UNIT 1

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENT STUDIES

Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is

essentially a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our
natural world and human impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as it‘s
seeks practical answers to making human civilization sustainable on the
earth‘s finite resources. The complex relationship that exist in our natural
environment among people, animals, others organisms, water soil, air tree,
ocean, and so on. The interconnections are numerous and involve many
different disciplines. We need inputs from diverse disciplines such as biology,
botany, zoology, soil science, technology oceanography, atmospheric
science, economics, sociology, anthropology and ethics. Environmental
studies involve educating the people for preserving the quality of
environment.

Definition of the Environment

Environment is defined as the social, cultural and physical conditions that surround,
affect and influence the survival, growth and development of people, animals and
plants.

Environment includes everything around us. It encompasses both the living (biotic) and
non-living (abiotic) components of the earth.
There are four different segment of environment:

1. Atmosphere:

The air envelope surrounding the earth is known as Atmosphere. This protective
envelop surrounding earth sustain life on earth and protect us from unfriendly
environment of outer space. It consists of life saving gases like O2 for human beings
and animals and CO2 for plants.

2. Hydrosphere:

It covers more than 75% of the earth surface either as oceans or as fresh water.
Hydrosphere includes sea, rivers, oceans, lakes, ponds, streams etc.

3. Lithosphere:

The solid component of the earth is called Lithosphere, which includes soil, earth, rocks
and mountains etc.

4. Biosphere:

This segment of environment consists of atmosphere (air- 02, N2, C02). Lithosphere
(land- minerals, salts, food, nutrients) and hydrosphere (water- dissolved oxygen, Salts)
which influences and support the entire biotic and abiotic life systems.
Scope of Environmental Studies

Read and understand

[As we look around at the area in which we live, we see that our surroundings
were originally a natural landscape such as a forest, a river, a mountain, a
desert, or a combination of these elements. Most of us live in landscapes that
have been heavily modified by human beings, in villages, towns or cities. But
even those of us who live in cities get our food supply from surrounding
villages and these in turn are dependent on natural landscapes such as
forests, grasslands, rivers, seashores, for resources such as water for
agriculture, fuel wood, fodder, and fish. Thus our daily lives are linked with
our surroundings and inevitably affects them. We use water to drink and for
other day-to-day activities. We breathe air, we use resources from which food
is made and we depend on the community of living plants and animals which
form a web of life, of which we are also a part. Everything around us forms
our environment and our lives depend on keeping its vital systems as intact
as possible.

Our dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without

protecting the earth‘s environmental resources. Thus most traditions refer to
our environment as ‗Mother Nature‘ and most traditional societies have
learned that respecting nature is vital for their livelihoods. This has led to
many cultural practices that helped traditional societies protect and preserve
their natural resources. Respect for nature and all living creatures are not
new to India.
The industrial development and intensive agriculture that provides the goods
for our increasingly consumer oriented society uses up large amounts of
natural resources such as water, minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc.
Non renewable resources, such as minerals and oil are those which will be
exhausted in the future if we continue to extract these without a thought for
subsequent generations. Renewable resources, such as timber and water,
are those which can be used but can be regenerated by natural processes
such as regrowth or rainfall. But these too will be depleted if we continue to
use them faster than nature can replace them. For example, if the removal of
timber and firewood from a forest is faster than the regrowth and regeneration
of trees, it cannot replenish the supply. And losses of forest cover not only
depletes the forest of its resources, such as timber and other non-wood
products, but affect our water resources because an intact natural forest acts
like a sponge which holds water and releases it slowly. Deforestation leads
to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers once the rains are over. Such multiple
effects on the environment resulting from routine human activities must be
appreciated by each one of us, if it is to provide us with the resources we
need in the long-term. Our natural resources can be compared with money in
a bank. If we use it rapidly, the capital will be reduced to zero. On the other
hand, if we use only the interest, it can sustain us over the longer term. This
is called sustainable utilization or development.

Scope of Environmental Studies

The scope of environmental studies is very wide and it deals with many areas like

 Conservation and management of natural resources (like forest and water

resources etc.)
 Conservation of bio diversities (like ecosystem and landscape diversity etc.)
 Control of environmental pollutions (like air, water, soil, noise etc)
 Control of human population
 Replacement of development like urbanization, economic growth
(industrialization) with sustainable development.

1. Developing an awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its related
problems.
2. Motivating people for active participation in environmental protection and
improvement.
3. Developing skills for active identification and development of solutions to
environmental problems.
4. Imbibe and inculcate the necessity for conservation of natural resources.
5. Evaluation of environmental programmes in terms of social, economic, ecological
and aesthetic factors.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The environment studies make us aware about the importance of protection and
conservation of our mother earth and about the destruction due to the release of
pollution into the environment. The increase in human and animal population, industries
and other issues make the survival cumbersome. A great number of environment issues
have grown in size and make the system more complex day by day, threatening the
survival of mankind on earth. Environment studies have become significant for the
following reasons:

Environment Issues are being of Global: It has been well recognized that
environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid rain, marine pollution
and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and hence require
international efforts and cooperation to solve them.

Development and Environment:

Development leads to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Telecommunication and

Transportation Systems, Hi-tech Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become
phased out in the developed world. The North intentionally moves their dirty factories to
South to cleanse their own environment. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in
ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Development of the rich countries
of the world has undesirable effects on the environment of the entire world.

Explosive Increase in Pollution:

World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planet lives in India.
Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land
area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural
experts have recognized soil health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and
organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.

Need for an Alternative Solution:

It is essential, especially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an

alternative goal. We need a goal as under:

 A true goal of development with an environmentally sound and sustainable

development.

 A goal common to all citizens of our planet earth.

 A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming
wasteful societies of the ―developed‖ world.

It is utmost important for us to save the humanity from extinction because of our
activities constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of
development.

Need for Wise Planning of Development

Our survival and sustenance depend on resources availability. Hence Resources

withdraw, processing and use of the products have all to be synchronized with the
ecological cycle. In any plan of development our actions should be planned ecologically
for the sustenance of the environment and development.
Need for public awareness

The need of the hour is to make the public aware of the consequences of the
environmental degradation, if not corrected and reformative measures undertaken,
would result in the extinction of life. In today‘s world because of industrialization and
increasing population, the natural resources has been rapidly utilized and our
environment is being increasingly degraded by human activities, so we need to protect
the environment. It is not only the duty of government but also the people to take active
role for protecting the environment, so protecting our environment is economically more
viable than cleaning it up once, it is damaged. The role of mass media such as
newspapers, radio, television, etc is also very important to make people aware
regarding environment. There are various institutions, which are playing positive role
towards environment to make people aware regarding environment like BSI (Botanical
Survey of India, 1890), ZSI (Zoological Survey of India, 1916), WII (Wild Life Institute of
India, 1982) etc. It is also necessary to face the various environmental challenges and
to act accordingly to make the acts eco-friendly. The major challenges ahead are the
following:

Population: A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent

every year. Over 17 million people are added each year. India accounts for 16 % of the
world population, but with only 2.4 per cent of the land area. This makes considerable
pressure on the natural resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the
greatest challenge before us is to limit the population growth. Although the population
control does automatically lead to development, yet the development leads to a
decrease in population growth rates. For this development to be happened, knowledge
of the women is essential. The future population growth has to be linked to the resource
base in order to have sustainable development.

