow in the
evaporator will increase
according to the load.

Simultaneously, a measurement of the evaporator temperature allows detecting the

eventual presence of frost on the unit (a frosted unit restricts the exchange with the
ambient air); in this case, the expansion valve closes, the fluid flow is stopped and the
ambient air (which continues to be stirred by the fan) allows the defrosting.

In hot mode, the fluid circulates

in the reverse direction. This
time, the temperature difference
measured by the electronic
expansion valve regulator will
correspond with the subcooling
of the condenser.

An electronic controller
manages the overall demand
and matches the response via a
communication bus which links
the various equipments.

Figure 66: Hot or cold control in

cold mode

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5.3.3.3. "Cold and hot"

The inside units work on demand, with energy recovery. Here, the system allows
simultaneous production of cold in one room and hot in the neighbouring room. With heat
transfer from one room to another!

The main principle consists of 3 lines extracted from the outside unit:

a liquid line,

a low pressure vapour line,

a high pressure vapour line, i.e. of the "hot gases".

Figure 67: Hot and cold control in cold operation only

These 3 lines feed distribution modules (rectangular, dotted on the diagram). These are
informed of the ambient temperature and of the desired temperature setting, and will select
the adequate operation type. Then two tubes go from these modules to feed the
exchangers in the room (whose cold or hot operation mode will be identical).

Figure 68: Hot and cold control operating most of the time in cooling mode
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Check valves (not shown) complement the installation to prevent certain directions from
passing.

Figure 69: Hot and cold control in balanced operation

Remark: This control is definitely complex and involves maintenance, but it has an advantage: the fact that
all the components are compatible with each other. This makes it easier to assume responsibility when there
is a problem of any kind.

Figure 70: Hot and cold control operating most of the time in heating mode

Figure 71: Hot and cold control in only hot operation

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5.3.4. Water loop energy recovery

An engineer proposes a water loop energy recovery system: the air-cooled condensers of
the “outside” units are replaced by water-cooled condensers (inside the equipment called
heat pump on the diagram as these refrigeration systems are reversible into heat pump).
Then these units can be installed in the building

Use of such a system allows double heat recovery:

recovery of the heat between the inside units of a same refrigeration unit, like the
"cold and hot" installation above

recovery of the heat a second time from the condensation units connected to the
same water loop

Figure 72: Water loop energy recovery – diagram

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Figure 73: Water loop energy recovery – implementation

The principle is similar to that of a water loop heat pump network. The refrigeration part of
this system is identical. The differences are found at the level of the condensation units,
placed inside the building. These units are connected to the same water loop. The surplus
heat can be sent to a cooling tower or stored in a buffer tank.

During “heat pump” operation, a "free" or "fossil energy" natural heat source must be used
to procure a minimum temperature of 10°C.

5.4. FAN CONVECTOR UNIT

5.4.1. Operating principle

The fan convector unit is compared to a radiator what the mixer (to mix the soup) is
compared to a potato masher! It is quicker but noisy...!

Otherwise said, a conventional radiator is fed by water at...50°...70°... in an ambience at

21°. The heat exchange is easily carried out thanks to such a temperature difference.

But to supply the cold, water (so-called "iced") is circulated at...5°...10°... in an ambience at
24°: the temperature difference becomes too low to supply a good cooling capacity.

Consequently the exchange becomes forced: a fan is added and the radiator is replaced
by an exchange unit. The cooling capacity is greatly increased by blowing air on the
exchanger, but the noise invades the rooms..!
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Figure 74: Fan convector unit without its casing

To procure both cooling in the summer and heating

in the winter, a fan convector unit will consist of:

an air intake in the room (to be heated or to

be cooled),

a coarse filter to restrain dust,

one or several fans, at low speed,

one or two exchange units, of a small section, fed by hot water and/or iced water,

an extra electric resistor, if need be

a bottom tray to recover the condensates

housing, if need be, which covers the whole to integrate it into the room.

It is found in vertical position (under the window), or in horizontal position (attached to the
ceiling or integrated in a soffit).

And the fresh air supply?

The fan convector unit requires the installation of two

distinct systems:

a water system to supply heat and cold to the

room,

an air system to procure the minimum pulse of

fresh hygienic air.

Figure 75: Fresh air supply for a fan convector unit

This separation between the “thermal” function and "ventilation" function allows easy
control and absence of contamination due to air recirculation.

In some cases, a mixing unit with arrival of fresh air is integrated into the fan. This air
comes from either a direct intake at the back of the fan through the wall, or from a central
air treatment unit.

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The integration of a fresh air

intake behind the equipment is
not a very expensive solution,
but:

it needs protection against

the risk of frost, it makes

a heat bridge with the

outside,

the fresh air flow will be

affected by the pressure of
the wind on the facade...

Figure 76: Air intakes on fan

convector unit

And so in most cases, an extra independent ventilation system is provided:

either a single-flow ventilation (with extraction in the lavatories, for ex.)

or a double-flow ventilation (with discharge and extraction in each room)

Conclusions

The possibility of creating hot and cold with the same device, the very reasonable price
due to the small surfaces of the exchangers, the ease of individual control per room, the
efficiency of heat transport with water... makes the fan convector unit a best-seller for our
air conditioned buildings!

5.4.2. Technological details

There are four large families:

The fans “with 2 reversible tubes”: they only have one single exchanger, alternately fed
by hot water in the winter, and iced water in the summer. However, there is a risk of
energy loss due to the mixture of cold and hot water, if the neutral zone is too low (see
control of the fans in this chapter).

The fans “with 4 tubes”: they have two exchangers, which can be permanently
connected to either the hot water system or the iced water system.
The cold exchanger is larger (more rows) than the hot unit, due to the lower delta T° at
which the cold unit works. We say that "the pinching" is lower between T°water and T°air
in the exchanger.
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The fans “with 2 tubes - 2 cables”: to decrease installation costs, only the iced water
supply system is provided. To procure the heating in the winter, an extra electric resistor is
provided (the fan discharges the air in the room passing through the resistor, as in the
case of a direct electric current convector).

But since the electric kWh is plainly more expensive than the
thermal kWh, the operating costs will be high...

The fans “with 2 reversible tubes + 2 cables”: trick! This last

system can be used in two tubes operation (i.e., iced water in the
summer, hot water in the winter); the electric resistor is then only
used as extra resistor in the midseason.

Figure 77: Fan with 2 reversible tubes + 2 cables

The operating costs are consequently lower than those for the "2
tubes - 2 cables" version.

5.4.2.1. Particular fans

It is possible to completely integrate the fan in a false ceiling or a false floor (equipment
heights of 200 to 300 mm exist).

Either it is a "cassette" device: it sucks the air in the room centrally and, after treatment,
returns it sideways, tangentially to the false ceiling.

Figure 78: Fan convector unit type cassette on the ceiling

Some fans are designed to be integrated under the floor in the rooms, mounted on jacks
(data processing room, for example). In this case, it must be possible to open the device
from above.

Or it is a device whose connection is procured via distribution ducts leading to various

blower grids.

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This improves the comfort (better diffusion of the air,

less noise...) but the fan must stay easy to access for
maintenance (opening provided on the bottom).

Figure 79: Fan convector unit with ducts

5.4.2.2. A few technological details

Valves

The finned tube air-water exchange unit is flanked by two sectional valves and a water
flow regulating valve. This valve is controlled by a thermostat whose bulb is situated in the
air intake.

Fans

The ventilation is procured by one or two radial flow or tangential turbines, from 40 to
50 Pa of the total pressure, usually at 3 speeds (with a selector accessible to the user...
who often positions it at first speed to limit the noise!). The power demand usually lies
around 80 to 125 W, depending on the models.

Condensates

The condensate recovery tray will be connected to the removal system. If the fan is
attached to the ceiling, this removal is not always easy. Sometimes it will be necessary to
resort to using a small condensate removal pump.

Covering

The covering is made of galvanized steel, usually with the inside covered with glass wool
or de polyurethane foam for thermal and acoustic reasons. But sometimes, for aesthetic
reasons, the frame of the fan is integrated into the decorative structure of the room or into
a closet, leaving only the grids visible.

Table 6: Covering of the fan coil units

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5.4.3. Variant: the Air Treatment Module (ATM)

This is an "emission" variant:

the fans are replaced by small
preparation units, placed in
series in the technical room.

It started with a builder’s

response to a real estate
developer who asked him: "I
need a simple system,
adaptable and easy to
maintain.”

Figure 80: ATM unit

This unit consists of:

a hot unit (with water or electric),

an iced water unit,

a fresh air intake,

a class F5 filter,

a centrifugal fan,

a controller in communication with a

Centralised Technical Management
(CTM),

a blower outlet,

a return air inlet.

Figure 81: Implementation of the ATM

These units are extended by ducts to feed

the air diffusers in the rooms (these diffusers 1: fresh air package
2: hot water production
procure both the discharge and the return). 3: iced water production
4: ATM juxtaposed
They are themselves the ends of a gigantic 5: blower duct
octopus which feeds them: 6: return duct
7: blower and recycling nozzles
pretreated fresh air,
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iced water,

eventually hot water.

Everything has been done to diminish the work: pre-industrialization of the supports,
connection with hoses... Any failing equipment is quickly taken apart and replaced.

The control is especially elaborate (in the version "full options"!):

action on the opening of the valves, at low speed,

then action on the fan if it is necessary to increase the powers (restart periods, for
example),

control possible of the lighting and the outside blinds,

possibility of all-fresh air operation (free-cooling at night, for example)

Each module from 25 to 50 m² has its own

unit, and is therefore able to define its own
conditions for comfort. So the operating
principle is very close to that of the fan coil
units.

Figure 82: ATM control

But furthermore, it is completely flexible, adapting very well to modular buildings in which
modifications of the partitions are desired (office blocks, hotel rooms...).

The extremely high installation cost is without a doubt a disadvantage of the system...

5.4.4. Variant: the iced water modular system or "Hydrosplit"

This is a "production" and "distribution" variant. This technique, also called "hydrosplit", is a
modular system, prefabricated, for 2 tubes - 2 cables fans (without being comprehensive,
and for your information, the "Hydroflow" by Carrier, "Aquajet" by Technibel, "Aquastream"
by Trane…etc…are placed in this category.)

Is sold as a "kit":

an iced water unit,

a primary distribution hydraulic component,

secondary distribution hydraulic components,

on which the 2 tubes - 2 cables fans are grafted

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1 - Refrigeration unit usually placed on the roof.

2 - Circulator pump of the primary loop.

3 - Buffering capacity, dimensioned to absorb the

cooling needs for 5 to 10 minutes (the compressor is
equipped with an antishort cycle which forbids the
start of the compressor for 5 to 10 minutes).

5 - Secondary circulator pump.

6 - Check valve.

7 - Terminal air treatment unit (fan convector unit).

8 - Secondary hydraulic component. **

9 - By-pass module which allows permanent

irrigation of the loop.

Figure 83: Hydrosplit modular system

* example 1, for a manufacturer, the primary loop can have 50 m. of vertical difference in elevation and be
distanced 100 m. apart.

** example 2, for a manufacturer, there can be up to 9 secondary distribution modules; to which it is possible
to connect 8 fans to each one, or a total of 72 fans in the building.

The commercial objective is to lower the prices by this standardization of the product, and
to open the air-conditioning market to the heating specialists who then only need to
assemble the mechanics!

Why not... but this system involves a direct electric current heating, not very ecological and
with very high exploitation costs! It is necessary to make sure that the heating needs will
be completely occasional.

Some systems are grafted to a reversible refrigeration installation while others have the
advantage of also being able to connect to a hot water distribution (for realization of an
ordinary "2 tubes"). This can then be an interesting solution in renovation, since the
existing boiler is recovered.

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5.4.5. Field of application

We encounter the fan convector unit used as transducer:

In air-conditioning installations which have to reply to both heat demands in the

winter and cooling needs in the summer; thus, it is usually found under the window
in the rooms, to break the cold from the window in the winter and compensate the
high solar gains in the summer in offices, shops, restaurants, computer rooms, hotel
rooms...

In heating installations for which a very quick restart is desired; a festival hall,
briefing room... whose heating is intermittent, will be usefully equipped with fan coil
units.

In heating installations irrigated by water at low temperature; the circuits connected

to a geothermal source, heat pump, solar heat collector... are upgraded by the fan
coil units which increase the exchange power.

We especially encounter the “4 tubes” fan convector unit in buildings whose simultaneous
needs differ from one room to another: a cafeteria, data processing room, offices,
archives... and all this on the same facade!

The “2 tubes - 2 cables” fan is a solution which can, if absolutely necessary, be used when
the building is new and especially well insulated. The internal supplies (lighting, office
automation, personnel...) are such that the heating must only be started during a freeze-
up, for example. But it will be useful to ask engineering for a precise evaluation of the
operating costs foreseen for the building...

This is often the solution chosen by the promoter: the building costs are smaller. While
when pertaining to the exploitation; this is no longer their problem...!

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5.4.6. Layout and control diagrams for 2 tubes fans

Two systems cross one another at the level of the exchanger:

the water circuit (heat transfer from the production to the transducer),

the air circuit (heat transfer from the transducer to the room).

And the controls of these two systems are distinct.

On this basic diagram 2 controls are distinguished:

Figure 84: 2 tubes fan installation - Control

1. A view of the local control of each fan convector unit

with 3-way valve,

with 2-way valve and differential pressure controller,

with 2-way valve and variable speed circulator pump.

2. A control of the hot water/iced water supply for the fan coil units

hot or cold + switch summer/winter,

hot or cold by a reversible refrigeration system,

hot and cold simultaneously + distribution per zone,

hot and cold simultaneously + distribution per zone + zone circulator pump.
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5.4.7. Layout and control diagrams for 4 tubes fans

Three systems cross one another at the level of the exchanger:

the iced water circuit,

the hot water circuit,

the air circuit (transfer from the transducer to the room).

And the controls of these systems are distinct.

On this basic diagram, 2 controls are consequently distinguished:

Figure 85: 4 tubes fan Installation - Control

1. A local control of each fan convector unit

with 3-way valve,

with 2-way valve and differential pressure controller,

with 2-way valve and variable speed circulator pump.

2. A control of the hot water/iced water supply for the fan coil units

distinct heat and cold production units,

combined production of hot and cold, via a refrigeration system with condenser heat
recovery.

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5.4.8. Layout and control diagrams for “2 tubes - 2 cables” fans

The layout diagram of the “2 tubes - 2 cables” fans

is simple: hydraulically, only the iced water system
is realized.

The electric make-up resistor either has a two-point

(on/off) control, or is subject to a progressive control
(chronoproportional control).

Figure 86: 2 tubes - 2 cables fan - Installation -

Control

The control diagrams are simple because the productions of hot and cold are independent.

The refrigeration equipment can be complemented by an ice storage tank.

The control diagrams and principles are discussed in instrumentation course EXP-MS-
SI070 what concerns the control so to speak. Even if the AC controllers / monitors are
(sometimes) a bit special, the principles stay the same. So have a look at this “control”
course which is quite comprehensive and which we will (all the same) not repeat here.