Poverty Alleviation: India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The
poverty and environmental degradation are inter-dependent. The vast majority of our
people are directly dependent on the natural resources of the country for their basic
needs of food, fuel, fodder and shelter. About 65 % of Indians are poor and about 40%
of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment degradation has adversely
affected the poor who depend upon the natural resources of their immediate
surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge of environment
degradation are two facets of the same challenge. The population growth is essentially
a function of poverty.

Agricultural Growth: The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and
increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment. Fertilizers and
pesticides are causing major threats to the environment in the form of soil and water
pollution. It is evident that it is very difficult that these chemicals will be kept out of soil,
water and food chain if they are extensively and continuously used in crop production.
Highly intensive agriculture has caused soil salinity and damage to the physical
structure of soil.

Protecting Ground Water from pollution: Because of intensive agriculture, increase

in number of industries, rapid urbanization and population growth, the need for water is
growing at a faster rate. This leads to the fast depletion of groundwater table. It is very
essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater now. Factors like community wastes,
industrial effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface
water and affected the quality of groundwater also. The need of the hour is to restore
the water quality of our rivers and other water bodies as lakes and to avoid the
groundwater pollution. Finding suitable strategies for consecration of water, provision of
safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean which are difficult challenges
ahead. Rain water harvesting and water management can help to an extent in this
regard.

Development and Forests: Forests provide raw materials for construction of houses
and for industries like paper and pulp manufacturing, packaging, fire wood and fodder
for people etc. Forests serve as catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of
water, huge dams were constructed in independent India leading to submergence of
large forest areas; displace local people and damage flora and fauna. As such, the
dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political
conflicts and scientific debate. Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries
owing to pressures of agriculture and other uses. Vast areas of forests in many states
are now converted as agricultural lands for growing hilly vegetables and plantation
crops and mining. These areas are to be brought back under forest cover. The tribal
communities inhabiting forests respects the trees and birds and animal that gives them
sustenance. We must recognize the role of these people in restoring and conserving
forests. The modern knowledge and skills of the forest department should be integrated
with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local communities. The strategies
for the joint management of forests by the government officials and tribal people should
be evolved in a well-planned way to implement afforestation.

Degradation of Land: At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha
possess any potential for production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land and 85 mha
suffers from varying degrees of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha, 40 mha are
completely unproductive. The remaining 83 mha is classified as forest land, of which
over half is denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of livestock have to be
supported on 13 mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land classified as pasture land,
most of which is overgrazed. Thus, out of 226 mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is
degraded to varying degrees. Water and wind erosion cause further degradation of
almost 150 mha This degradation is to be avoided.
Reduction of Genetic Diversity: Immediate measures to conserve genetic diversity
need to be taken at the earliest. At present most wild genetic stocks have been
disappearing from nature. The protected areas network like sanctuaries, national parks,
biosphere reserves are isolating populations. Remedial steps are to be taken to check
decreasing genetic diversity.

Evil Consequences of Urbanization: Nearly 27 per cent Indians live in urban areas.
Urbanization and Industrialization has given birth to a great number of environmental
problems that need urgent attention. Over 30 percent of urban Indians live in slums. Out
of India‘s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment
facilities. Hence, coping with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.

Air and water Pollution: Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated treatment
technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of treating their wastes. A
great number of cities and industrial areas that have been identified as the worst in
terms of air and water pollution. Acts are enforced in the country, but their
implementation is not so easy. The reason is their implementation needs great
resources, technical expertise, political and social will. Again, the people are to be made
aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement these rules.

Since our environment is getting degraded due to human activities, we need to do

something about it to sustain the quality. We often feel that government should take
proper measuring steps. But all of us are equally responsible to protect our
environment. Hence public awareness needs to be created. Both print media and
electronic media can strongly influence public opinion. Politicians should respond
positively to a strong publicly supported activity. NGOs can take active role in creating
awareness from grass root levels to the top-most policy decision makers. Environment
is an integration of both living and non-living organisms. Water, air, soil, minerals, wild
life, grass lands, forests, oceans, agriculture are all life supporting systems. Since these
natural resources are limited, and human activities are the causative factors for
environmental degradation, each one of us need to feel responsible to protect the
environment.

The activities help in creating awareness among public are

• Join a group to study nature such as WWF-I or BNHS or any other organization

• Read newspaper articles and periodicals like Down to earth, WWF-I newsletter,
BNHS, Hornbill, Sanctuary magazine.

• Discuss environmental issues with friends and relatives.

• Join local movements that support activities like saving trees in your locality, reducing
use of plastics, going for nature treks, practicing 3 Rs i.e. reduce, reuse, & recycle.

• Practice and promote good civic sense and hygiene such as enforcing no spitting or
tobacco chewing, no throwing garbage on the road and no urinating in public places.

• Take part in events organized on World Environment Day, Wildlife week etc.

• Visit a National park or sanctuary or spend time in whatever natural habitat you have
near your home.
What is an Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem
is a chain of interactions between organisms and their environment. The term
―Ecosystem‖ was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterized by the organization of both biotic and
abiotic components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also
includes the climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open
system where the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.
Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition,
biotic components can be categorized into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or
decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as
they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all
other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for
food. Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary
consumers and tertiary consumers.
 Herbivores (Primary consumers) are always herbivores as they rely on
producers for food. Eg. Rabbit, Cows etc.
 Carnivores (Secondary consumers) depend on primary consumers for
energy. Eg. Lizard, Fox etc.
 Top Carnivores (Tertiary consumers) are organisms that depend on
secondary consumers for food. Tertiary consumers can also be
carnivores or omnivores.
 Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These
organisms prey on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are
usually at the top of a food chain as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly
thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for
the ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air,
water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
Inorganic substances which are involved in mineral cycles. Ex: C, N, P, K, S, H etc.
Organic substances present in the biomass or in the environment. They form the living
body and influence the functioning of the ecosystem. Ex: Carbohydrate, proteins, lipids,
humus etc.
Climatic factors having strong influence on the ecosystem.
There are the different types of abiotic Components. These are:

1. Water
Water covers more than 70% of the earth‘s surface in one form or the other. Compared
to that, living organisms require a small amount of water to live. Water is critical to
survival.

2. Atmosphere
The atmosphere has important components like oxygen and carbon dioxide, which
animals and plants breathe to live and combine to produce carbohydrates, other organic
materials, parts of DNS, and proteins.

3. Sunlight
Sunlight is one of the most important abiotic factors and is the primary source of energy.
Plants require it for photosynthesis.

4. Soil
Soil is a critical abiotic factor. It is composed of rocks as well as decomposed plants and
animals.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that
involve the exchange of energy.
So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in
an ecosystem are:

 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.

 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one
trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers
to consumers and then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The
top-soil is the major site for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back
in various forms for the utilization by various organisms.

Food Chain
The order of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes other
and is itself consumed by another organism to transfer energy is called a food chain.
Food chain is also defined as ―a chain of organisms, existing in any natural community,
through which energy is transferred‖.
A food chain starts with a producer such as plants. Producers form the basis of the food
chains. Then there are consumers of many orders. Consumers are organisms that eat
other organisms. All organisms in a food chain, except the first organism, are
consumers.
Plants are called producers because they produce their own food through
photosynthesis. Animals are called consumers because they depend on plants or other
animals for food to get energy they need.
In a certain food chain, each organism gets energy from the one at the level below. In a
food chain, there is reliable energy transfer through each stage. All the energy at one
stage of the chain is not absorbed by the organism at the next stage.

Trophic Levels in a Food Chain

Trophic levels are different stages of feeding position in a food chain such as primary
producers and consumers of different types.
Organisms in a food chain are categorized under different groups called trophic levels.
They are as follows.
Producers (First Trophic Level) − Producers otherwise called autotrophs prepare their
food by themselves. They form the first level of every food chain. Plants and one-celled
organisms, some types of bacteria, algae, etc. come under the category of Autotrophs.
Virtually, almost all autotrophs use a process called photosynthesis to prepare food.
Consumers − At the second trophic level, there are consumers who depend upon
others for food.
 Primary Consumers (Second Trophic Level) − Primary consumers eat the
producers. They are called herbivores. Deer, turtle, and many types of birds are
herbivores.
 Secondary Consumers (Third Trophic Level) − Secondary consumers based
at the third trophic level eat plants and herbivores. They are both carnivores
(meat eaters) and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants). In a
desert ecosystem, a secondary consumer may be a snake that eats a mouse.
Secondary consumers may eat animals bigger than they are. Some lions, for
example, kill and eat buffalo. The buffalo weighs twice as much as the lions do.
 Tertiary Consumers (Fourth Trophic Level) − Tertiary consumers are animals
eating other carnivores. The secretary bird in Africa and the King Cobra
specialize in killing and eating snakes but all snakes are carnivores. The leopard
seal eats mostly other carnivores - mainly other seals, squids, and penguins, all
of which are carnivores.
Decomposers − Decomposers which don‘t always appear in the pictorial presentation
of the food chain, play an important part in completing the food chain. These organisms
break down dead organic material and wastes. Fungi and bacteria are the key
decomposers in many ecosystems; they use the chemical energy in dead matter and
wastes to fuel their metabolic processes. Other decomposers are detritivores—detritus
eaters or debris eaters.
Understanding the food chain helps us know the feeding interrelationship and
interaction between an organism and the ecosystem. It also enables us to know the
mechanism of energy flow in an ecosystem.

FOOD WEB
2. Food Web
The word ‗web‘ means network. Food web can be defined as ‗a network of
interconnected food chains so as to form a number of feeding relationships amongst
different organism of a biotic community.
A food chain cannot stand isolated in an ecosystem. The same food resource may be a
part of more than one chain. This is possible when the resource is at the lower tropic
level.
A food web comprises all the food chains in a single ecosystem. It is essential to know
that each living thing in an ecosystem is a part of multiple food chains.
A single food chain is the single possible path that energy and nutrients may make while
passing through the ecosystem. All the interconnected and overlapping food chains in
an ecosystem make up a food web.
Food webs are significant tools in understanding that plants are the foundation of all
ecosystem and food chains, sustaining life by providing nourishment and oxygen
needed for survival and reproduction. The food web provides stability to the ecosystem.
The tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers. For example, a hawk that
eats owls. Each food chain ends with a top predator and animal with no natural enemies
(such as an alligator, hawk, or polar bear).

3. Ecological Pyramids
Ecological Pyramid refers to a graphical (pyramidal) representation to show the number
of organisms, biomass, and productivity at each trophic level. It is also known
as Energy Pyramid. There are three types of pyramids. They are as follows −

Types of Ecological Pyramid

Three types of ecological pyramid exist. They are as follows:
Pyramid of Numbers
In this type of ecological pyramid, the number of organisms in each trophic level is
considered as a level in the pyramid. The pyramid of numbers is usually upright except
for some situations like that of the detritus food chain, where many organisms feed on
one dead plant or animal.
The pyramid of numbers represents the number of individuals at each tropic level. The
shape of pyramid of numbers can be upright, partly upright and inverted depending on
the type of ecosystem.
Aquatic and Grassland ecosystems:
In aquatic and grassland ecosystems, the numbers of producers are always more than
that of primary consumers. Thus, the producer organisms remain in abundance near the
base of the food chain and the consumers gradually decrease in number towards the
apex. As a result, the shape of the pyramid is upright.
Forest Ecosystem
In a forest ecosystem, there is less number of producers that support a greater number
of herbivores who in turn support a lesser number of carnivores. The shape of the
pyramid of numbers is partly upright or spindle type.

Parasitic Food chain

In a parasitic food chain, one primary producer supports numbers of parasites which
again support still more hyper parasites. The pyramid is inverted in shape because the
producers are least in number and the predators are greater in number as we move up
the food chain.
Pyramid of Biomass
In this particular type of ecological pyramid, each level takes into account the amount
of biomass produced by each trophic level. The pyramid of biomass is also upright
except for that observed in oceans where large numbers of zooplanktons depend on a
relatively smaller number of phytoplanktons.

Upright Pyramid of Biomass

Ecosystems found on land mostly have pyramids of biomass with large base of primary
producers with smaller trophic level perched on top, hence the upright pyramid of
biomass.
The biomass of autotrophs or producers is at the maximum. The biomass of next trophic
level, i.e. primary consumers is less than the producers. Similarly, the other consumers
such as secondary and tertiary consumers are comparatively less than its lower level
respectively. The top of the pyramid has very less amount of biomass.

Inverted Pyramid of
Biomass
On the other hand, a reverse
pyramidal structure is found in most aquatic ecosystems. Here, the pyramid of biomass
may assume an inverted pattern. However, pyramid of numbers for aquatic ecosystem
is upright.
In a water body, the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grow and reproduce rapidly.
In this condition, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the producer biomass at
the base providing support to consumer biomass of large weight. Hence, it assumes an
inverted shape.

Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of energy is the only type of ecological pyramid, which is always upright as the
energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional. Also, with every increasing trophic
level, some energy is lost into the environment.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning
thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:
1. Natural Ecosystems
They operate by themselves under natural conditions without any interference by
humans. They are classified as:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem
2. Artificial Ecosystems

These ecosystems are controlled and manipulated by humans. These are

created by humans in order to fulfill certain needs. They are sub classified into
the following two types:
  Agriculture Ecosystem
 Aquaculture Ecosystem

Natural Ecosystems
.
Terrestrial Ecosystem

The terrestrial ecosystem refers to the ecosystem of different land forms only. The
atmosphere in the terrestrial ecosystem is quite different from the aquatic ecosystem.
The major types of ecosystems are forest, desert, rain forest, grassland, tundra,
savanna and mountain ecosystem.

 Rain-forest Ecosystem

The atmosphere in the rain forest regions is very adorable. This ecosystem is covered
with green views all around this region. The excessive rainfall provides a dense
environment in the rain forest ecosystem. This is why you can find different varieties of
plants & animals in the rain forest ecosystem.
  Desert Ecosystem

Desert ecosystem has a high amount of flora & fauna. The desert ecosystem has
covered almost 17% of the Earth‘s surface. Excessive temperature, extreme sunshine,
less water available, etc. do not allow a variety of plants & animals to live in a desert
ecosystem. You can find some plants such as cactus in the desert ecosystem. These
types of plants can conserve water as much as they can. In this region, we can find
animals like camels, reptiles, a few insects, etc.

 Forest Ecosystem

The forest ecosystem has a huge variety of flora and fauna living together in a specific
area. There are different types of forest ecosystems based on climatic conditions such
as tropical, temperate, boreal, etc.
In a tropical ecosystem, we can find a large variety of vegetation as compared to
another terrestrial ecosystem. This is the reason that you will always find tropical
regions loaded with lush green landscapes.

On the other hand, the temperate regions the ecosystem may be coniferous, deciduous,
or a combination of both. The forest ecosystem is one of the crucial terrestrial
ecosystems that provide shelter to thousands of plant & animal species.

 Tundra Ecosystem

There is limited life in the tundra ecosystem due to the harsh environment of this region.
The tundra region refers to the lower altitudes of polar areas. Most of the time in a year,
the land in this region is covered with snow, which makes the survival very tough. This
is the reason for the limited flora & fauna found in this kind of ecosystem.

 Savanna Ecosystem

Most of people have a perception that savannas are similar to deserts. The savannas
ecosystem is a little different from the desert ecosystem due to the amount of rainfall in
savannas. Savannas get more rainfall as compare to the desert ecosystem, which
supports the life of the flora & fauna.

 Grassland Ecosystem

As the name suggests, the grassland ecosystem mainly contains grasses along with
some species of shrubs & trees. Grassland is a perfect region for grazing animals. The
atmosphere in the grassland ecosystem is quite pleasant, and the climatic
conditions are very similar to semi-arid regions. The mostly found organisms in the
grassland ecosystem are grazing animals, herbivorous, insectivorous, etc. Tropical &
temperate are typical regions of the grassland ecosystem.
  Mountain Ecosystem

The mountain ecosystem is packed with a huge variety of plants & animals. However,
survival in mountain ecosystem is quite challenging due to alpine vegetation. The
animals found on higher altitudes are covered with long & thick fur to protect themselves
from cold. The animals of the mountain ecosystem also have to spend a long period of
hibernation. The life in mountain ecosystem is quite tough in terms of habitats &
survival.

Aquatic Ecosystem

The ecosystem found in different water bodies is known as an aquatic ecosystem.

The major types of aquatic ecosystems are – marine ecosystems and freshwater
ecosystems.

 Marine Ecosystem

Marine ecosystem covers almost 70% of the area on Earth‘s surface, hence known as
one of the biggest kinds of ecosystems on the Earth. Water is the main component of
the marine ecosystem, which contains various minerals & salt dissolved in it.
Many organisms such as sharks, cephalopods, brown algae, echinoderm, corals, dino
flagellates, etc. contribute to be a part of the marine ecosystem.

 Freshwater Ecosystem

Freshwater is another type of aquatic ecosystem that covers less area as compared to
the marine ecosystem. The freshwater ecosystem covers almost 0.8% of the Earth‘s
surface. The major kinds of freshwater ecosystems are lentic, lotic, and wetlands.

Lentic ecosystem refers to stagnant water bodies such as ponds, lakes, etc. whereas
the lotic ecosystem means fast-flowing water bodies such as a river. On the other hand,
in wetland areas, the land becomes saturated and remains for a long period.

Functional components of ecosystem

There are essential functional components of the ecosystem:

Abiotic factors
Abiotic factors refer to all the non-living things present in the atmosphere. Abiotic factors
include air, water, soil, sunlight, temperature.
Biotic factors
Biotic factors relate to all the living things in the ecosystem, including:
Producers
An organism that can prepare its food by their self. Producers include all green plants
and other autotrophs.
Consumers
An organism that obtains energy by feeding on other organisms. Consumers include all
animals.
Decomposers
This organism feeds on dead and decaying matter, thus making organic nutrients
available to the ecosystem. Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and
bacteria, etc.
Biogeochemical Cycle
“Biogeochemical cycles mainly refer to the movement of nutrients and other
elements between biotic and abiotic factors.”
The term biogeochemical is derived from “bio” meaning biosphere, “geo” meaning
the geological components and ―chemical‖ meaning the elements that move
through a cycle.
The earth obtains energy from the sun which is radiated back as heat, rest all other
elements are present in a closed system. The major elements include:

 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Nitrogen
 Oxygen
 Phosphorus
 Sulphur
These elements are recycled through the biotic and abiotic components of
the ecosystem. The atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere are the abiotic
components of the ecosystem.

Types of Biogeochemical Cycles

Biogeochemical cycles are basically divided into two types:

 Gaseous cycles – Includes Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and the Water cycle.
 Sedimentary cycles – Includes Sulphur, Phosphorus, Rock cycle, etc.

Carbon Cycle

Carbon Cycle Definition

Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged among the
biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.
In the carbon cycle, plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through the
photosynthesis process and convert this CO2 and water into oxygen and carbohydrates,
which they need for growth. Animals breathe in this oxygen, eat the plants and use the
carbon of carbohydrates to build their own tissues. These animals return carbon di
oxide into the air, when they breathe and when they die, as the carbon is returned to the
soil during decomposition. The carbon atoms in the soil may then be used in a new
plant or small organisms. When we burn fossil fuels like oil, the carbon in the fuel
combines with atmosphere oxygen to form carbon di oxide.
Carbon exists in the non-living environment as
  Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and by forming bicarbonates, it gets dissolved
in water.
 Carbonate rocks (like limestone CaCO3)
 Deposits of coal, petroleum and natural gas derived from living things.
 Dead organic matter eg. Humus in the soil

Carbon enters the biotic world through the action of producers

 Primarily photoautotrophs (like plants). They use the energy of light to convert
carbon dioxide to organic matter.
 And to small extent, chemotrophs (like bacteria).