5.4.9. Advantages

The possibility of producing hot and cold with the same device, and this with a high
power.

A reasonable cost due to small surfaces of the flow-induced exchanger and the low
installation cost, (note that the price of the device depends little on the size of the
exchanger and that it is therefore possible to over-dimension in the beginning to
take into account an eventual increase of future output).

An easy integration in renovation because, except for the new air flow duct, only the
water pipes have to be placed.

Easy to place under the window when the ceiling heights do not allow the
integration of a false ceiling.

The possibility of suspending the fan, clearing space on the floor.

An easy individual control per room, and therefore more comfort for the users.

A flexible control because carried out by both the water flow and the air flow.

A type of control which is very accessible to the users.

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A link is possible between the various devices via a communication bus; this allows
overall quality control by CTM.

The efficiency of heat transport with water.

Possible to stop the equipment, locally.

Possible to integrate a fresh air intake behind the equipment.

The reliability of the device (which is a great classic in air-conditioning) and

therefore a long life; this is not the Rolls of AC... But a nice Peugeot, so to speak!

Advantages specific to the system with four tubes:

The functional flexibility is complete because each fan is autonomous: a room can
be cooled when the one next to it is being heated...

The possibility of recovering the heat extracted from a room to supply it to the room
on demand.

No more local area circuits, switch valves... the control is simpler and the
maintenance service will not complain!

Advantages specific to the system with two tubes - 2 cables:

Very economical to install and very flexible control.

5.4.10. Disadvantages

When a device of a bad quality is installed (underdimensioning of the exchangers,

high speed of the fan...), the noise will be the most negative aspect of this
equipment. The noise level can lie between 35 and 65 dB, depending on the quality
of construction, the fan speed and the age of the equipment.

The hygrometry is not controlled in the rooms, which may cause the air to become
too dry in the winter.

It is difficult to procure a correct thermal comfort, especially without air currents in

the working area...

Curiously enough, the easy fabrication and installation can become a disadvantage,
especially on the public market where the price is the biggest selection criterion: the
quality of the fans supplied and the quality of the installation is very variable!

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The fan whose air intake takes place on the facade is a solution which is badly
adapted to the modern criteria for comfort! Its heat and acoustic capacities are
small. Without forgetting the risk of frost...

Disadvantages specific to the system with two tubes:

The needs in the various rooms of a same zone must be similar; in other words, the
number of zones must be high enough if, in the midseason, you do not want
problems when passing from hot to cold!

Disadvantages specific to the system with four tubes:

The installation cost is higher because the fans have two exchangers; the circuits
are split, as are the amount of valves, circulator pumps...

The overall dimensions are also larger (fans have more volume and technical ducts
are larger).

During a whole portion of the year, it is necessary to keep both systems in

operation; the energy losses of these systems are not negligible...

Disadvantages specific to the system with two tubes - 2 cables:

The exploitation costs are definitely the least interesting point of this system...

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5.5. CONDENSER AND COOLING TOWER

5.5.1. Overview

The heat extracted by a refrigeration system must be discharged outside just like the
heat produced by a heat pump must be blown inside.

Heat pump = refrigeration system

Let us consider the refrigeration system with which it is easiest to cool the refrigerant with
the outside air:

Figure 87: Air-cooled condenser

But the cooling power is sometimes too low.

Figure 88: Air-cooled condenser + water evaporator

It can then be strengthened thanks to the evaporation of extra water (when water
evaporates, the heat of vaporisation is "pumped" onto the left-over drop of water which
then cools):
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Problem: sometimes, the distance between the unit and the roof is very large and the head
loss of the refrigeration circuit would be too large.

Also, a water circuit is created: the water cools the refrigerant and the air cools the water!

There are three types of exchangers:

The air cooler

The closed cooling tower

The open cooling tower

5.5.1.1. 1° Air cooler

The water is directly cooled by the air.

Figure 89: Air-cooled condenser

5.5.1.2. 2° Closed cooling tower

Extra power is procured by spraying water which is independent from the circuit.

Figure 90: Closed cooling tower

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5.5.1.3. 3° Open cooling tower

This time, it is the water which crosses the condenser which is directly sprayed and partly
evaporated.

Figure 91: Open cooling tower

5.5.2. Condenser operation

The condenser operation is part of the whole operation of the refrigeration system, which
we will revise in the following paragraph.

Figure 92: Condenser operation

In theory, the condensation takes place in 3 phases:

Phase 1, the refrigerant desuperheating which, when exiting the compressor in the
form of very hot gases (sometimes up to 70°C), will cool and release its sensible
heat.

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Phase 2, the condensation of the fluid, moment when the heat is essentially
released in the form of latent heat.

Phase 3, the subcooling of the liquid, releasing more sensible heat to the coolant.

In practice, this division into phases is not really done like that. The refrigerant circulates in
a tube in contact with the water or air. The fluid which touches the tube is liquid and it
subcools. The fluid which is in contact with this liquid then condenses.

Finally, the gas which is in the middle of the tube simply desuperheats. It is just about as if
the gas in the middle of the tube does not know that there is a cooling on the lining!

So, the 3 phases are simultaneous...check the operator course but also the following
paragraph “the refrigeration system”

5.5.3. Cooling tower operation

One litre of evaporated water drains 2 500 kJ of heat.

To obtain the same effect with water cooling, it would be necessary to cool 60 litres of
water by 10°C... (Basically we have a water heat capacity of 4,18 [kJ/kg.K]).

It is on this physical principle that the cooling tower operates. Thus, in the open cooling
tower, the hot water coming from the condenser is sprayed in micro-droplets, to then run
over a water-air exchange surface. One or several fans provide a reverse upflow.

Due to the exchange with the cold air and the partial evaporation, the temperature of the
water decreases. The cooled water is recovered in a tray and returns to the condenser.

In theory, if the exchange was perfect (infinite exchange surface), the cooled water would
reach the humid temperature of the air. For example, if the outside air is 30°C, 40 % RH,
its humid temperature is 20°C 100 % RH. But the water will not reach this value.

In practice, it will be 3 to 8°C above this value, following the dimensioning from
engineering (to reach 3°C, it is necessary to give the tower large dimensions). This value
is called the "approach".

Let us compare the systems by fixing average values: an air temperature of 30°C
40 % RH, an "approach" of 5°C, a pinching of the exchangers of 6°C and a heating of the
water temperature of 7°C.

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T condens.
Condenser inlet Condenser outlet
refrigerant.

normal T dry air = 30° T air = 30° T air = 37° 43°

Air-cooled
condenser
with water
T dry air = 30° T air = 25° T air = 32° 38°
evaporation

open cooling T cond water =

T wet air = 20° T cond water = 32° 38°
tower 25°
Water-
closed T sprayed water = T cond water =
cooled T cond water = 38° 44°
cooling tower 25° 31°
condenser
T cond water =
dry-cooler T dry air = 30° T cond water = 43° 49°
36°

Table 7: Temperatures in a cooling tower

This simplified approach situates the order of magnitude of the condensing temperature,
and thus the impact on the consumption of the compressor.

5.5.4. Air-cooled condensers

The heat is removed from the refrigeration circuit by a direct refrigerant/air exchanger.

The hot refrigerant gas yields its heat to the air passing the condenser and changes to a
liquid.

The flow rate and the air flow

temperature determine the
condenser power.

Figure 93: The air-cooled

condenser

The average speed of the passing air is 2 to 4 m/s. Order of magnitude of the exchange
coefficient of an air-cooled condenser: 20 to 30 [W/m².K]

Two types of fans are used: the axial and the centrifugal/radial

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Figure 94: Fans in the condensers – axial and centrifugal

5.5.5. Water-cooled condensers

We speak of a condenser with indirect cooling, because this time, the hot refrigerant gas
yields its heat to the water circulating in the condenser.

Order of magnitude of the exchange coefficient of a water-cooled condenser: 700 to

1 100 [W/m².K]

The condenser performances will depend on:

the temperature difference between the refrigerant and the water,

the speed of the water (the flow rate),

the clogging coefficient,

the nature of the refrigerant.

Figure 95: Water-cooled condenser

For the cooling, you can use water from the water system (drinking water), but this solution
is not appropriate due to the excessive water consumption which it brings!

You can also use water from the ground water table, from a lake or river (ask for
authorization). The waters then contain more or less impurities which settle on the tubes.
These deposits can considerably reduce the heat transfer coefficient. If an automatic
cleaning system is not placed, it is necessary to over-dimension the exchanger so that the
performances of the installation stay high enough.

Usually, it will be a water circuit, open or closed. This is the most frequent case. It involves
the use of a cooling tower.

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5.5.6. Air cooler (or dry cooler)

The air cooler is a simple water/air exchanger: one or several fans force the outside air
transfer to accelerate the cooling.

This exchange unit is suitable for all seasons, because by adding antifreeze (glycol type),
it is non-freezing.

So it has the advantage of

being able to cool the
refrigeration system
condenser... remotely! The
refrigeration unit can be in the
cellar and the air cooler on the
roof: the water loop will
organize the transfer.

Figure 96: Air-cooled

condenser

It is not as efficient as a cooling tower with a spray system because the cooling
temperature is limited to the temperature of the outside air...

Water loop

The cooling water circulates in a closed circuit between the condenser and air cooler.
Consequently, it is necessary to provide an expansion vessel and a safety valve on the
loop. Bleeders will be placed at the high points of the loop.

A big advantage (especially compared with open cooling towers) is that there is no risk of
scaling or corrosion of the circuit since it is always the same water which circulates ("dead
water").

Control

Usually, a thermostat placed on the water loop actuates the fan(s) according to the
temperature.

This is the weak point of the air cooler: the temperature of the cooling water is high.

On the one hand, because there is a double exchange: fluid/glycol water - glycol
water/air, and therefore an extra Delta T°.

On the other hand, because the cooling air can be high in the summer.

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Or, if the cooling air is hot, the water will be even hotter and, in the condenser, the
condensing pressure will be very high. The energy consumption of the compressor would
consequently increase.

Proportionally, the cooling tower will have a better efficiency... but a higher sensitivity to
corrosion...

So this system must be limited to installations with average demand. (The compressed
natural gas refrigeration loops, for example – here we are no longer in the habitat.)

5.5.7. Cooling towers

A cooling tower uses the cooling effect created by the vaporisation of the water. Actually,
to change into a vapour, the water needs energy. And it gets this energy from itself. Water
which evaporates...cools down.

5.5.7.1. Open cooling tower

We speak of an “open” cooling tower if it is the cooling water, itself, coming from the
condenser, which is sprayed.

It is the most efficient system which brings the highest cooling. But the contact between
the water and the atmosphere causes corrosion (oxygenation of water, introduction of
dusts and grains of sand which risk settling in the condenser, increased risk of frost...).

In this paragraph a simple example is given for a

data processing room air-conditioning cabinet:

Figure 97: Open cooling tower condenser

Note that there are also open cooling towers

without fans. The water is sprayed at a rather high
pressure and this water discharge brings the air
with it by induced effect (Venturi effect).

The main advantage is the decrease of noise and

vibrations.

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5.5.7.2. Closed cooling tower

We speak of a “closed” cooling tower if the cooling circuit water circulates in a closed-loop
heat exchanger onto which outside air is
blown, and water is sprayed.

The partial evaporation of the water procures a

lower cooling than it does in the open cooling
tower, but the corrosion risks are cancelled.

The figure is for the same application: for a

data processing room air-conditioning cabinet:

Figure 98: Closed cooling tower condenser

The water consumption is limited to the quantity of evaporated water (presence of a float-
feed), plus a small volume for bleeding to eliminate the impurities which have gathered on
the bottom of the tank.

5.6. HEAT PUMPS / WATER LOOP APPLICATION

Yes? The heat pumps have already been discussed in a chapter of this course, but let us
revise this in another form so as to compare it with the following paragraph about the
refrigeration system and maybe, to better understand…..

5.6.1. Did you say "heat pump"?

It transfers energy from one environment to another.

A heat pump is a machine whose goal is to

upgrade the free heat found in the environment:
the heat found in the outside air, rivers, and
ground. Actually, all bodies, even "cold" contain a
large quantity of energy which can be recovered.

Figure 99: Reversible heat pump

In practice, thanks to a fluid describing a

thermodynamic cycle, the heat pump draws heat
from a so-called "cold" source and discharges it in
a so-called "hot" source.

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This transfer uses a forced process

because, as we all know, heat moves
naturally from a hot zone towards a cold
zone. This is why the heat pump must be
driven by a compressor which will give it
the energy necessary for its operation.

Figure 100: Heat pump for placement on

the roof of an industrial plant, for
example.

It is important to make it clear that here we are speaking of devices carrying out a transfer;
not creating heat. The aim - the coefficient of performance - is situated around 3 heat units
supplied to the hot source per unit injected to the compressor. This means that for one
consumed and paid kWh, you receive 3 for free.

But the heat pump is a "dynamic" heat producer: contrary to a boiler, the performances of
a heat pump vary according to the operating conditions. It will therefore have excellent
heating performances... in the summer!

The hardest task for the designer consists of taking this dynamic behaviour into
consideration and equipping the installation so that the limiting conditions of the operation
are not exceeded.

A commercial boom

This is a technology which benefits from a renewed interest these last years after a first
boom (and a disappointment...) during the oil crisis in the 1970’s. The market is in full
expansion: the amount of heat pump installations in Europe between 1997 and 2000 has
known an average growth of 15 % per year.

Country 1997 1998 1999 2000

% of % of % of % of
Units sold Units sold Units sold Units sold
growth growth growth growth
Germany 3 600 56 4 350 20 4 700 8 5 750 22

Finland 800 60 1 500 87 2 200 46 2 750 25

Netherlands 1 150 72 1 700 10 1 850 9 3 000 62

Sweden 17 000 37 18 500 9 20 000 8 23 000 15

Switzerland 5 200 24 6 150 18 6 500 6 7 200 11

France 1 700 0 3 000 81 6 000 87 7 500 25

Table 8: Heat pump installations in Europe

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A "clean" device?

The heat pump allows using electrical energy wisely. Is the heat pump then a part of the
steps taken towards "sustainable development"? The answer should be nuanced.

No… if we consider that the heat pump uses electric current produced with a very bad
production efficiency (average efficiency of 38 % in Belgium) or with the production of
nuclear waste which is difficult to manage.

Yes... since the production of current using a fossil fuel to feed a heat pump is, on the
whole, less harmful to the environment than the same production of electricity to feed
electric resistor heaters, for example.

If the electricity is produced by wind turbines and the heat pump "multiplies" by 3 this
energy by converting it into heat, the balance is fabulous!

To a smaller extent, a heat pump whose electricity comes from a gas/steam turbine power
plant (efficiency of 55 %), would also have a more favourable gross balance than the gas
boiler in the homes.

5.6.2. Types of heat pumps

The heat pumps are designated according to the heat carrying fluids in which the
evaporator and condenser heat exchangers are submerged.

Designation Evaporator Condenser

Water/ Water Heat pump Water Water
Air/ Water heat pump Air Water
Brine/ Water heat pump Brine Water
Air/ Air heat pump Air Air

Table 9: Main types of heat pumps

Example of abridged designation

Type: Water/ Water

Evaporator inlet temperature: 10°C
Condenser outlet temperature: 45°C
Abridged designation: W10/W45

The expression W10/W45 means that the cold source is water at 10°C and the hot source
water at 45°C. This is how the suppliers designate their products. A heat source such as
ground water table or surface water will be designated with "water"; surrounding air or
gaseous effluents with "air"; a water-glycol mixture which circulates in the closed circuit
between a heat source and the evaporator with "brine".
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Because of this, the heat pumps drawing energy from the sun will sometimes be
designated as "brine".

The systems used most are the Air/Water systems and then the Brine/Water systems
whose heat source is subterranean. The Water/Water and Brine/Water heat pumps are
often subject to authorization and are therefore less popular.

5.6.3. Heat pump operating principle

The operating principle is the same as that of the refrigeration system but it works in the
opposite sense.

This time, the aim is to extract free heat from

the outside environment: water from a river,
outside air, water from a groundwater
aquifer... (We speak of "cold source").

Physically, the outside air at 0°C contains a

lot of energy since, on the absolute
temperature scale, air is actually found at
273° K!

Figure 101: Refrigeration / heating principle

The evaporator is outside and the refrigerant temperature will be about 5 to 8°C lower than
the temperature of the cold source. The heat energy collected will be "increased" to a
useable temperature level (for the heating of a house, for example) via the compressor: so
the condenser is inside.

Of course, a heat emitter with the lowest possible temperature is chosen (for example,
warm air heating, and hot-water heating with coil in the ground...). The temperature
difference between the compressor inlet and outlet must actually be the lowest possible to
limit the work of the compressor.

5.6.4. Various coefficients of performance

5.6.4.1. Evaluating the instantaneous performance

We can deduct the heat pump efficiency (called "ε", performance index) on the basis of the
ratio of the useful heat energy delivered to the condenser with the electrical energy
supplied (and paid) to the compressor.

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For example, if, at a given time of

measurement, the temperatures of the hot and
cold sources of a certain heat pump are such
that it transfers 3 kW via its condenser while at
the same moment its compressor requires
1 kW of power, you could say that its
performance index is 3 kW / 1 k W = 3 for
these temperature conditions.

Figure 102: ε = heat to the condenser/work of

the compressor = Q2 / W.

This ratio can be deduced from the supplier’s catalogue; from measurements that it would
have produced in standard conditions.

5.6.4.2. Evaluating the instantaneous performance, auxiliaries included

This time, we speak of a coefficient of performance "COP".

It is European Standard EN 255 which defines the coefficient of performance on the spot
and the place of the performance index represented above. To calculate it, along with the
compressor power, it will be necessary to take into account the power of the antifreeze
device (command/control) and of the mechanical installations (pump, fan).

However, these measurements only concern the units attached to the heat pump and are
independent from the heating installation, accumulator, etc. The standard determines very
precise standard conditions for measurements which only correspond with real situations
in certain circumstances. This must not be forgotten when working with the COP.

Let us use the example of the heat pump above. In the conditions imposed by standard
EN 255, the power at the disposal of the condenser might not be 3 kW but 3,2 kW for an
identical condenser outlet temperature. Furthermore, the power absorbed by the whole of
the equipment to be taken into account may not be 1 kW but 1,1 kW. The coefficient of
performance is then 3,2 / 1,1 = 2,9.

5.6.4.3. Evaluating the annual performance, auxiliaries included

The annual coefficient of performance ("ACOP") is the most important index when
examining a heat pump installation. All the quantities of energy produced and injected
during a year are compared with each other. This is no longer a theoretical value
calculated from installed powers, but of an actual measurement, on site, of the quantity of
energy consumed and supplied. It is the annual coefficient of performance which gives a
real idea of the "performance" and efficiency of the installation.

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Let us imagine that our heat pump example is part of a complete heating installation. The
temperature variations of the cold and hot sources, the losses on emission of the
distribution system, the consumption of supplementary heating, etc...: make that 13 000
kWh* of heat are produced over a year, while the overall consumptions go up to
6 200 kWh* of electrical energy. We would then say that the ACOP of this installation is
13 000 kWh / 6 000 kWh = 2,17.

*These values are only meant to illustrate the definition of the ACOP. This is not an
average from any existing installations or the result of a case study.

5.6.4.4. Theoretical evaluation of the annual performance

This is the Seasonal Performance Factor ("SPF").

While the ACOP is the ratio of the values measured, over a year, of the heat energy given
usefully to a building and of the energy (often electrical) supplied to the installation, the
SPF is the ratio of these same quantities of energy supplied and given in a year,
theoretically calculated on the basis of the instantaneous COP at various temperatures.

So this is really a theoretical value but which takes into account the temperature variations
of the cold source and not a value measured in a real situation like the ACOP.
Furthermore, the SPF describes a heat pump while the ACOP describes a complete
installation. So the calculation of the SPF of the accumulator losses will not be taken into
account, for example, nor will the bad adjustment of a defrosting device, which would
increase the quantity of energy demanded from the compressor and result in a less
advantageous, but more realistic, final value.

Qdemanded
SPF =
The SPF is calculated like this: P(Tout )t (Tout )
Σ
COP(Tout )

Where:
• Qdemanded is the quantity of energy demanded from the heat pump during the heating
period [kWh/year].
• P(Tout) is the power which is to be supplied when the temperature of the cold source
is Tout (for example the heat losses of a house according to the outside
temperature) [kW].
• t(Tout) is the time during which the temperature of the cold source is Tout [h/year]
• COP(Tout) is the coefficient of performance of the heat pump when the temperature
of the cold source is Tout

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5.6.5. An efficiency which exceeds 100 %!?

5.6.5.1. What heat pump energy balance?

What brings the exploitation costs for a heat pump installation?

not the energy from the "cold source": it is free,

but the electrical energy for the compressor.

Hence the notion of efficiency given by "ε", the performance index:

Or Q2 = Q1 + W = heat collected from the

cold source + energy created by the work of
the compressor (law of conservation of
energy).

Figure 103: ε = heat to the condenser/work of

the compressor = Q2 / W.

Consequently, Q2 is always larger than W

and ε is always clearly higher than 1.

5.6.5.2. Is-it normal to encounter a machine whose "efficiency" exceeds

100 %?

Actually, this here is not a conversion machine, for energy transformation like a boiler, but
a machine which transfers a quantity of heat energy from one temperature threshold to
another. So the performance index is not an efficiency, but an evaluation of the
performance of the transfer. If the difference between the 2 temperature thresholds
increases, the efficiency (ε or COP) decreases.

5.6.5.3. What is the theoretical "ε" of a heat pump?

Because W = Q2 - Q1, we can also write: ε = Q2 / (Q2 - Q1)

If we consider a work without losses, the laws of thermodynamics establish the link
between the energy contained in a fluid (Q) and the absolute temperature of this fluid (T),
and so without explanation we will allow the following expression of the theoretical COP:

ε theoretical = T2 / (T2 - T1) [T expressed in Kelvin]

Where T2 = condensing temperature [K] and T1 = evaporating temperature [K]

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So it would be necessary to have a maximal evaporating temperature and a minimal

condensing temperature. Be careful, however, not to confuse the temperatures T1 and T2
of the refrigerant with those of the hot and cold sources, even if, consequently, the
immediate coefficient of performance is all the better because:

the temperature of the heat source (= the "cold source") is high,

the temperature of the heating system is low (T2 close to T1).

While we can hardly influence the temperature of the heat source, the temperature at the
beginning of the heating will be defined by the designer! He will have the tendency to
choose floor heating or warm air heating.

Example of an AIR – AIR heat pump

T°out = 0°C (= 273°K) and T°heat. = 40°C

ε theor = (273 + 40) / (40) = 7,8!

In theory, the pump will supply the condenser with 8 x more energy than the energy
demanded from the compressor! (7/8 of the heat is collected from the outside air).

5.6.5.4. And which practical COP?

In practice, several factors will cause the performance to decrease:

There is a temperature difference between the refrigerant and the sources.

For example: if T° out = 0°C, T° evaporator =... - 8°C... And if T° heat. = 40°C, T°
condenser =... 48°C... Then ε = (273 + 48) / (56) = 5,7.

Since the coefficient of heat dissipation by free convection between the water and
the evaporator is clearly better than the coefficient of heat dissipation by free
convection between the air and the exchanger, we will tend to favour the
water/water and water/air heat pump. But you also need a river in the back of the
garden or a ground water table which you can draw from (compulsory
authorization). Usually, we have to resort to using the outside air as cold source.

Or in this case, if the T°out < 5° C, then T°evaporator fluid = 0°C. Consequently,
frost appears on the fins, the ice clogs the outside exchanger, hence the
necessity to defrost (either an electric current is sent onto the exchanger to melt
the ice, or the cycle is reversed and the hot gases are sent into the evaporator).

With the consumption of defrosting, the average performance index decreases

greatly.

When the temperature of the outside air decreases below 0°C it becomes harder
and harder for the compressor to operate: the heat pump condenser power input
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becomes very low and it is sometimes necessary to add direct electrical heaters
to the installation.
Unfortunate paradox, it is when it is very cold that the dwelling will demand the
most power while the heat pump will supply the least!

It is necessary to use the fans of the cold and hot sources, hence an extra
electric consumption from these auxiliaries.

Example:

These are the technical specifications of a reversible air conditioner found on the market.
In the winter, this air conditioner can supply heat to the room: it then operates in “heat
pump” mode.

Inside unit FHYB35FJ

Outside unit RY35D7
kcal/h 3 100
Cooling capacity Btu/h 12 300
kW 3,60
kcal/h 3 500
Heating capacity Btu/h 14 000
kW 4,10
Absorbed cooling kW 1,51
power heating kW 1,33

Table 10: Example of technical specifications for a reversible air conditioner

On this table we find:

• The cooling efficiency, C.E., or COPcold (coefficient of performance in cold)

cooling capacity / absorbed power = 3,6 kW / 1,5 kW = 2,4

• the performance index to the condenser, ε

heating capacity (to the condenser) / absorbed power = 4,1 kW / 1,3 kW = 3,2

Careful! This coefficient is obtained in very favourable conditions! In small writing, the
manufacturer specifies that these are values obtained for 7°C outside... This performance
will collapse in colder periods. In reality, it is the average seasonal efficiency which
interests us... but this is never given since it depends on the operating conditions.

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5.6.6. Water loop heat pump

Several heat pumps are connected to a

common water loop.

Figure 104: Water loop heat pump

In the summer, they operate as a

refrigeration system whose condenser
is cooled by the water loop which
cools itself via a cooling tower placed,
for example, on the roof.

In the winter, they operate in “heat

pump” mode with the water loop as
the "cold" source, which is itself
warmed by a boiler placed in series on
the loop.

In midseason, this system makes the most sense: when rooms are simultaneously
cooled while others are warmed, the loop which links them allows the energy transfer
between them, with a remarkable performance.

This system is optimized if it also has a system to store the heat and return it on demand.

These heat pump/air conditioners consist of two parts:

A part for the treatment of the air in the room consisting mainly of a filter, an
air/freon exchanger and a forced draught fan.

A refrigeration circuit part consisting of a compressor, a 4-way cycle switchover

valve, a water/freon exchanger connected to the water loop and a capillary
expansion valve.

Following the operation cycles, the water/freon and

air/freon exchangers are, in turn, the refrigeration circuit
condenser or evaporator; this switch is made possible
by the 4-way cycle switchover valve which channels the
hot gases under pressure, at the compressor outlet,
towards one or another of the exchangers in which the
refrigerant will then be condensed, yielding its heat to
the water or the air.

Figure 105: 4-way cycle switchover valve

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5.7. AIR TREATMENT UNITS

5.7.1. Hot and cold from the same equipment

One of the most current applications of the heat pump is the cooling and heating supply
system for the air treatment units by reversible Air/Air installations. These installations are
very advantageous since one single reversible device procures two functions for a
reasonable initial investment. The performance of the heat pump is high because the
temperatures required are low.

Concretely, a heat pump is connected to a classic air treatment unit, of which one of the
heat pump exchangers is inside the unit; the other is on the outside.

Figure 106: Air treatment unit

Figure 107: Operation modes of the unit

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Example of a model available on the market:

Model 1
Nominal cooling capacity kW 13,5
Nominal heating capacity kW 14,55
Maximum air flow m³/h 2 400
Sound pressure dB(A) 65
Refrigerant R 22
Height mm 485
Width mm 1 022
Length mm 1 261
Net weight Kg 88
Price € 5 085

Table 11: Example of technical specifications for an ATM

Of course, higher capacities are possible and suffice to replace the conventional
installations

In the summer, the heat pump operates like a classic air-conditioning unit; the inside of the
unit consists of the evaporator and the outside unit, the condenser. It is possible to achieve
a seasonal refrigeration COP which lies around 3. Careful, the direct expansion involves
very low temperatures in the exchanger and therefore an air dehumidification which is
sometimes exaggerated compared with the demands.

In the winter, the cycle is reversed and the inside unit becomes a condenser while the
outside exchanger plays the part of the evaporator. The COP then varies according to the
outside temperature, the defrosting and the need for electric make-up. By integrating these
different auxiliaries, we reach a seasonal COP which lies around 2,5.

5.7.2. Difficult management during defrosting

One difficulty remains: the heating of the air is without inertia (unlike heating the floor or a
water tank). So, when the evaporator is defrosting, cold air risks being blown onto the
occupants.

Since it is difficult to stop the air from blowing, one solution could consist of working with
modular heat pumps. When a module defrosts, it stops and another module produces.

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5.7.3. Recover the extracted air?

To improve the installation, it is possible

to pass the extracted air through the
outside exchanger when it is used as
evaporator. The heat recovery in the
exchanger will be improved due to the
large temperature difference between
the foul air and the low refrigerant
evaporating temperature in the winter.

Figure 108: Extracted air recovery

This heat supplied to the evaporator will

allow increasing the evaporating
temperature and diminishing the
defrosting; to improve the COP.

The selection of the heat pump power depends on the summer heat balance and the
winter heat balance. In the tertiary sector, the cooling needs in the summer are often
higher than the heating needs in the winter. The heat pump will then be over-dimensioned
for the rate of heating and supplementary heating will then only be necessary occasionally.

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6. COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

We have seen the material in operator course PT-UT020 and we have also seen (and
revised) some in this course. Now let us reassemble everything; let us rediscover each
unit to discuss (again) and revise the refrigeration system operation.

6.1. REFRIGERATION INSTALLATION: OUTSIDE VIEW

In air-conditioning installations, the refrigeration system makes it possible to discharge

outside the surplus heat in the rooms.