Carbon returns to the atmosphere by

I) Respiration (as CO2)

II) Burning or combustion of fossil fuels
III) Decay of animal and plants body

Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical process in which nitrogen is circulated from the
atmosphere to the living organisms and later back to the atmosphere. Living organisms
require nitrogen for the synthesis of nucleic acid and proteins. The atmosphere contains
almost 78% of nitrogen present in an inert form (N2). This nitrogen cannot be used by
living organisms unless it is converted to ammonia, nitrates, and other usable
compounds of nitrogen.

The nitrogen cycle is a cyclic process where the nitrogen travels from inorganic form in
the atmosphere and to the organic way in the living organisms. The nitrogen cycle
contains several steps, such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation,
ammonification and denitrification. This cycle is essential in maintaining a proper
ecological balance.

Nitrogen Cycle Steps

There are several steps of the nitrogen cycle as mentioned above, the complete
process can be classified into several steps. Each of the steps is described below in the
article.

Nitrogen Fixation

The first step involves the fixation (conversion) of atmospheric inert nitrogen into a
usable form of nitrogen.
There are two ways nitrogen fixation can take place.

Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation: When the lightning strikes, the inert nitrogen gas
present in the atmosphere reacts with oxygen and converted into nitrates which plants
can easily absorb. However, the nitrogen fixation in atmosphere contributes small
amount of nitrogen in the cycle.

Biological Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria present in roots of legumes

convert nitrogen present in the atmosphere into Ammonia.

Nitrification

The large amount of nitrogen fixation is accomplished by the free living bacteria in the
soil. They can convert ammonia into nitrates that can be absorbed by the roots of the
plants. The process in which the ammonia is converted into nitrates by Nitrifying
bacteria is called Nitrification.

Assimilation

The nitrates from the soil are absorbed by the roots of plants to make their own amino
acid to produce proteins which are needed for their growth and photosynthetic activity.
This process of absorbing nitrates from the soil by the roots of plants is Assimilation.

Ammonification

The process of converting dead organic matter into ammonia through the action of
bacteria and fungi is Ammonification. Ammonia is also converted into nitrates through
nitrification. The nitrifying bacteria transform the ammonia into nitrates and assimilate by
the tree. Ammonification increases the concentration of ammonia in the ground.

Denitrification

Denitrifying bacteria found in the soil convert nitrates of the soil to free nitrogen which
escape to the atmosphere and thus completes the cycle and maintains the atmospheric
balance of nitrogen concentration.

Sulphur cycle

Sulphur is one of the most abundant elements on the earth. It is a yellow, brittle,
tasteless, odourless non-metal. Sulphur is present in all kinds of proteins. Plants directly
absorb sulphur-containing amino acids.
Sulphur enters the atmosphere through natural and human sources in the form of
oxides of sulphur. It reacts with rain and falls into earth as acidic sulphate deposition.
The sulphate is absorbed by plants as it is required for making amino acids, protein etc.
Animals consume these plants so that they take up enough sulphur to maintain their
health. This is because sulphur is important for the functioning of enzymes and proteins.
A simplified version of the pathways, transformations and chemical species in a sulphur
cycle is illustrated in figure.
(i) Sulphate (SO4-2) is reduced to hydrogen sulphide by sulphate reducing bacteria.
(ii) Some sulphate is assimilated by organisms to form cell components such as
amino acids and cofactors.
(iii) Organic sulphur is converted to H2S upon minerization
(iv) H2S is transformed to elemental sulphur (S)
(v) Sulfide oxidizing bacteria convert S into SO4-2
(Vi and Vii) Anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria also convert H2S to SO4-2 via elemental
sulphur
(Viii) Sulphur reducing bacteria transform back the elemental sulphur to H2S
ix) Some H2S complexes with iron to form black FeS precipitates, whose
recycling is slow.
Natural resources

Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet)
independent of human actions.
These are the resources that are found in the environment and are developed without
the intervention of humans. Common examples of natural resources include air,
sunlight, water, soil, stone, plants, animals and fossil fuels.
Classification of natural resources:
Classification of natural resources can be done in several ways based on their origin,
level of development and uses, stock or deposits, and their distribution.
On the basis of their origin, natural resources can be classified into living or biotic and
non-living or abiotic resources.
Living or Biotic Resources
If natural resources come from living things or organic materials, they are termed as
living or biotic resources. Biotic resources include plants, animals and fossil fuels. Fossil
fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas are classified as biotic resources as they are
formed from the decay of organic matter over millions of years.
Non-living or Abiotic Resources
On the other hand, if the resources are derived from nonliving or inorganic materials,
they are termed as abiotic resources. For instance, air, sunlight, and water are abiotic
natural resources. Minerals are also considered abiotic.
On the basis of deposit or stock, natural resources can be classified as renewable
and non-renewable.
Renewable: resources that are available in infinite quantity and can be used repeatedly
are called renewable resources. Example: Forest, wind, water, etc.

Non-Renewable: resources that are limited in abundance due to their non-renewable

nature and whose availability may run out in the future are called non-renewable
resources. Examples include fossil fuels, minerals, etc.

Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

It can be renewed as it is Once completely consumed, it cannot

available in infinite quantity be renewed due to limited stock

Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature

Low cost and environment-

High cost and less environment-friendly
friendly

Replenish slowly or do not replenish

Replenish quickly
naturally at all

The 5 Most Important Natural Resources are:

1. Air: Clean air is important for all the plants, animals and humans to survive on
this planet. So, it is necessary to take measures to reduce air pollution.
2. Water: 70% of the Earth is covered in water and only 2 % of that is fresh water.
Initiative to educate and regulate the use of water should be taken.
3. Soil: Soil is composed of various particles and nutrients. It helps plants grow.
4. Iron: It is found as mineral silica and is used to build strong weapons,
transportation and buildings
5. Forests: Forests provide clean air and preserve the ecology of the world. Trees
are being cut for housing and construction projects.

Resources obtained from nature, i.e. from the earth are called natural resources.
These resources occur naturally, and humans cannot make them. The raw materials
used in artificial or man-made resources are natural resources.
TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES
1. Water Resources
2. Mineral Resources
3. Land resources
4. Energy Resources

Water resources

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. Water
is a prerequisite for the existence of life. Plants, animals, and human beings cannot survive
without water. Water is used in agricultural, household, industrial, recreational and
environmental activities. Water is essential for economic growth, environmental stability,
biodiversity conservation, food security and heath care.

Significance of Water Cycle Problems Arising from the

Disturbances to the Water Cycle

The water cycle helps in the Maintenance of life and

maintenance of life and ecosystems on ecosystems on earth get
the earth. disturbed.