In practice, it prepares cold air or cold

water which will compensate the heat
supplied by the sun, office automation
equipment, occupants...; and such that
the hot-cold balance is even and the
temperature setting is maintained in the
rooms.

Figure 109: Diffusion of the air in

distribution ducts

The simplest technique consists of preparing cold air which will be dispersed via
distribution ducts.

Figure 110: Air treatment in air-conditioning units

For the refrigeration unit, two main modes of operation are distinguished:

Either the refrigerant cools the air by passing directly in the cooling unit: we
speak of a "direct expansion system" because the refrigeration system
evaporator takes the place of the cooling unit in the air-conditioning unit.

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Figure 111: Direct expansion refrigeration

Or the refrigeration installation prepares cold water at...6°C... (Usually called

"iced water"), water which will feed the cooling unit of the air treatment module.

Figure 112: Refrigeration with iced water circuit.

But the transport of cold by air involves a very costly investment (ducting).

By way of illustration, let us compare the overall dimensions required for the transfer of
10 kW of cold:

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Transport by air Transport by water

Delta T°: 9°C (from +16° blown to room Delta T°: 5°C (iced water loop at rate
temp. of +25°C, for ex.) 7° - 12°C, for ex.)

Air flow: 3 270 m³/h Water flow: 1,72 m³/h

Speed: 15 m/s Speed: 0,8 m/s

Duct section: 300 x 220 mm ( or Ø 300 mm) Duct diameter: Ø 40 mm

Table 12: Comparison between transfer by water and by air

Furthermore, for exploitation, the consumption of the fans represents from 10 to 30 % of

the transferred energy against 2 % for the consumption of the circulation pumps.

We also often encounter installations where the cooling of the rooms is mainly procured by
iced water feeding the cold units of the fan coil units.

Figure 113: Iced water circuit for the fresh air and the fan coil units.

An extra cooling can be achieved by cooling the fresh ventilation air.

Of course, "producing cold" implies removing heat. Also, on the outside of the building,
often on the roof, we will find equipment in charge of cooling.
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And cooling with:

either the refrigerant directly: this is the refrigeration

installation condenser.

Figure 114: Condenser in refrigeration cycle

or water, which itself is used to cool the refrigerant: this

is the cooling tower.

There are three types of towers:

Open cooling tower

The water is sprayed in front of a fan and the cooling is then

strengthened by the partial vaporisation of this water (the heat of
vaporisation is "pumped" onto the left-over drop of water which then
cools). After cooling, this water will be driven to a water-cooled
condenser found close to the compressor.

Closed cooling tower

The water coming from the condenser stays inside a closed tubing
circuit, but is "sprayed" by a fountain of cooling water. While partially
evaporating this water will also be greatly cooled. But this time, the
water which has been in contact with the outside air (its oxygen and
its dusts), is no longer in direct contact with the water-cooled
condenser; preventing rather painful problems with corrosion...

Dry cooler

This is a closed cooling tower which is not sprayed, but simply cooled
by the outside air blown by the fans. This exchange unit is suitable
for all seasons, because by adding antifreeze (glycol type), it is non-
freezing. It is not as efficient as the preceding ones because the
cooling temperature is limited to the temperature of the outside air...

Table 13: Various types of condensation towers

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6.2. REFRIGERATION INSTALLATION: INSIDE VIEW

The heat transfer, between inside and outside, can only take place if an equipment raises
the temperature level between the environment where the heat is drawn (air or water) and
the environment where the heat is removed (outside air): this is done by the refrigeration
system.

It consists of, at least, the 4 following units:

1 evaporator

1 condenser

1 compressor

1 expansion element

This is how each of these components operates.

6.2.1. Everything is based on the physical properties of the refrigerant

The refrigeration system is based on the refrigerant properties (see operator course) of
evaporating and condensing at different temperatures according to the pressure.

To explain the operation, we will use the properties of R 22 since it is the fluid used most in
air-conditioning. But this is no longer the one chosen for modern installations.

At atmospheric pressure:

The R22 is liquid at - 45°C and starts "boiling" at around -40°C.

⇒ If R 22 fluid at -45°C circulates in a coil and the air at 20° C passes around this tube,
the air will cool: it will yield its heat to the fluid which will evaporate. This is done by the
refrigeration system evaporator.

At a pressure of 13 bar:

This time, the R 22 will only "boil" at 33°C. Otherwise said, if a fluid vapour at 13 bar and
65°C circulates in a coil and that air at 20° C passes around this tube, the fluid will cool
and from 33°C, it will liquefy, it will condense. By condensing, it will release a lot of heat.
This is done by the refrigeration system condenser.

⇒ So if we want the fluid to be able to "pick up" heat: it must be a liquid, at low pressure
and low temperature, to allow it to evaporate.
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⇒ If we want it to be able to yield its heat: it must be a vapour at high temperature and at
high pressure, to allow it to condense.

To achieve a cycle in which heat is extracted at one side and given at the other, it is
necessary to complement the installation with 2 units:

1. The compressor, which compresses the gas, causing the temperature to rise up
to + 65°C.

2. The expansion valve which, based on a fluid in a liquid phase, "releases" the
pressure: the fluid partially vaporizes and therefore cools down. The liquid drops to
a temperature of - 40°C (of course, - 40°C is chosen for freezing, and 0°C to + 5°C
is chosen for air-conditioning).

When these various equipments are looped in a circuit we obtain a refrigeration system.

In practice, let us follow the route of the refrigerant in the various equipment and pinpoint
the trail of the refrigerant’s development in the diagram from the thermodynamicists, the H-
P diagram, enthalpy (or energy level) on the X-axis and pressure on the Y-axis (also check
the operator course).

6.2.2. In the evaporator

The liquid refrigerant starts to boil and evaporates while absorbing the heat from the
outside fluid.

Figure 115: Evaporator operation

In a second stage, the formed gas is still slightly warmed by the outside fluid. This is called
the superheating phase (between 7 and 1).

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6.2.3. In the compressor

First of all the compressor will suck up the refrigerant gas at low pressure and low
temperature (1). The mechanical energy supplied by the compressor will allow raising the
pressure and the refrigerant gas temperature; resulting in an enthalpy increase.

Figure 116: Compressor operation

6.2.4. In the condenser

Figure 117: Condenser operation

The hot gas from the compressor will yield its heat to the outside fluid. The refrigerant
vapours cool down ("desuperheat"), before the first drop of liquid appears (point 3). Then
the condensation takes place until the last vapour bubble disappears (point 4). The liquid
fluid can then cool a few degrees (subcooling) before leaving the condenser.

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6.2.5. In the expansion valve

The pressure difference between the condenser and the evaporator imposes the need to
insert a “pressure decreasing” device in the circuit. This is done by the expansion valve.
The refrigerant partially vaporizes in the expansion valve to decrease its temperature.

Figure 118: Expansion valve and its operation

See operator course EXP-PR-UT020 for the technological details of the expansion valves,
thermostatic valves and other auxiliaries.

6.2.6. Complete operation

Figure 119: Basic refrigeration cycle

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The cycle is closed; influenced by the compressor action, the refrigerant advances in the
four elements which make up the refrigeration system.

The whole cycle can be represented in the enthalpy – pressure diagram. Underneath the
bell-shaped curve the liquid-vapour mixtures are found; to the left of the bell, the fluid is
liquid (it is "subcooling"), to the right, the fluid is a vapour (it is "superheating").

Figure 120: Enthalpy diagram of the refrigeration cycle

6.3. OPERATION OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM IN PERMANENT

BALANCE

The actual operation cycle of a refrigeration system stabilizes according to the

temperatures of the environment which is to be cooled, the outside air where the heat is
discharged and the dimensional characteristics of the device.

Thus, the evaporating temperature will stabilize a few degrees below the temperature of
the fluid cooled by the evaporator. Also, the condensing temperature will stabilize a few
degrees above the temperature of the condenser coolant.

The cooling demands permanently develop and the outside temperature varies the whole
year through!

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All that will of course involve a modification of the compression ratio and a variation of the
absorbed power. According to the evaporation and condensation rate, the compressor will
suck up a mass flow rate of refrigerant, more or less large, thus defining the evaporator
cooling capacity and the condenser heating capacity.

Example

To be able to imagine these developments, let us start with a concrete case.

Evaporator

The iced water loop operates in rate 5°-11°.

The heat exchange takes place in two
phases:

boiling of the fluid

superheating of the vapours

Figure 121: Development of the fluids in the

evaporator

The established evaporating temperature is

0°C. For R22, this corresponds with a low
pressure of 4 bar (pressure gauge reading),
i.e. 5 bar absolute (compared with vacuum).

Figure 122: Development of the fluids in the

condenser

Condenser

The condenser is directly cooled by the outside air. Let us suppose that the air enters the
condenser at 30°C. The heat exchange takes place in three phases:

desuperheating of the hot gases from the compressor,

condensation of the fluid,

subcooling of the liquid.

The established condensing temperature is 40°C. For R 22, this corresponds with a high
pressure of 14,5 bar, i.e. 15,5 bar absolute.

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Let us analyse the compressor behaviour on the basis of the nominal characteristics given
by the supplier.

For an evaporating temperature of 0°C and a

condensing temperature of 40°C we observe
that,

the electric power absorbed by the

compressor will be 6,3 kW

the cooling capacity supplied to the

evaporator will be 21,9 kW

Remark: in reality, an adaptation of a few

percent will need to take place since the
manufacturer supplies indications for a
standard operation of the device (superheating
of 0 K, subcooling of 25 K according to
DIN 8928 and soon the CEN) but this exceeds
the content of these statements.

Figure 123: Curves / Extract from a

compressor catalogue

Now let us suppose that the condenser is not

maintained properly. The heat exchange
intensity decreases, the condenser
temperature increases, the compressor will
work more and will increase the gas outlet
pressure.

A new condensing temperature will be created: let us suppose that it reaches a

temperature of 50°C. Since the temperature of the liquid rises at the expansion valve inlet,
the evaporating temperature also rises 1 or 2°C. The manufacturers diagram foresees an
increase of the absorbed electric power: 7 kW, for a diminished cooling capacity:
18,2 kW...

The "efficiency" of the machine deteriorates:

BEFORE: (21,9 kW produced) / (6,3 kW absorbed) = 3,5

AFTER: (18,2 kW produced) / (7 kW absorbed) = 2,6

We would say that "the energy efficiency" of the refrigeration system has decreased by
25 %. Note that we would have had the same result if the outside temperature had risen
10°.

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6.4. REGULATIONS CONCERNING REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

The refrigeration system can be seen as an assembly of equipment, brought together by

the refrigerant network and each controlled while pursuing different objectives in parallel.

6.4.1. Compressor control

The compressor control consists of adapting the supplied power to the required power: the
compressor control

A refrigeration system is dimensioned to overcome the maximum heat supplies (blue

skies, dazzling sun and a temperature of 32°C, for example). So most of the time, it has an
excess output. It is therefore necessary to be able to adapt the compressor cooling
capacity to the actual partial load.

Various compressor control techniques are possible:

stop the compressor by "two-point (on/off) control" or in stages,

reduce its rotational speed,

put it partially out of service (emptying of the cylinders...),

provide a discharge – suction by-pass,

seal the suction orifice,

6.4.2. Limiting maximum pressure at the compressor outlet: the HP controller

The most important part of a

refrigeration installation is, without a
doubt, the compressor. It must
maintain the necessary quantity of
refrigerant in circulation; so it
operates like a “pump” (this is an
image, of course…).

Figure 124: Pressure safeties for the

compressor

The inlet-outlet differential pressure is

very large and, according to the site
and the refrigerant, it is situated
between approx. 5 and 20 bar.
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Let us imagine a condenser fan breakdown or a period of heavy heat of the outside air.
Cooling the hot gases in the condenser is insufficient, the evaporator temperature will
increase; the compressor inlet pressure increases. The compressor could then develop an
outlet pressure exceeding the permitted level.

In order to protect the installation, this High Pressure (HP) part is fit with a pressure
controller which triggers the drive motor when the pressure surpasses the maximum level
permitted by the manufacturer.

6.4.3. Limiting the minimum pressure at the compressor inlet: the LP

controller

The low pressure before the compressor is also surveyed.

For example, when insufficient cooling is demanded from the evaporator, the heat of
evaporation transferred to the refrigerant is not sufficient. This leads to a pressure
decrease on the low pressure side of the compressor resulting in a decrease of the
evaporating temperature along with the frosting of the cooling unit or the freezing of the
iced water.

While when a unit frosts the exchange coefficient decreases, the evaporating temperature
decreases further and the phenomenon speeds up. This is why the low pressure is
controlled and the compressor is activated by the LP controller when the low pressure
goes down below a minimum value. Therefore, in case of a refrigerant leak, it is important
to activate the compressor; otherwise it will run without refrigerant and deteriorate very
quickly. Normally the pressure in the evaporator is much higher than the atmospheric
pressure.

6.4.4. Avoiding overheating of the engine

It is necessary to make sure the machine does not start and stop too often. Actually,
repetitive engagements lead to the overheating of the engine (the start-up current is higher
than the nominal current). A minimum operation time is necessary to remove this excess
heat.

A device called "antishort cycle", limits the start-up frequency of the compressors and
assures a minimum operation time.

6.4.5. Lubricating the compressor

Car engine pistons need constant lubrication to prevent the piston rings from being
"gnawed at". The same problem exists in the refrigeration compressors. The oil which
greases the compressor also follows the refrigerant vapour and thus finds itself in the
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circulation system. The service technician must check if the oil returns correctly to the
compressor, by the adequate installation of the refrigeration piping; and if this is not the
case, by fitting an oil separator.

When the compressor is not operating the sump is heated. Actually, at low ambient
temperatures, the oil can absorb a bit of vapour from the refrigerant. Since this oil is mainly
found in the sump casing, there might, in this spot, be a high concentration of cooling
agent in the oil.

When the installation is started up the pressure drops very quickly, the cooling agent tries
to vaporize and separate from the oil. The oil starts to foam, which can cause liquid jerks
and oil starvation in the compressor. In order to prevent the oil from absorbing refrigerant
the sump casing is, during activation of the installation, warmed by means of an electric
resistor.

6.4.6. Avoiding liquid refrigerant jerks

The compressor is used to compress a gas. Since liquids are practically incompressible,
the compressor will be damaged if the refrigerant passes through it as a liquid rather than
as a vapour. If the piston pushes against an incompressible agent, a "liquid jerk" is the
result, “breaking” the piston and the clappers.

When the installation is out of service, the liquid can accumulate before the compressor
and cause a liquid jerk during re-engagement. To prevent this, a magnetic valve (solenoid)
is often placed before the expansion valve. The magnetic valve closes when the
installation is activated and keeps the cooling agent from returning to the evaporator.

The electric connection is carried out so that the compressor can operate after this valve is
closed. The compressor stops when the low pressure controller starts up. When the
pressure increases once more, the process is repeated. This process is sometimes called
"the pump down".

Remark: liquid jerks almost only concern the piston compressors. The screws from screw
compressors or the labyrinth seals from scroll compressors can move apart in case of
liquid suction. And the turbocompressors are not displacement compressors.

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6.5. ENERGY EFFICIENCY OR COP-COLD

An air conditioner is efficient in terms of energy

if it demands little electrical energy from the
compressor to reach a given cooling capacity.

Figure 125: Energy efficiency of the air-

conditioning- cold

By comparing the data, we determine the ratio

of the supplied cooling capacity and the
electric power absorbed by the compressor.

Example: these are the technical specifications of a reversible air conditioner found on the
market. We will only return to this same example in paragraph 6.6.5.4., but while
“developing” further…

Inside unit FHYB35FJ

Outside unit RY35D7
kcal/h 3 100
Cooling capacity Btu/h 12 300
kW 3,60
kcal/h 3 500
Heating capacity Btu/h 14 000
kW 4,10
Absorbed cooling kW 1,51
power heating kW 1,33

Table 14: Example de specifications of an air conditioner (B)

On this table we find:

the cooling efficiency, C.E., or COPcold (coefficient of performance in cold)

cooling capacity / absorbed power = 3,6 kW / 1,5 kW = 2,4

energy efficiency ratio, E.E.R

cooling capacity / absorbed power = 12,3 Btu/h / 1,5 kW = 8,2

And if one wishes to use the device in heating mode:

the condenser coefficient of performance, COPhot

heating capacity (to the condenser) / absorbed power = 4,1 kW / 1,3 kW = 3,2
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Remarks:

1 – Do not confuse COPcold and COPhot! The COPhot is the ratio of the heat energy
delivered to the condenser and the electrical energy demanded by the compressor (this is
a term which comes from the evaluation of the heat pump efficiency). While the COPcold
starts from the heat collected from the evaporator. Since confusion is frequent, it is not
useless to verify what is found after the COP name, when comparing the efficiency of the
machines in the manufacturer’s documents.

2 - It is also interesting to mind the overall efficiency of the installed refrigeration system,
cf. of the ratio of cold produced and the whole of the generated electric consumptions,
including the fans with exchangers, the pumps... A refrigeration system, with an excellent
efficiency, placed on the roof of a building with several stories, can see its efficiency drop
greatly if the machine is placed in the cellar and the condenser is cooled via an air sheath
which passes through the stories! The consumption of the fan will be high in the final
balance.

3 - It is very important to understand that the mechanical energy of the fans and pumps will
deteriorate in heat. This heat also decreases the cooling capacity for the units on the cold
side. So it is not only the COP or the EE which drop due to the extra electric consumption,
it is also the cooling capacity which decreases.

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6.6. POWER CONTROL: REFRIGERATION UNITS

Already covered (partially) in previous chapters / paragraphs, but let us (re)view all the
possibilities without, however, going into details on the P.I.D. controls, which you will have
the pleasure of discovering (if this is not yet the case) in the instrumentation course.

6.6.1. Two-point (on/off) compressor control

Let us apply the principle of a two-point (on/off) control to a refrigeration system.

The room thermostat acts directly on the

compressor supply. In general, it acts in
parallel on the solenoid valve placed on
the liquid line.

The pressure controllers (HP and LP

pressure controllers) can also act on the
compressor and the solenoid valve of the
liquid line, but for abnormal operation
this time.

Figure 126: Two-point (on/off) control by

start/stop of the compressor

This is how, in a simple and reliable manner, the air-conditioning cabinets, the iced water
production units...are controlled. For more powerful machines, the risk of the engine coils
heating up would be too high.

6.6.2. Two-point (on/off) control by bleeding of the evaporator (or

"pumpdown")

The principle consists of stopping the compressor operation with the LP controller,
following the cascade of events hereafter:

let us suppose that the cold level in the atmosphere has been reached: the
thermostat cuts the supply of the solenoid valve on the liquid line,

the refrigerant can no longer feed the evaporator,

the little fluid left over evaporates,

since the compressor continues to suck up the vapours, the pressure drops,

the LP controller detects the pressure deficiency and stops the compressor.
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The restart follows the same logic:

the ambient probe informs the thermostat of a rise in temperature,

the thermostat feeds the solenoid valve which opens,

the refrigerant invades the evaporator,

the pressure rises

again,

the compressor restarts

urged on by the LP
controller and the cycle
continues.

Figure 127: Two-point (on/off)

control by bleeding of the
evaporator

Remarks:

1 - This time we observe that two LP controllers will be necessary: a LP controller to stop
and restart the compressor and a pressure controller which intervenes during abnormal
operation.

2 - Following the wiring diagrams:

either the pressure controller only authorizes the restart if there is a cooling demand
(interrupters placed in series),

or the pressure controller starts the compressor even if there is no cooling demand,
which should be avoided since this leads to start-ups that are too frequent.

The advantage of this type of control is that it will empty the evaporator and the low
pressure circuit of most of the refrigerant, which might condense when the unit stops, form
drops of liquid, dangerous drops for the restart (liquid jerks at the compressor).

Furthermore, this technique lowers the compressor sump pressure. Most of the refrigerant
dissolved in the oil, evaporates thanks to this low pressure. And during restart, the oil
emulsion will be weaker. This does not, however, allow cutting the heating of the sump oil.

3 - This type of control is used often, especially when it is necessary to empty the
evaporator of refrigerant before the stop.

There are refrigeration units whose evaporator works in "direct expansion" (air treatment
module), in the iced water production units...
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6.6.3. “Progressive” control of the evaporating pressure

How to adapt the cooling capacity to the actual load of the atmosphere? The two-point
(on/off) control involves a high amount of starts and stops of the compressor, and inside
temperature fluctuations which are not very comfortable.

Consequently, we search for a more progressive adaptation of the cooling capacity to the
needs of the rooms.

Evaporating pressure controller

Let us imagine a rather weak load. The compressor will suck up the vapours of which
there are few. The suction pressure will decrease, resulting in a decrease of the
evaporating temperature, and even a risk of frost of the evaporator.

So a pressure controller is placed between the evaporator and the compressor, a valve
which will control the flow rate of the refrigerant vapours and create a head loss: the
pressure in the evaporator will stay constant but the pressure on the compressor side will
drop greatly.

Furthermore, we speak of a "constant

pressure valve”.

Figure 128: Progressive control of the

evaporating pressure

The cooling capacity will decrease, but the

compressor outlet temperatures will
increase (sometimes up to 100°C).

Of course, if the load increases, the valve opens and the fluid flow increases. At maximum
thermal load, the valve is completely open.

The evaporating pressure controller prevents the risk of frost of the evaporator, by
cancelling the risk of having a pressure so low that the evaporator frosts.

But the energy efficiency of the machine is weakened... And yet this type of control is used
frequently, when the power reduction does not exceed 40 to 50 %.

6.6.4. Control in “stages”

Like for the boiler cascades, the principle consists of dividing the task into steps!

The total cooling capacity is dispersed over several machines in parallel which will support
each other according to the power which is to be achieved.

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Various configurations are possible:

One evaporator and several compressors

Two distinct refrigeration systems in parallel

6.6.4.1. One evaporator and several compressors

Then it is often that the evaporator, itself, also

consists of several circuits. It is necessary to
balance the oil levels in the sumps by using an
interconnecting hose.

Figure 129: Control in stages – one evaporator

and several compressors

Sometimes both motorcompressors are

enclosed in the same sump.

6.6.4.2. Two distinct refrigeration systems in parallel

In this case a heat carrying fluid is

necessary to create the link between
the evaporators. This is, for example,
the case with the iced water system of
a large air-conditioning installation.

Figure 130: Control in stages – two

distinct machines

This system is recommended,

especially when the load variations are
sizeable. The assembly is simple and
reliable because the machines stay
independent.

Furthermore, it allows progressive power variation which is favourable in terms of energy

(none of the machines have a degraded operation).

Of course, the investment costs are higher than if you were to use only one big machine.
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6.6.5. Rotational speed or "inverter" control

Already described previously, but let us add this system to obtain a complete chapter

Figure 131: Control by inverter system

The classic ON/OFF control involves uncomfortable fluctuations of the evaporator

temperature and bad compressor efficiency conditions.

The compressors whose speed is varied will compress a variable volume of fluid and thus
adapt their cooling capacity to the thermal load of the room. When the difference that is
measured between the set point and the temperature in the room increases, the control
system acts on the rotational speed of the compressor whose cooling capacity increases.

This type of control is called "INVERTER". It allows variation of the compressor speed
without high efficiency losses. Note that the compressor is always started at low speed,
contrary to START/STOP operation. The peak current necessary at start-up is thus greatly
reduced.

The INVERTER technology is very promising. However, some of the old models still have
a few disadvantages such as the parasites which it introduces in the electric network or the
high cost since they are produced in smaller amounts. In a very close future, these
disadvantages should disappear (use of direct current motors for the smallest powers,
marked "CE"...) allowing the "INVERTER" system to cover the market.

With this in mind, the conventional technique with reciprocating compressor (piston and
crankshaft), of a legendary reliability, is progressively being replaced by:

⇒ The rotary compressor:

similar efficiency,

lower noise level,

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variable speed operation.

⇒ The scroll compressor:

higher efficiency,

even lower noise level,

variable speed operation

6.6.6. Taking the cylinders out of service

The cooling capacity can be adjusted by taking one or several of the piston compressor
cylinders out of service. To erase the action of a piston, it suffices to permanently keep the
suction valve open. This is a very popular method.

Such a system is simple and reliable, with an average efficiency in terms of energy. The
cylinders rotating at no-load result in a refrigeration power of 50 % for example, the
machine still absorbs about 65 % of the power demand.

Advantage: to prevent the start-up current peaks, it is possible to start the compressor at
no-load.

On the other hand, the power variation is not continuous (power trips). And, another
disadvantage: the wear of the machine is practically identical for both no-load and load
operation.

6.6.7. Closing the suction orifice

In the piston compressors, a diaphragm controlled by a solenoid valve blocks the inlet(s) of
one or several cylinders, thus reducing the flow and therefore the refrigeration system
power. This system causes the compressor to heat up, which is not favourable in terms of
energy, and involves the need to leave at least one or two cylinders without a diaphragm.

6.6.8. Control by injection of hot gas

The principle consists of relooping the hot gases, coming from the compressor, to the
evaporator inlet, right after the expansion valve. A capacity (or power) controller maintains
the evaporating pressure at the pre-set value.

While the expansion valve always controls the superheating at the evaporator outlet, so
the temperature of the vapours at the evaporator outlet stay constant.
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All this makes it possible to create a constant

refrigerant flow which crosses the evaporator.

Figure 132: Control by injection of hot gas

When the thermal load decreases (= when the

need for cooling in the rooms is low), the capacity
controller opens (it maintains the pressure by
injecting refrigerant) and hot but expanded
vapours, are an extra thermal load for the
evaporator.

Also, in the centrifugal compressors, a piping links the condenser to the evaporator, in the
part of the exchangers where the refrigerant is in a vapour state. A solenoid valve placed
on this piping normally isolates both devices (manual or automatic control).

Of course, with such a system, the evaporator power can, in practice, vary from 0 to
100 %! But this is an operation with a perverse result: if the cooling demand decreases,
and the compressor could be "made unemployed", heat is reinjected to give the
compressor work!!!

Comparison: let us imagine a pump which empties a "low" reservoir into a "high" reservoir.
To prevent it from de-energizing if there is not enough water to pump, it is reinjected with
water coming from the "high" reservoir. Thus it can continue to operate without a problem!

It is necessary to define this technique as a "pure annihilation of energy". Actually, the

absorbed power stays the same when the refrigeration power decreases. Furthermore, it
causes a heating of the motor. It is rather popular since it uses materials which are not so
costly. Insofar as possible, it is necessary to put this system out of service in existing
installations.

6.6.9. Variable displacement control of the screw compressors

The screw compressors are fit with a device which makes their power adjustable in a
range going from 100 to 10 %. The efficiency stays satisfactory, at least up to 50 % of the
nominal load. Below that, the efficiency degrades and so it is necessary to avoid these low
power operations. The interest of not over-dimensioning the installations stays decisive.

The principle consists of limiting the course of the screw: by loosening a "slide", i.e. part of
the stator which is movable by translation, the inlet area of the intake volume is modified
and the flow is modulated. Such a mechanism also makes it possible to procure a no-load
start-up of the machine.

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6.6.10. Pre-rotation of refrigerant in the turbocompressors

Rotating fins are placed in the suction piping. By closing progressively, they generate a
turning movement of the refrigerant gases penetrating the suction eye. Like for a fan, the
operation point is changed by the transfer to a new compressor characteristic curve.

This is the type of control which is found most in turbocompressors.

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7. REGULATION CONCERNING GREENHOUSE GAS

We all (more or less) have questions about the fluids used in refrigeration systems
concerning the effects on the environment if they are released in the atmosphere.

Hereafter you will find a “commentary” in the form of FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions),
drawn up in 2007 by the EPEE “European Partnership for Energy and the Environment”
concerning the European F- Gas Regulation.

EPEE represents businesses involved in the development and manufacture of equipment

which relies on Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants for refrigeration, heating and air
conditioning applications where energy efficiency and safety are crucial factors.

An ‘R’ can be added to HVAC to obtain HVACR: Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning, and
Refrigeration.

7.1. GENERAL ASPECTS

7.1.1. What are fluorinated gases?

The fluorinated gases (hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur

hexafluoride (SF6)) are new and safe gases, used in a good number of industrial
applications such as cooling, air conditioning, insulating foam, fire extinguishers, electric
connection boxes and many other systems.

The fluorinated gases have replaced the CFCs and HCFCs which have damaged the
ozone layer in the 90’s. They do not destroy the ozone layer, are slightly toxic and most of
them are non-flammable. However, they do have a relatively high global warming potential
(GWP).

7.1.2. What is the European F- Gas Regulation?

The F- Gas Regulation or “Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council
concerning emissions of fluorinated greenhouse gases” is a legislative resolution which is
directly applicable (i.e. without the need of adaptation measures) to all the members of the
European Union.

During the first half of 2006, after almost three years of intense negotiations between the
European Commission, the European Parliament, the EU Member States, the industry and
the NGOs, the regulation was finally adopted.

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The regulation covers containment requirements, records indicating dates and results of
the checks of equipment leaks, training and certification of the personnel handling the
fluorinated gases.

It also provides a ratio diagram for the producers, importers, exporters and sellers of these
gases, comprises selective prohibitions for emissive use.

7.1.3. What is the objective of the F- Gas Regulation?

The objective of the regulation is to reduce the fluorinated gas emissions covered by the
Kyoto Protocol, cf. HFC, PFC and SF6. In order to reach these objectives, the regulation
covers:

the containment, use, recovery and destruction of the HFC, PFC and SF6;

the labelling and disposal of products and equipment containing these gases;

the information reports about these gases;

the control of certain uses of these gases;

the implementation of the placing on the market prohibitions for certain products
and equipment ;

the training and certification of personnel and companies involved in the activities
covered by this regulation;

7.1.4. Which gases are covered by the European Regulation?

The gases covered by the European Regulation are called fluorinated gases HFC, PFC
and SF6.