The water cycle helps in the Mineral transport to different parts

transport of minerals from one part to of the globe gets disturbed.
different parts of the globe.

The water cycle purifies water by Water purification process gets

transferring water from one reservoir disturbed.
to another.

The water cycle helps in the Replenishing of the land with

replenishing of the land with fresh water gets disturbed.
freshwater.

Processes such as erosion and Processes for reshaping the geo-

sedimentation associated with the water logical features of the earth get
cycle helps in reshaping the geological disturbed.
features of the earth.

Through the evaporation and Influence on climate gets

condensation process, the water cycle disturbed.
helps in the cooling and warming of the
 environmental respectively.

The Water Cycle It describes the continuous movement of water above and below the
surface of the earth. It is driven by the sun.

The sun heats water in seas and oceans. Water evaporates into the air as water
vapour. Snow and ice can sublime directly into water vapour. Rising air currents take
the water vapours into the atmosphere where cooler temperatures help them to condense
into clouds. Air currents move clouds; they collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as
precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow, and can accumulate as ice caps and
glaciers. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain where the water flows
over the ground as surface run-off. Much of the run-off is soaked into the ground as
infiltration. Some run-off is stored as fresh water in lakes. Some run-off enters rivers in
valleys in the landscape. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes
aquifers. This helps in the long-term storage of freshwater. Some groundwater finds
openings in the surface of land and freshwater springs come out. Some rainwater flows
through rivers back into the ocean, where the water cycle begins again.

Water cycle
Sources of Water: 97.5% of water on the earth is salt water in oceans. Only 2.5% is
fresh water. Sources of fresh water are briefly described below:

(i) Surface Water: Water in a lake, river or freshwater wetland is known as

surface water.
(ii) Groundwater: Fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks is
called groundwater.
(iii) Ice Caps and Glaciers: Fresh water from ice caps and glaciers is relatively
inaccessible.

Causes of Water Crisis in the World: The causes for shortage of water leading to water crisis
are the following:

(i) Growing population and with better lifestyles, per capita use of fresh water is
increasing, causing shortage of water.
(ii) Freshwater resources are reduced by pollution. Industrial wastes, chemicals,
human waste and agricultural wastes (fertilizers, pesticides and pesticide
residues) are disposed off within water.
(iii) Increase in extreme weather conditions like floods, droughts, typhoons, cyclones,
etc., are also responsible for worsening of water quality and availability.

Recently, it is estimated that

• Climate change will account for about 20% of the increase in global water
scarcity
• 50% of the population of developing countries are exposed to polluted water
sources

Overutilization of Surface and Ground Water

Water scarcity has become a burning global issue. The UN has held several
conventions on water in recent decades. Continuous overutilization of surface and
ground water has led to virtual water scarcity in the world today.
The depleting sources for high growth in human population over the centuries and
increased man-induced water pollution across the world have created unforeseen water
scarcity around the globe.
Groundwater is the major source of water in many parts of the world. However, there
has been continuous depletion of this source due to its overexploitation by rising human
population and the rapid rise in industrialization and urbanization in modern times.
Consequences of Overutilization
Water scarcity now becomes an important topic in international diplomacy. From village
to the United Nations, water scarcity is a widely-discussed topic in decision making.
According to World Health Organization (WHO) sources, a combination of rising global
population, economic growth and climate change means that by 2050 five billion (52%)
of the world‘s projected 9.7 billion people will live in areas where fresh water supply is
under pressure. Researchers expect about 1 billion more people to be living in areas
where water demand exceeds surface-water supply.
Climate Change
Scientists, environmentalists, and biologists worldwide are now alarmed that climate
change can have an impact on the drainage pattern and hydrological cycle on the earth
thereby severely affecting the surface and groundwater availability.
Climate change is believed to rise the global temperature at an increasing pace.
Temperature increase affects the hydrological cycle by directly increasing evaporation
of available surface water and vegetation transpiration.
As a result, precipitation amount, timing and intensity rates are largely affected. It
impacts the flux and storage of water in surface and subsurface reservoirs.
Floods & Draughts
Floods and droughts are two well-known natural hazards in the world. The former is due
to excess in water flow and the latter is due to scarcity of water.
The amount of rainfall received by an area varies from one place to another depending
on the location of the place. In some places it rains almost throughout the year whereas
in other places it might rain for only few days. India records most of its rainfall in the
monsoon season.
Heavy rains lead to rise in the water level of rivers, seas, and oceans. Water gets
accumulated in the coastal areas, which results in floods. Floods bring in extensive
damage to crops, domestic animals, property and human life. During floods, many
animals get carried away by the force of water and eventually die.
On the other hand, droughts set in when a particular region goes without rain for a long
period of time. In the meantime, the soil will continuously lose groundwater by the
process of evaporation and transpiration. Since this water is not brought back to earth in
the form of rains, the soil becomes very dry.
The level of water in the ponds and rivers goes down and in some cases water bodies
get dried up completely. Ground water becomes scarce and this leads to droughts. In
drought conditions, it is very difficult to get food and fodder for the survival. Life gets
difficult and many animals perish in such conditions.
Frequent floods and droughts are mostly due to climate change and global warming.
Various environmental organizations world over are of the view that climate change is a
long-term change in weather patterns, either in average weather conditions or in the
distribution of extreme weather events.
Importance of Water

Next to air, water is the most essential thing for our survival. We must drink water to avoid
dehydration which means less or insufficient levels of water and important body salts of
sodium and potassium in our body. The kidneys, brain, heart and other important body
organs cannot function property without salt and water.
Water is also helpful in maintaining the relatively constant body temperature through
the homeostasis process. It helps in avoiding upsetting of metabolic reactions by
preventing sudden changes in temperature.

Water helps in the digestion process. Different types of food products, after being broken
down to simple molecules (e.g. large starch molecules are broken down to simple
sugars) are solubilized in the universal solvent ‗water‘. Different enzymes facilitate this
digestion process. Oxygen gas is also dissolved in water to some extent. This Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) helps in the respiration process of many organisms who live in water
and spend most of their time underwater.

“Life is impossible without water. It is needed for health, ecosystem services, economic
development, poverty reduction, and protection of greenery, production of food and
imparting of aesthetic beauty.”

Water Conservation

―Water conservation is the most cost-effective and eco-friendly way to reduce our demand
for water.‖
(i) Need for Water Conservation: On an average, a citizen in most parts of the world is
allocated 2.5 gallons of water per day for sustainability. However, the average American
citizen uses 80–100 gallons of water per day. The poor do not have ac- cess to safe drinking
water. More than 4000 children are dying every day as a result of diarrhoeal diseases
caused from unsafe drinking water, lack of access to sanitation and inadequate availability
of water. Thus, it is very essential to conserve water.
Measures to Conserve Water

(a) Recharge groundwater by harvesting rainwater.