7.1.5. What does the regulation prohibit?

Does the regulation prohibit the use of certain gases in the future? Does the regulation
prohibit the production of equipment using fluorinated gases in the future?

The regulation prohibits certain fluorinated gas applications. These prohibitions are
deemed appropriate since there are viable alternatives and it is not possible to improve the
containment and recovery. This is why the placing on the market of these products and
equipment is conflicting with the objectives and the engagement, of Europe and its
Member States, pertaining to climate changes.

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The table below shows the types of gas / applications which will be prohibited and the date
when they enter into force.

Greenhouse gas Products and equipment Entry into force

Fluorinated greenhouse gases Footwear 4 July 2006

Fluorinated greenhouse gases Non-refillable containers 4 July 2007

Hydrofluorocarbons and Nonconfined direct evaporation system

4 July 2007
perfluorocarbons containing refrigerants

Fire protection systems and fire

Perfluorocarbons 4 July 2007
extinguishers

Fluorinated greenhouse gases Tyres 4 July 2007

Fluorinated greenhouse gases Domestic windows 4 July 2007

Fluorinated greenhouse gases non-domestic other windows 4 July 2008

One component foams, except when

Fluorinated greenhouse gases 4 July 2008
required to meet national safety standards

Hydrofluorocarbons Novelty aerosols 4 July 2009

Table 15: Dates when HFCs will be banned according to F - Gas regulation

Nevertheless, these prohibitions are only applicable to products and equipment

manufactured after the entry into force.

Furthermore, from 1 January 2008, the use of SF6 in magnesium die-casting for
consumptions higher than 850 kg per year is prohibited. From 4 July 2007, the use of SF6
for the filling of vehicle tyres is prohibited.

This means that the use of fluorinated gases in all other products and equipment stays
legal. However, if a Member State has adopted stricter measures before 31 December
2005 (this was done in Austria and Denmark), these stricter measures can stay in place
until 31 December 2012. They must nevertheless be reported by the Member State to the
European Commission before 4 July 2007 and must be compatible with the European
Union Treaty.

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7.1.6. Which aspects of the fluorinated gas uses are regulated?

In principle the regulation does not cover fluorinated gases in terms of production and
placing on the market. It controls their use. The various points covered are the
containment, the recovery, the formation and certification of the personnel which handles
these gases, the reporting on importation, exportation and applications of these gases, the
labelling of the equipment and the control of the use and of the placing on the market of
equipment containing fluorinated gases.

By 4 July 2011, the Commission foresees the publication of a report based on the
experience of the application of this regulation.

7.1.7. Danish and Austrian situation

There have been numerous discussions and speculations on the Danish and Austrian
situation. Where do they stand now? Is the regulation in effect in these countries?

Austria and Denmark have written their own regulation which prohibits the use of
fluorinated greenhouse gases before the entry into force of the F- Gas Regulations. Their
national measures are in conflict with certain provisions of the European Regulation.
However, to achieve a political compromise, a provision has been added to the regulation
authorizing the EU Member States to keep their stricter national measures if they have
been adopted before 31/12/2005.

But these stricter measures must be reported to the European Commission before 4 July
2007 and be compatible with the EU Treaty to be authorized. In any case, these stricter
national measures can only be maintained until 31 December 2012.

7.1.8. Entry into force of the regulation

I’m lost when it concerns the entry into force of this regulation. When does it count?

The regulation entered into force on 4 July 2006. On the other hand, most of the provisions
only enter into force on 4 July 2007, with the exception of a few prohibitions underlined in
question 5 which have been applied since 4 July 2006.

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7.2. OBLIGATIONS

7.2.1. Which obligations have been changed by this regulation?

For the importer / manufacturer / user / wholesaler / etc. of equipment based on F -

Gas, which obligations have been changed by this regulation?

With this new regulation you must meet obligations which you have not had before,
especially for the containment of F- Gas and the recovery in the equipment, such as
labelling and the minimum qualification of the maintenance and operating personnel.

Containment

The operators must use all measures feasible to prevent F- Gas leaks and repair leaks in
the refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pumps as quickly as possible. Furthermore, the
operators of stationary systems containing more than 3kg of F- Gas must keep records,
indicating the types and quantities of F- Gases used, amongst others.

Recovery

From 4 July 2007, the operators are responsible for the placement of a correct F- Gas
recovery by certified personnel in the refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump circuits
to ensure their recycling, reclamation or destruction; for equipment containing F- Gas
based solvents, fire extinguishers and high-voltage switchgears…

Labelling

From 4 July 2007, the equipment placed on the market must have a label indicating the
name of the F- Gas and a clear signal that this product contains a fluorinated greenhouse
gas and the quantity. Information on the F- Gas, along with its global warming potential,
must be part of the instructions for these products and equipments.

The manufacturers, wholesalers and installers of equipment must consider who will do the
labelling, while keeping in mind that the labels must be indelible and affixed when they are
placed on the market, but that the connected demands can be determined before.

Those responsible for the instructions which accompany the material must make sure that
the information on the fluorinated gases and their global warming potential are included
therein.

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Minimum qualification for the service and maintenance personnel

The regulation determines bottom line conditions and a mutual recognition of the company
and of its personnel involved in the installation, maintenance and servicing of the
equipment and systems containing F- Gas, along with the personnel in charge of
containment and recovery.

Prohibitions

A few specific uses of F- Gas and of products containing F- Gas are controlled or
prohibited by the regulation. They cover the use of sulphur hexafluoride in magnesium die-
casting, the use of certain F- Gas in non-refillable containers, non-confined
direct-evaporation systems containing refrigerants, fire protection systems, tyres and one
component foams, amongst others.

7.2.2. What does this change for the importer / producer?

For the importer / producer, etc. of fluorinated gases, which obligations have been
changed by this regulation?

With the entry into force of the new regulation you must meet obligations which you have
not had before:

Producers, exporters and importers of fluorinated gases are obligated to report.

There are labelling obligations for the containers of fluorinated gases, which go
beyond those in the pressurized equipment directive (chemical name and quantity
of gas). Furthermore it must be specified that the container contains a greenhouse
gas covered by the Kyoto Protocol. Finally, it is possible that the GWP of the
fluorinated gas must be specified on the documents used during transport – this
requirement has to be decided by the Commission.

The placing on the market of non-refillable containers with fluorinated greenhouse

gases is prohibited from 4 July 2007 (see the table in the answer to question 6.1.5

7.2.3. Containment

I have heard that the containment is one of the key aspects of this regulation. What
can I do to prevent any kind of leakage?

In the refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump industries, the operators of stationary
equipment containing HFCs must use “all measures which are technically feasible and do
not entail disproportionate cost” to prevent leakage of these gases and repair any detected
leakage as soon as possible.
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What are the leakage checking requirements?

Manual and periodical leakage checks must be carried out by certified personnel with
the following frequency:

Systems containing >3kg of F- Gas (except for hermetically sealed systems

<6kg) – a check every 12 months.

Systems containing >30kg of F- Gas, a check every 6 months

Systems containing >300kg of F- Gas, a check every 3 months.

These systems must be checked for leakage within one month after a leak has been
repaired to ensure that the repair has been effective.

“Leakage check” means that the equipment or system is examined primarily for leakage
using direct or indirect measuring methods, focusing on those parts of the equipment or
system most likely to leak. The direct and indirect measuring methods of checking for
leakage will be specified in the standard checking requirements which need to be
established by the Commission by the middle of 2007.

For the purposes of these inspection requirements, operators of the systems containing
more than 300kg of fluorinated gas will have to have installed leakage detection systems
which will have to be verified once every year. Where a properly functioning appropriate
leakage detection system is in place for systems containing more than 30kg of fluorinated
gas, the frequency of the inspections required will be halved.

Operators of the equipment containing more than 3kg of fluorinated greenhouse gas must
maintain records on the quantity and type of F-gas installed, any quantities added or
recovered during maintenance and final disposal. They must also record all other relevant
information, including the name of the company and technician who performed the
maintenance, as well as the dates and results of the checks and relevant information on
each piece of stationary equipment. These records will have to be made available on
request to the competent authority and the Commission.

Do I need leakage detection systems? Do they influence the frequency of the

inspections?

Technicians need a viable method to detect leaks in an installation containing F-Gases. All
installations containing more than 300kg must have a leakage detection system. These
systems must be checked once every year.

As indicated in the answer to the previous question 6.2.4; where a properly functioning
appropriate leakage detection system is in place for systems containing more than 30kg of
fluorinated gas, the frequency of the inspections required is halved. In any case, inspection
is required to PRECISELY LOCATE THE LEAK once it has been detected by a leakage
detection system.

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Am I responsible for the fluorinated gas recovery? If so, must I use outside
personnel or is my personnel allowed to take action?

Those responsible for the recovery of fluorinated gases are the:

Operators of refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump circuits

Operators of equipment containing fluorinated gas-based solvents

Operators of fire protection systems and fire extinguishers

Operators of high-voltage switchgear (high-voltage circuit breakers).

An operator is defined as follows “a natural or legal person exercising actual power over
the technical functioning of the equipment and systems”.

The operators must put in place arrangements for the proper recovery and destruction, by
certified personnel, of fluorinated gases contained in these equipments. When a refillable
or non-refillable F gas container reaches the end of its life, the person utilising the
container for transport or storage is responsible for putting in place arrangements for the
recovery of any residual fluids.

The fluorinated gases contained in other products and equipment, including mobile
equipment (unless it serves for military operations) must, to the extent that it is technically
feasible and does not entail disproportionate cost, be recovered by appropriately qualified
personnel.

When is it necessary to recover the fluorinated gases?

Recovery of fluorinated gases for recycling, reclamation or destruction must take place
before the disposal of the equipment and, if necessary, during its maintenance and
servicing. Fluorinated gases must not be emitted into the atmosphere.

7.2.4. Obligations to report

I have understood that the industry will have to meet obligations to report. What are
they? Who do I report to? What do I report? What happens with the data that I
report?

For the F- Gases themselves, it is only required to keep records of the application of
fluorinated gases (loaded into the systems, recovered from the systems, etc.). These
records must be made available on request to the authority of the EU Member States and
to the Commission.

The details will be established by each Member State. You must contact the competent
authority or the syndicate in your own country for more information.
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For the specific case of producers and importers of fluorinated gases the following
reporting requirements are established:

On 31 March 2008 and every following year, each producer, importer or exporter of
fluorinated gases must report to the Commission (and to the competent authority of the
Member State concerned), by means of a written report, the following information
concerning the past civil year:

a) All producers who produce more than one tonne of fluorinated greenhouse gases per
year will report:

1. Its local production of each fluorinated gas in the Community, identifying the main
categories of applications in which the substance is expected to be used (such as
automobile air-conditioning, air conditioning, foams, aerosols, electric equipment,
solvents or fire protection)

2. The quantity of each fluorinated gas that they have placed on the market in the
Community and

3. Any quantities of fluorinated gas recycled, reclaimed or destroyed.

b) All importers who import more than one tonne of fluorinated greenhouse gases per
year, including the producers who import, will report:

1. The quantities of each fluorinated gas that they have imported or placed on the market
in the Community, separately identifying the main categories of applications (such as
automobile air-conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning, foams, aerosols, electric
equipment, manufacturing of semiconductors)

2. Any quantities of each fluorinated greenhouse gas that they have imported for
recycling, reclamation or destruction.

c) All exporters who export more than one tonne of fluorinated greenhouse gases per
year, including the producers who export, will report:

1. The quantities of each fluorinated greenhouse gas that they have exported from the
Community,

2. Any quantities of each fluorinated greenhouse gas that they have exported for
recycling, reclamation or destruction.

The precise format of the report will be established by the European Commission before 4
July 2007. The Commission will take appropriate steps to protect the confidentiality of the
information submitted to it.

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7.2.5. Labelling requirements

The regulation imposes labelling requirements. Must I label the products I sell?

The following products and equipment must have a label indicating the chemical name of
the fluorinated greenhouse gas that they contain. The label must clearly indicate that the
product or equipment contains fluorinated greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto
Protocol and their quantity.

1. Products and refrigeration equipment which contain perfluorocarbons or preparations

containing perfluorocarbons.

2. Products, refrigeration equipment and air conditioning equipment (other than those
contained in motor vehicles), heat pumps, fire protection systems and fire extinguishers,
if the type of product or equipment contains hydrofluorocarbons or preparations
containing hydrofluorocarbons.

3. Switchgears (high-voltage circuit breakers with SF6) which contain sulphur

hexafluoride or preparations containing sulphur hexafluoride, and

4. All fluorinated greenhouse gas containers.

Where are the labels to be placed?

The labels must be clear and indelible and placed on the product or equipment adjacent to
the service points for charging or recovering the F-Gases, or on a part of the equipment
which contains the fluorinated gases (thermostatic expansion valves, etc…). The
hermetically sealed systems must be labelled as such.

How and where can I obtain the label?

Please contact your syndicate representing the industrial sector of the use of fluorinated
gases for more information.

When does the labelling requirement enter into force?

The labelling requirements, like most of the requirements in this regulation, are applicable
from 4 July 2007.

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7.3. TRAINING OF PERSONNEL

What are the requirements for the training of personnel in this new regulation?

Minimum requirements for training of personnel and qualification of companies involved in

the installation, maintenance and servicing of equipment covered by this regulation, will be
enacted by Europe on 4 July 2007. On the basis of these requirements the EU Member
States will have to establish and adapt their own training programmes and certification by
4 July 2008. Every certificate issued from a Member State will have to be recognized by all
the other EU Member States.

The operator must ensure that the personnel have the necessary certification to perform
the follow-up, checks, and recoveries provided by this regulation. This involves knowledge
of applicable regulations and standards and competence when it comes to preventing
emissions, recovering F gases and manipulating equipments according to their type and
dimensions.

Furthermore, from 4 July 2009, the companies can only take delivery of fluorinated gases
if the personnel in charge hold the appropriate certificate.

Is the current personnel subject to extra training and certification tests?

From July 2007 Europe will establish minimum requirements concerning the training and
certification of the personnel and company involved in installation, maintenance or
servicing of the equipments and systems. On the basis of these requirements, the EU
Member States will have to establish and adapt their own training programs and
certification (by July 2008). This will also apply to current personnel which will have to
follow extra training by lack of appropriate certificates.

Must the maintenance personnel come from another company?

No. It is allowed if the company’s personnel have obtained the appropriate training
certificates and necessary certification.

7.4. PENALTIES

What will happen if I decide not to apply the regulation?

If an operator or a company does not respect the requirements of the regulation and their
implications, they will be subject to penalties. The amount of these sanctions must be
established by each Member State. However, the regulation specifies that the penalties
must be effective, proportionate and dissuasive.