(b) Use water wisely for household, agricultural and domestic purposes.
(c) Reuse water whenever possible. For example, waste water after bath can be
used for the toilet.
(d) Avoid transmission and distribution losses by checking leaks in pipes, hoses,
etc.
(e) Prevent flow of untreated sewage to lakes and rivers. This will reduce the
likelihood of water pollution and help in water conservation.
(f) Collect water by building dams and reservoirs, and digging wells.
(g) Use drip irrigation, precision sprinklers for agriculture. Practice organic
farming.
(h) Adopt fairer policies for treatment, access and pricing of water.
(i) Prevent flow of industrial effluents to natural water resources to avoid water
pollution.
(j) Do protect forests to protect rivers, lakes, wells and other sources of water.
Major Factors Responsible for Water-Quality Degradation
(i) Insufficient and incomplete treatment of domestic and industrial waste
water
(ii) Eutrophication
(iii) Pathogens, and pesticide contamination
(iv) Stagnation of domestic sewage and contamination of groundwater

Water-Borne Diseases

Water-borne diseases are illnesses caused by consuming water contaminated by

pathogenic microorganisms.

Often lack of access to hygienic water, poor sanitation and rise in population of pathogenic
microorganisms like protozoa, viruses, bacteria and intestinal parasites breeding in on
water are considered the main causes of water-borne diseases.

According to the World Health Organization, diarrhoeal disease is responsible for the deaths
of 1.8 million people every year and a majority of them are children in developing
countries.

The best ways to prevent water-borne diseases are

(i) avoid drinking untreated water,
(ii) avoid consuming undercooked food,
(iii) maintain good personal hygiene (e.g. wash hands before eating), and
(iv) Educate for clean sanitation.

Fluoride Problem in Drinking Water

At low concentrations in drinking water, fluoride has beneficial effects on teeth. But
excessive exposure to fluoride in drinking water can give rise to number of adverse
effects. Although the concentration (mg/litre) of fluoride added to water can be controlled,
but we cannot control the dose (mg/day). This is because one cannot control how much
water people drink or how much fluoride they get from other sources.

(i) Sources of Fluoride

(a) Fluoridated water supplies
(b) Food processed with fluoridated water
(c) Mouthwash enhanced with fluoride
(d) Toothpaste enhanced with fluoride
(e) Food supplements
Fluoridation is not necessary
(a) The level of fluoride in mother‘s milk is 0.004 ppm. It means a bottle-fed
 baby, where fluoridated tap water (with 1 ppm fluoride) is used to make up the
formula milk, will get 250 times more fluoride than nature intended.
(b) Fluoride works from the outside of the tooth, not from inside the body, so it
is not required to swallow fluoride or drink fluoridated water.
Fluoride’s Dangers: Fluoride damages teeth, bone, brain and endocrine system. It
may cause osteosarcoma.
MINERAL RESOURCES
―Natural resources in the form of minerals are known as mineral resources.‖ They include
the ores of base metals such as copper, iron and lead as well as strategic and critical
metals such as chromium, titanium, platinum, cobalt, manganese, palladium, etc.

Minerals and Their Classification

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, crystalline substances which contain a
specific composition of elements.

A mineral which can be extracted and processed at a profit is known as an ore.

Types of minerals

Minerals are broadly classified into two categories: Metallic and non-metallic.

Importance of Minerals
(i) Almost all rocks are made of minerals.
(ii) They have high aesthetic value, e.g. gemstones.
(iii) They have natural resource value:
(a) Minerals are sources of metals needed for electronic manufacture,
airplanes, cars, etc.
(b) Minerals are raw materials for making window glass, plaster, etc.

Environmental Effects of Extracting and using Mineral Resources

The impacts on forest, land, occupation, water, ecological functions, rehabilitation of

population, or impact on flowers due to pollution created during extraction and use
of mineral resources are
(i) Deforestation including to loss of flora and fauna.
(ii) Degradation of land due to excavations.
(iii) Occupational health hazards.
(iv) Pollution of ground and surface water resources due to accidental or periodic
discharge of pollutants.
(v) Damage to local ecological functions, nutrient cycling and biodiversity due to
alterations in water availability or quality.
(vi) Problem in rehabilitation of affected population.
(vii) Pollution of air due to emission of dust and poisonous gases during mining and
processing stages. Problems in providing living environment and clean water,
air, etc., for the survival of large number of workers who have migrated nearby
mine sites.
 (viii) Problems in the safe disposal of tremendous amounts of solid waste generated
during mining.

Conservation of Mineral Resources

The mineral resources are very essential for the growth and development of a country.
The ever-increasing population in the world with improved lifestyles is responsible for
the rapid consumption of mineral resources. The geological processes of mineral
formation are so low that the rates of replenishment are very small in comparison to
the present rates of consumption. Thus, mineral resources are valuable but they will
be available for a limited time.

A sincere effort has to be made in order to use the mineral resources in a planned
and sustainable manner. The following four steps are very useful for the conservation
of mineral resources:
 Encourage use of improved technologies so as to reduce waste generation.
 Encourage recycling of metals.
 Regulate the use of mineral resources.
 Reduce the purchase of unwanted products made from mineral resources.
 Encourage research for providing suitable ecofriendly alternatives for fossil
fuels, metals, etc.

These are known as 4R¢s for the sustainable use of mineral resources.

Land Resources
Land is a naturally occurring finite resource. It provides the base for survival of living
beings. It holds everything that constitutes terrestrial ecosystems. Increased demand on
land in modern times due to the rise in human population and resultant activities has
resulted in degradation of land quality and quantity, decline in crop production, and
competition for land. Land resources are essential for the survival and prosperity of
humanity. These resources are also essential for the maintenance of all terrestrial
ecosystems.
The basic functions of land in supporting human and other terrestrial ecosystems are given
below:
(i) Land is a storehouse of minerals and raw materials for human use.
(ii) Land helps in the production of food, fibre, fuel, etc.
(iii) Land is the biological habitat for many plants, animals and microorganisms.
(iv) Land regulates flow of surface water and stores groundwater.
(v) Land enables or hampers movement of people and animals between one
place to another.
(vi) Land is a buffer, filter or modifier for chemical pollutants.
(vii) Land is co-determinant in the global energy balance and the global hydrologi-
cal cycle, which provides both a source and sink for greenhouse gases.
(viii) Land is the physical space for settlements, industry and recreation.
 (ix) Land stores and protects evidence of past climates, archaeological remains
from the historical or pre historical record.