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7.5. REVIEW OF THE REGULATION

Is this regulation engraved in stone or can it be modified later? If so, by which

process and who determines the modifications?

No, the regulation is not engraved in stone. On the basis of the potential containment or
replacement of fluorinated greenhouse gases in the air-conditioning systems, other than
those fitted to motor vehicles and refrigeration in mobile transport, the Commission will
review this regulation and publish a report on 31 December 2007 (at the latest). If
necessary this report will be accompanied by legislative proposals on 21 December 2008
for the application of the containment requirements to air-conditioning systems, other than
those fitted to motor vehicles and refrigeration in mobile transport.

Furthermore, on 4 July 2011, the Commission will publish a report based on the
experience of the application of this regulation. This report will cover a large number of
aspects, such as the:

Measure of the impact of various requirements pertaining to fluorinated greenhouse

gas emissions and future projections with a study of the cost-effectiveness report of
these requirements

Evaluation of the training programs and certification established by the EU Member

States

Evaluation of the efficiency of the containment measures taken by the operators

and the possibility of setting maximum leakage rates for the installation, and

Evaluation of the overall need for Europe and its Member States to perform extra
efforts in the light of new international decisions for the reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions.

Where necessary, the Commission can also propose a revision of certain requirements of
this regulation.

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8. BASIC SERVICING
The “PFD” shows the principle of air-conditioning in a pool area; this is not the ideal
application to compare with the oil sites, but so be it. When it concerns the AC of a whole
building (in tropical regions) comprising electric technical rooms, instrumentation, radio….
plus offices, plus….there are quite a lot of people who need air conditioning.

Figure 133: Example of an air-conditioning installation in “PFD”

Open the door of the air-conditioning room; it is impressive to see the amount of material.
(Many operators rarely enter the AC technical room...)

Yet, knowing how to read a PFD is the task of an operator. Operating, checking if
everything is running smoothly, if the controllers are “on line”, if the temperatures,
pressures….are OK; this is always done by the operator.

To this PFD, add all the checking instruments, transmitters, monitors, valves, etc…and it
becomes a P&ID, the operator’s main tool; but the operator does not take care of the air-
conditioning, refrigeration on “our” sites.

The collectors, transmitters, control loops, control valves, etc….are a specialty of the
instrument technician.

The logic controllers and programming are handled by the system specialist.

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The electric distribution power and control is for the electrician. From the moment this
electrician understands a wiring diagram, he should be able to manage (in his field). But
the diagrams of (small) ACs (when they are available), are quite often a mixture of instrum
+ elec + unknown symbols + mechanics + pneumatics +etc….

The piping (copper, steel, PVC), weldings, soldering or brazing, connections, etc…are
meant for the plumber…but since there is no plumber on the site the mechanic will be
asked to take care of this, if the installation is big, of the whole mechanical section of the
AC material (compressors, exchangers….motor alignments, etc.). If a distribution by ducts
is in place, the mechanic will also have to perform the “clanky job” associated with this
type of installation (clappers, dampers, filters, etc…)

In short, in AC there is something for everybody and, above all, the one who takes care of
this AC must know how it works and have an understanding of the refrigeration cycle or
the Mollien diagram.

Figure 134: Example of an air-conditioning installation (B)

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To perform the servicing of a “small” air-conditioning such as a split system, you have
sufficient indications and tools in these two courses:

EXP-PR-UT020 “HVAC” where you will indeed find more “advice” concerning
servicing / maintenance (1st course written for the operators, and at the time, a
“follow-up” for maintenance had not yet been envisaged…).

EXP-MN-SE170, this course, in the following chapter.

While for the servicing of an installation such as the one on the 2nd “PFD”, refer to the
operating manuals and maintenance manuals and instructions (complementary, not per se
found in the maintenance manuals) which can consist of thousands of pages that are
impossible to reproduce here, considering all the various types of materials possible.

You will need all the operation, maintenance and control instructions and the diagrams of
all their materials in the manufacturers’ catalogues. You will need to associate the P&ID’s,
wiring diagrams and instrumentation specific to your site, without forgetting the automatic
sequences on API (or PLC).

Example of a manufacturer’s instructions for the “Global Chiller” type 30GY by Carrier

Figure 135: “Global Chiller” from Carrier

The instructions represent:

- Installation and operation: 12 pages
- Servicing, operation: 44 pages
- Control: 36 pages
- Wiring diagrams: 17 pages

The manufacturer’s instruction alone consists of a total of 109 pages for just one single
refrigeration unit (frequent on site). You can understand why this course does not contain
more details on the maintenance of AC devices …

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9. CREATING AND MAINTAINING YOUR AIR-CONDITIONING

Here we will “discuss” the split system.

This type of air-conditioning is used very frequently on our sites; in offices,

accommodations and technical rooms.

It is mainly used to operate in refrigeration, but it is necessary to know that a split system
can be reversible and produce heat, if it is meant for that, obviously.

The split system is also found in homes; there is even a tendency to prefer them over the
“window” type.

This course is meant for technicians who are likely to maintain the HVAC installations, but
also for “others” such as the operators, for example; so it must supply information useful
for the installation and maintenance of an air-conditioning unit (split system as it happens).

Consequently, if you decide to mount and subsequently maintaining an AC, and even if
you are not a specialist, here are a few recommendations / advices.

9.1. INSTALLATION

9.1.1. Safety above all

IMPORTANT: Any air conditioner is a piece of electric equipment which demands very
serious precautions for installation for the safety of the persons and a prolonged life of the
device.

In all cases, an air conditioner which is to be installed must be placed properly; if you know
“what to do”, if you are (more or less) a specialist, no problem, if not you will need
“professional” help.

The units must comply with the European Low-Voltage (CEE/73/23) and
Electromagnetic Compatibility (CEE/89/336) Directives. This for a site, place
governed by the European Standards.

Verify if the power supply in the area of installation is of 230 Volts (minimum 198
Volts - maximum 264 Volts).

The installation’s wall power socket must always have an earthing.

Do not place the air conditioner in a humid room, under dripping water (ex:
clothes hung to dry).

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Do not use damaged material. In case of a malfunction, stop the air conditioner
and unplug it.

Only use your air conditioner for accredited applications: refrigeration,

dehumidification…

The air conditioners contain a refrigerant. The servicing of the refrigerant circuit
can only be performed by a person who knows the principles of refrigeration and
not by an inexperienced “helper”.

The air conditioners contain a refrigerant which requires elimination according to

the prescriptions. When you get rid of the air conditioner at the end of its life, it
must be taken apart carefully. Bring the air conditioner to the appropriate waste
collection point for recycling.

It is recommended to install a thermal magnetic circuit breaker or a 16 Amp

safety fuse upstream of the main interrupter, and this on a specific circuit
dedicated to this air conditioner ; (and not on a circuit of power sockets)

The presence of an adult is required if the air conditioner is used for children or
handicapped persons.

Keep the air conditioner and its remote control out of reach of children; this is not
a toy.

9.1.2. Installation principles

A condensate removal pipe (water produced by condensation of the hot air on the cold
exchanger) must be connected behind the inside unit. During hot periods an air conditioner
can naturally produce several litres of water.

Make sure this water is removed (in a wastewater line or rainwater outlet) or collected (for
example in a flower box) to prevent it from causing damages.

On some offshore platforms, recovery circuits are installed in order to be able to use this
source of fresh water.

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1 - Front panel frame

2 - Front panel

3 - Air filter

4 - Blower grid

5 - Fins for air flow orientation

6 - Ambient temperature probe

7 - Display

8 - Infrared receiver

9 - Remote control

10 - Connecting duct with the outside unit (refrigerant

feed and return pipes + electrical connection +
thermal insulation)

11 - Connecting cable

12 - Block valves

Figure 136: Diagram of the installation principle of a Split air conditioner

9.1.3. Course of an installation

In all cases, scrupulously read and respect the installation manual supplied with the
device.

1 - Fastening the inside unit support

It is important at this stage, to have checked if

the clearings necessary for the good operation
of the air conditioner have been well-respected.
The inside unit must be perfectly horizontal. Be
very careful at the place where the wall is
perforated for the passage of the ducts
(precisely check if the place where the duct
exits is in the right place)

Figure 137: Fastening the inside unit support

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2 - Fastening the inside unit to its support

Before attaching the inside unit to its support,

you must make sure that the condensate
removal pipe (not the device) is slightly tilted
so that nothing hinders the evacuation.

Figure 138: Fastening the inside unit

The inside unit, especially if it is a “cassette” type mounted on the ceiling, is most probably
equipped with a condensate removal pump; see hereafter.

3 - Fastening the outside unit supports

Before attaching the outside unit supports,

make sure to perfectly position these
supports in alignment with the exit of the
ducts in the wall. The supports must be
attached perfectly horizontally.

Figure 139: Fastening the outside unit

supports

4 – Installing the outside unit

The outside unit must be placed on silentblocs

which cushion the compressor vibrations,
whether the unit is placed on the wall (like the
figure) or placed on the ground (on a concrete
foundation). All that remains to be done is to
connect the refrigeration connection to the
outside unit, the electric cables to the terminal
board and the condensate removal to the most
appropriate place.

If the refrigeration connection is too long, you

can (like this example) make a coil behind the
outside unit to compensate the excess length.

Figure 140: Fastening / placing the outside unit

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Before the switch-on, you must actuate the valves which allow the refrigerant to circulate.
In some cases, you will have to bleed the air out of the refrigeration connection tube
according to a precise procedure indicated in the installation manual.

CAREFUL: New air conditioners operating with ecological fluids have an internal charge of
about 40 bar. Incorrect installation can cause a powerful and dangerous leak (explosion
hazard).
This supposes a pre-loaded refrigerant circuit. If it is necessary to fill the pipes (and the
devices) see the operator course and the paragraph below on this subject.

5 - Connecting the refrigeration connection

Figure 141: Pre-insulated lines for air-conditioning installations

The refrigeration tubes must be connected perfectly with their homologues exiting the
inside unit and the wall.

Some manufacturers supply connecting tubes which are pre-loaded with refrigerant (I have
never seen any and they don’t seem easy to use …); some have quick couplers for the
connection, others do not (flares, overloaded compressors...).

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Figure 142: Reliable coupling nut between the pre-insulated tubes and the Split units.

Using pre-insulated lines is more “rigorous” than installing copper tubes and insulating
them afterwards, anyhow, nowadays practically only pre-insulated lines are used, like in
the example in the figure. The insulant is usually polyethylene based “foam” and (now) you
can get it in the colour you desire …

While for the connections, you can use the “archaic” principle with a flare, compression
connections and/or the new systems like on the figure.

See the operator course for details on materials and methods for connections.

6 - Connecting the condensate removal pump

The pump is automatically started and stopped by a level switch (LSH and LSL).

If your ceiling unit starts “to rain”, it means that the level switch is jammed, which happens
(relatively) often. It is especially important to check and clean this switch system during the
simple cleaning maintenance.

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Figure 143: Connecting the condensate removal pump

A: Annealed suction tube Ø 16 mm

B: Translucent tube Ø 7 mm

C: Condensate evacuation pump

D: Discharge pipe Ø 7 mm inner

diam. (3m supplied with the kit)

E: Water level detector

Figure 144: Condensate removal pump circuit

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9.2. INSTALLATION ADVICE

9.2.1. Selecting the position

Avoid exposure to heat sources, humidity, oil vapours or pollutants.

Look for the position which procures the best air distribution in the room.

Place the outside unit as close as possible to the inside unit.

Keep the condensate removal in mind before choosing the position.

Figure 145: Choosing an appropriate place for the inside unit

Avoid all obstacles in front of the air

diffusion and the recirculation

Do not place the unit in the sun or

close to a heat source

Do not place in a place subject to high

frequency waves. Careful in the radio
rooms, instrument rooms

Figure 146: Beware of high frequency waves

9.2.2. Connecting the condensate duct

Avoid connecting the condensate tube to the main drainage without an adapted
siphon. Respect a sloping adapted to the discharge pressure.

Be sure to perfectly connect the condensate removal and to not create a reverse
slope for the removal.

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Figure 147: Correct installation of the condensate removal duct

9.2.3. Connecting the fluid lines and electric cables

Figure 148: Connecting fluid lines and electric cables properly

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Careful not to crush the lines during the installation.

Avoid all excessive difference in elevation between the inside and outside unit (see
the installation manual which stipulates the maximum lengths and difference in
elevation)

Beware of badly tightened electric connections.

DO NOT DISCONNECT THE REFRIGERANT LINES ONCE THE INSTALLATION

HAS BEEN COMPLETED (yes; there are people who have done this!)

In general, avoid elbows and excessive lengths between the two split system units
(see the installation manual)

9.2.4. Refrigerant filling

Everything is installed and connected but the air and humidity left inside the refrigeration
system (ducts and devices), and if they are left inside (together with the refrigerant), will
have the following undesired effects:

The pressure in the installation increases.

The current increases.

The cooling (or heating) efficiency decreases.

The humidity in the cooling circuit can freeze and block the small capillary tubes.

The water can cause corrosion phenomena of the components in the cooling
system.

Consequently, the inside and outside units and the tubes placed between inside unit and
outside unit must be checked for leaks and cleaned / drained to remove the elements
which do not condense and the humidity in the system, and only then can they be
loaded with refrigerant.

Also see operator course EXP-PR-UT020

Preparation

Check that all tubes (the lateral gas distributors and those for liquid) between the inside
unit and outside unit have been connected properly and that all the wiring, necessary for
verification, has been placed. Remove the service valve caps on both the gas side (high
pressure) and liquid side (low pressure) on the outside unit. Make sure that both service
valves of the gas and liquid sides are closed.

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9.2.4.1. Test for leaks

1. Connect the pressure gauge valve (manifold with pressure gauges) and the nitrogen
gas cylinder to the service port with the charging lines as shown in the diagram.

Figure 149: Testing for leaks and filling with refrigerant

The “Hi” (for High Pressure) valve of the manifold must always be closed.
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2. Put the installation under a pressure of at least 10 bar with nitrogen gas, by (slowly)
opening the LO (for low pressure) valve; let it pressurize and close the cylinder’s valve
when the pressure gauge indicates a pressure of 10 bar. Then, check for eventual
leaks with liquid soap.

Careful: To prevent the nitrogen from entering the cooling system in a liquid state, the
upper part of the cylinder must be higher than its bottom when you put the installation
under pressure, the cylinder must be used in a vertical position. (This is specified
because we have already seen such uses…)

3. Perform a leakage test on all the tube joints (inside and outside) and on the service
valves of the gas side and liquid side. Bubbles indicate a leak. Make sure to remove
the soap with a clean rag.

4. Once the absence of leaks in the installation has been checked, decrease the nitrogen
pressure by loosening the flexible charging line connector on the cylinder. When the
installation pressure is normal again, disconnect the flexible hose from the cylinder.
(There is no problem if nitrogen is released in the atmosphere…)

9.2.4.2. Creating a vacuum

Drawing on the right side of figure 148 (testing for leaks and filling with refrigerant)

1. Connect the end of the flexible charging line, previously connected to the nitrogen
cylinder, to the vacuum pump to remove the air and the rest (humidity, impurities…)
from the lines and the inside and outside units.

Check if the manifold’s “Lo” (Low pressure) valve is open; the “Hi” (High pressure)
valve closed. Then turn on the vacuum pump.

The operating time varies according to the length of the lines, the size of the units and
the pump capacity.

Let the pump operate until the vacuum in the system reaches 500 microns. Let the
pump operate for a few more minutes.

1 Micron = 10 -6 m or 1/1000mm here in mercury pressure in absolute value

2. Stop the pump, isolate it (with a valve) and leave the connections attached to the two
service valves. After 5 minutes, if the system cannot maintain these 500 microns or
less, check again to see if all the connections are well adjusted / tightened and repeat
the procedure for creating a vacuum.

3. When the desired vacuum has been reached, and it “keeps” five minutes, you can start
the filling with refrigerant.

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It is possible to disconnect the vacuum pump while leaving the Hi and Lo valves
closed of course, and to then bring a container with refrigerant, but it is preferable to
use an assembly like below to create the vacuum and fill with refrigerant “in the stride”.

In this case, when the vacuum has been reached and keeps long enough, while all the
valves are closed, it suffices to open the valves to the cylinder with refrigerant by
“cracking” the last valve to fill the circuits up to the recommended pressure (according
to the refrigerant and the refrigeration level).
Subsequently, when the system has been started, it will always be possible to add
refrigerant, in principle on the low pressure side.

See operator course chapter 10 & 12 for “details” and load characteristics.

Figure 150: Creating a vacuum and filling with refrigerant

For start-up and operating parameters, also see operator course EXP-PR-UT020.

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9.3. SPLIT SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

9.3.1. Servicing

To procure a healthy operation of your air conditioner, it is necessary to perform regular

servicing.

IMPORTANT: before all servicing, you must

disconnect / isolate the power supply of your air
conditioner.

Figure 151: Cleaning the “housing”

To clean the inside unit, do not use household solvents or removers. If it is very dirty, a
regular cleaning of the inside unit housing with a dry rag or moist rag or sponge is enough
to maintain its look.

Very regular cleaning (every 15 days) of the air filter prevents an accumulation of dusts
and particles which alter the efficiency and hygiene qualities of the air stirred by the inside
unit.

Most models can be opened by their front face

to provide access to the filters.

Figure 152: Opening the unit for access to the

filters

Classic air filters trap particulates and dusts in their fibres.

They are very easy to wash with soap water (or in the dishwasher at home) and must be
carefully rinsed and dried before being put back in place.

Some models have more filters which trap particulates and even odours (activated carbon
filters).

The replacement of these filters is indicated and

recommended by the manufacturer in the air
conditioner operating manual.

Figure 153: Cleaning and/or replacing the filters

And do not forget the water/LSH pump system, if the

unit has one.

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9.3.2. Trouble-shooting - diagnostic

Your air conditioner’s operating manual describes the procedures which should be
followed in case of a breakdown. However, the little guide below will help you establish a
first diagnostic.

Typical possible reasons for a breakdown

:
The light-signal devices flicker in an unusual manner

The fuse or the circuit breaker jumps or starts up often

Objects or liquids penetrating the air conditioner

The remote control does not work or works incorrectly

The air conditioner does not start

1 - Check the fuse and the circuit breaker

2 - Make sure the current arrives correctly in the power socket
3 - Replace the batteries in the remote control (batteries flat)
4 - Check for bad contacts in the remote control
5 - Erase the programming (schedule programmed incorrectly)
6 - Check the chosen operation mode and the temperature (the temperature is sufficient
compared with the one programmed)
7 - Check if the outside unit control cable is attached correctly
8 - Make sure nothing hinders the operation of the outside unit.

The unit does not cool (or does not warm)

1 - Check the operation mode (incorrect programming)

2 - Obstructed air filter (clean the filter)
3 - Open doors or windows
4 - Make sure nothing obstructs the outside unit air inlet or outlet
5 – Maybe the compressor heat protection has been triggered (wait for the compressor to
cool)

Water seeps from under the outside unit

1 - Check if the condensate removal is properly connected

2 - Make sure the inside unit is not tilted (reverse slope)
3 - Make sure the evacuation is not obstructed
4 – Check the automatic discharge system (pump and LSH / LSL)

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10. GLOSSARY

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11. FIGURES
Figure 1: Thermal comfort of AC..........................................................................................9
Figure 2: AC = silence, in offices and elsewhere ...............................................................10
Figure 3: Hygiene for all the air conditioned rooms............................................................10
Figure 4: The AC devices can be aesthetic .......................................................................11
Figure 5: All-air air-conditioning .........................................................................................16
Figure 6: All-air distribution with induction terminals ..........................................................16
Figure 7: The all-air air-conditioning with constant flow .....................................................17
Figure 8: The constant flow and induction all-air air-conditioning ......................................17
Figure 9: Variable flow all-air air-conditioning ....................................................................18
Figure 10: Variable flow and induction all-air air-conditioning ............................................18
Figure 11: Induction units with 4 or 2 tubes .......................................................................19
Figure 12: Static induction units.........................................................................................19
Figure 13: Upstream condensate recovery ........................................................................19
Figure 14: Distribution system to be balanced at the level of the dampers ........................21
Figure 15: The heat pump recovers natural energy ...........................................................30
Figure 16: Cycle and principle of the heat pump................................................................31
Figure 17: Heat pump efficiency ........................................................................................32
Figure 18: Example of heat pump efficiency ......................................................................33
Figure 19: Heat pump cycle ...............................................................................................34
Figure 20: Temperatures for a heat pump .........................................................................34
Figure 21: Movement of the cycle switchover valve of a reversible air conditioner............35
Figure 22: Air/ Air heat pump .............................................................................................36
Figure 23: Collection from the ground water table for heat pump and/or reversible air-
conditioning ................................................................................................................37
Figure 24: Horizontal ground collection system .................................................................38
Figure 25: Vertical system ground collection .....................................................................39
Figure 26: Ground temperature according to month in Europe..........................................40
Figure 27: The various ground water tables.......................................................................44
Figure 28: Type of drill hole ...............................................................................................44
Figure 29: Operation with surface waters ..........................................................................47
Figure 30: Ground coils......................................................................................................48
Figure 31: Connection: coils and solar panels ...................................................................49
Figure 32: Geothermal probe.............................................................................................50
Figure 33: Heat exchange with geothermal probe .............................................................51
Figure 34: Geothermal well................................................................................................53
Figure 35: Heat pump and solar panels .............................................................................54
Figure 36: Principle of the room air conditioner .................................................................55
Figure 37: Run cycle ..........................................................................................................55
Figure 38: Portable monobloc air conditioner and portable split system ............................56
Figure 39: Window unit ......................................................................................................57
Figure 40: Application in air / air split system.....................................................................58
Figure 41: Multi - split system ............................................................................................58
Figure 42: Application in multi – split .................................................................................59
Figure 43: Roof-top system................................................................................................59
Figure 44: Outside condenser in refrigeration....................................................................60

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Figure 45: Multi split connections: 3 evaporators are connected to one common
condenser...................................................................................................................60
Figure 46: Heating with electric resistor .............................................................................61
Figure 47: Heating with hot water unit ...............................................................................61
Figure 48: Reversible heating ............................................................................................61
Figure 49: ventilation function ............................................................................................61
Figure 50: Remote control .................................................................................................62
Figure 51: Run cycle of a two-point (on/off) controlled compressor ...................................63
Figure 52: Operation cycle of a speed controlled compressor ...........................................63
Figure 53: Distribution type VRF........................................................................................65
Figure 54: Distribution type VRF hot and cold ...................................................................67
Figure 55: Constraints of realization with VRF...................................................................67
Figure 56: Outside unit on the roof ....................................................................................68
Figure 57: Outside unit in series on the ground .................................................................68
Figure 58: “two tubes” distribution......................................................................................68
Figure 59: “three tubes” distribution ...................................................................................69
Figure 60: Energy recovery system with two tubes............................................................69
Figure 61: Classic inside unit .............................................................................................69
Figure 62: Inside unit and its control module before the covering is placed.......................70
Figure 63: Control systems ................................................................................................70
Figure 64: Only cold control ...............................................................................................71
Figure 65: Hot or cold control in cold mode .......................................................................72
Figure 66: Hot or cold control in cold mode .......................................................................72
Figure 67: Hot and cold control in cold operation only .......................................................73
Figure 68: Hot and cold control operating most of the time in cooling mode......................73
Figure 69: Hot and cold control in balanced operation.......................................................74
Figure 70: Hot and cold control operating most of the time in heating mode .....................74
Figure 71: Hot and cold control in only hot operation.........................................................74
Figure 72: Water loop energy recovery – diagram.............................................................75
Figure 73: Water loop energy recovery – implementation..................................................76
Figure 74: Fan convector unit without its casing ................................................................77
Figure 75: Fresh air supply for a fan convector unit...........................................................77
Figure 76: Air intakes on fan convector unit.......................................................................78
Figure 77: Fan with 2 reversible tubes + 2 cables..............................................................79
Figure 78: Fan convector unit type cassette on the ceiling ................................................79
Figure 79: Fan convector unit with ducts ...........................................................................80
Figure 80: ATM unit ...........................................................................................................81
Figure 81: Implementation of the ATM...............................................................................81
Figure 82: ATM control ......................................................................................................82
Figure 83: Hydrosplit modular system ...............................................................................83
Figure 84: 2 tubes fan installation - Control .......................................................................85
Figure 85: 4 tubes fan Installation - Control .......................................................................86
Figure 86: 2 tubes - 2 cables fan - Installation - Control ....................................................87
Figure 87: Air-cooled condenser........................................................................................90
Figure 88: Air-cooled condenser + water evaporator .........................................................90
Figure 89: Air-cooled condenser........................................................................................91
Figure 90: Closed cooling tower ........................................................................................91
Figure 91: Open cooling tower...........................................................................................92

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Figure 92: Condenser operation ........................................................................................92

Figure 93: The air-cooled condenser .................................................................................94
Figure 94: Fans in the condensers – axial and centrifugal.................................................95
Figure 95: Water-cooled condenser...................................................................................95
Figure 96: Air-cooled condenser........................................................................................96
Figure 97: Open cooling tower condenser .........................................................................97
Figure 98: Closed cooling tower condenser.......................................................................98
Figure 99: Reversible heat pump.......................................................................................98
Figure 100: Heat pump for placement on the roof of an industrial plant, for example........99
Figure 101: Refrigeration / heating principle ....................................................................101
Figure 102: ε = heat to the condenser/work of the compressor = Q2 / W. .......................102
Figure 103: ε = heat to the condenser/work of the compressor = Q2 / W.........................104
Figure 104: Water loop heat pump ..................................................................................107
Figure 105: 4-way cycle switchover valve........................................................................107
Figure 106: Air treatment unit ..........................................................................................108
Figure 107: Operation modes of the unit..........................................................................108
Figure 108: Extracted air recovery...................................................................................110
Figure 109: Diffusion of the air in distribution ducts .........................................................111
Figure 110: Air treatment in air-conditioning units............................................................111
Figure 111: Direct expansion refrigeration .......................................................................112
Figure 112: Refrigeration with iced water circuit. .............................................................112
Figure 113: Iced water circuit for the fresh air and the fan coil units. ...............................113
Figure 114: Condenser in refrigeration cycle ...................................................................114
Figure 115: Evaporator operation ....................................................................................116
Figure 116: Compressor operation ..................................................................................117
Figure 117: Condenser operation ....................................................................................117
Figure 118: Expansion valve and its operation ................................................................118
Figure 119: Basic refrigeration cycle................................................................................118
Figure 120: Enthalpy diagram of the refrigeration cycle...................................................119
Figure 121: Development of the fluids in the evaporator .................................................120
Figure 122: Development of the fluids in the condenser ..................................................120
Figure 123: Curves / Extract from a compressor catalogue .............................................121
Figure 124: Pressure safeties for the compressor ...........................................................122
Figure 125: Energy efficiency of the air-conditioning- cold ..............................................125
Figure 126: Two-point (on/off) control by start/stop of the compressor............................127
Figure 127: Two-point (on/off) control by bleeding of the evaporator...............................128
Figure 128: Progressive control of the evaporating pressure...........................................129
Figure 129: Control in stages – one evaporator and several compressors ......................130
Figure 130: Control in stages – two distinct machines .....................................................130
Figure 131: Control by inverter system ............................................................................131
Figure 132: Control by injection of hot gas.......................................................................133
Figure 133: Example of an air-conditioning installation in “PFD” .....................................147
Figure 134: Example of an air-conditioning installation (B) ..............................................148
Figure 135: “Global Chiller” from Carrier..........................................................................149
Figure 136: Diagram of the installation principle of a Split air conditioner........................152
Figure 137: Fastening the inside unit support ..................................................................152
Figure 138: Fastening the inside unit ...............................................................................153
Figure 139: Fastening the outside unit supports ..............................................................153

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Figure 140: Fastening / placing the outside unit ..............................................................153

Figure 141: Pre-insulated lines for air-conditioning installations ......................................154
Figure 142: Reliable coupling nut between the pre-insulated tubes and the Split units. ..155
Figure 143: Connecting the condensate removal pump ..................................................156
Figure 144: Condensate removal pump circuit ................................................................156
Figure 145: Choosing an appropriate place for the inside unit.........................................157
Figure 146: Beware of high frequency waves ..................................................................157
Figure 147: Correct installation of the condensate removal duct .....................................158
Figure 148: Connecting fluid lines and electric cables properly .......................................158
Figure 149: Testing for leaks and filling with refrigerant...................................................160
Figure 150: Creating a vacuum and filling with refrigerant ...............................................162
Figure 151: Cleaning the “housing”..................................................................................163
Figure 152: Opening the unit for access to the filters.......................................................163
Figure 153: Cleaning and/or replacing the filters .............................................................163

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12. TABLES
Table 1: various air-conditioning techniques......................................................................15
Table 2: Development of implementation of heat pumps in France ...................................33
Table 3: Comparative heat sources and efficiency ............................................................43
Table 4: Various split system combinations .......................................................................57
Table 5: Various installation possibilities for the evaporator ..............................................59
Table 6: Covering of the fan coil units................................................................................80
Table 7: Temperatures in a cooling tower..........................................................................94
Table 8: Heat pump installations in Europe .......................................................................99
Table 9: Main types of heat pumps..................................................................................100
Table 10: Example of technical specifications for a reversible air conditioner .................106
Table 11: Example of technical specifications for an ATM...............................................109
Table 12: Comparison between transfer by water and by air...........................................113
Table 13: Various types of condensation towers .............................................................114
Table 14: Example de specifications of an air conditioner (B) .........................................125
Table 15: Dates when HFCs will be banned according to F - Gas regulation ..................137

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