Forest Resources
Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are distributed across the
globe. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth‘s
biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.
A forest constitutes many components that can be broadly divided into two categories
that are biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. Forest is made up of many
layers such as forest floor, understory, canopy, and emergent layer.
Forests can be classified in various ways such as Boreal, Temperate, Tropical types
with their numerous subtypes. Due to increasing population and consequential
expansion of modern civilization, there has been continuous depletion of natural forests
over the centuries.
Over the past 25 years, global carbon stocks in forest biomass have decreased by
almost 11 gigatonnes (Gt). This reduction has been mainly driven by conversion to
other land uses and to a lesser extent by forest degradation.
Usefulness of Forest Resources
 Forest is an important natural resource. Forests are vital for the ecological
balance and play an important role in temperature regulation in the atmosphere.
 Forests are natural and vast reservoir of food and shelter for animals. They
provide natural habitats for numerous species of plants, animals and micro-
organisms.
 Forests provide timber, bamboo, canes, leaves, grass, oil, resins, gums, shellac,
tanning materials, dyes, hides, fur, fruits, nuts, roots, tubers and other useful
things for human beings.
 Forests provide raw materials for forest-based industries.
 Forests are the natural home to medicinal herbs and plants.
 Forest directly or indirectly affects the climate (temperature, precipitation,
moisture, underground water-table).
 Forests prevent floods and soil erosion, land degradation and improve the quality
of air and water.
 Forests help in purifying air, water, and soil pollution.

Energy Resources
Energy is defined by physicists as the capacity to do work. Energy is found on our
planet in a variety of forms, some of which are immediately useful to do work, while
others require a process of transformation. The sun is the primary energy source in our
lives. Besides, water, fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products, water, nuclear
power plants are sources of energy.
Growing Energy Needs
Energy has always been closely linked to man‘s economic growth and development.
Present strategies for development that have focused on rapid economic growth have
used energy utilization as an index of economic development. This index, however,
does not take into account the long-term ill effects on society of excessive energy
utilization.
For almost 200 years, coal was the primary energy source fueling the industrial
revolution in the 19th century. At the close of the 20th century, oil accounted for 39% of
the world‘s commercial energy consumption, followed by coal (24%) and natural gas
(24%), while nuclear (7%) and hydro/renewable (6%) accounted for the rest.
Industrialization, urbanization, and unbelievable rise in human settlements have
multiplied the energy requirement by several times. Modern lifestyle and man‘s growing
dependence on machines and equipment for his personal and professional work has
added to the energy demand. Global oil demand continues to grow until 2040, mostly
because of the lack of easy alternatives to oil in road freight, aviation and
petrochemicals, according to WEO-2016, published by International Energy Agency.
Renewable Energy Resources
Renewable energy systems use resources that are constantly replaced and are usually
less polluting. Examples include hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal (energy from
the heat inside the earth). We also get renewable energy from burning trees and even
garbage as fuel and processing other plants into bio-fuels.
Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Sources
Conventional and Nonconventional Sources of Energy

Conventional energy sources are energy sources which are nonrenewable. However,
nonconventional energy sources are energy sources which are renewable and ecologically safe.

Important energy soUrces

The important differences between conventional and nonconventional sources of
energies are summarized.* below:
Differences between conventional and nonconventional soUrces of energies

Conventional Sources of Energy Nonconventional Sources of

Energy

They are fully developed. They are still undergoing development

They use nonrenewable resources. They use renewable resources.

Inexpensive Expensive

Require established technologies Require new technologies which are

still under research and development.

Ecologically not safe for usage Ecologically safe to use

Available in limited quantity Available in plenty

Carbon and other greenhouse gas Free from such problems.

emissions from the combustion of coal,
natural gas, etc., are known to have
disastrous environmental and health
consequences. These gases are also
major culprit in climate change.

Examples: Petroleum, coal, etc Examples: Solar, wind and hydropower,

etc.

Renewable energy resources

Wind Energy
The moving air or wind has huge amounts of kinetic energy, and it can be transferred
into electrical energy using wind turbines. The wind moves the blades, which spins a
shaft, which is further connected to a generator, which generates electricity.
Solar Energy
Solar energy is the energy received by the earth from the sun that is converted into
thermal or electrical energy. Solar energy influences the earth‘s climate and weather and
sustains life. Although solar energy only provides 0.15% of the world‘s power, experts
believe that sunlight has the potential to supply 5000 times as much energy as the world
currently consumes. Wind, biomass and hydropower are all forms of solar energy.

Biomass Energy
The term biomass is used for the dead plants and trees (e.g. wood, crop residue, etc.) and
the waste material of living organisms (e.g. cattle dung, sewage, etc.). Biomass energy or
bioconversion means the direct burning of waste paper, wood, cattle dung or converting
them to a fuel.
The various ways of using biomass as a fuel:

(i) Biomass can be directly used as a fuel.

Example Burning of biomass like cattle dung in chulhas.
(ii) The biomass is first converted into a fuel and then these fuels are used for
heating purposes, more effectively. Example Conversion of cattle dung
into biogas.

Hydropower

Hydroelectricity or hydroelectric power is the electricity obtained by harnessing the power of water
flowing down from a high level. It is a renewable, affordable and pollution-free source of
energy.

Tidal and Wave Power

The earth‘s surface is 70% water. By warming the water, the sun creates ocean
currents and the wind that produces waves. It is estimated that the solar energy
absorbed by the tropical oceans in a week could equal the entire oil reserves of the
world – 1 trillion barrels of oil.
Geothermal Energy
It is the energy stored within the earth (―geo‖ for earth and ―thermal‖ for heat).
Geothermal energy starts with hot, molten rock (called magma) deep inside the earth
which surfaces at some parts of the earth‘s crust. The heat rising from the magma
warms the underground pools of water known as geothermal reservoirs. If there is an
opening, hot underground water comes to the surface and forms hot springs, or it may
boil to form geysers. With modern technology, wells are drilled deep down the surface
of the earth to tap into geothermal reservoirs. This is called direct use of geothermal
energy, and it provides a steady stream of hot water that is pumped to the earth‘s
surface.
Non Renewable energy resources
Fossil Fuels
Petroleum and coal are formed from the fossilized remains of animals and plants, hence
they are known as fossil fuels. As they are used up much more rapidly than they are
replenished by nature, it might ultimately result in fuel shortage.
Coal
Coal is defined as stratified rock, consisting of organic matter of fuel value derived from the
partial decay and alteration of accumulated plant materials by the action of heat and
pressure over millions of years.
Petroleum
Petroleum is a complex mixture of paraffinic, olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons with small
quantities of organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. It is also
called mineral oil because it occurs beneath the earth. Petroleum refining of crude oil or
petroleum provides many liquid fuels that are in current use.
(i) Gasoline or Petrol It is a mixture of hydrocarbons from pentane to octane. It is
highly volatile and inflammable. It is used as a fuel for internal combustion engines.
(ii) Diesel Oil It is a mixture of higher hydrocarbons (C 15 to C18). It is used as a fuel
for diesel engines.
(iii) Kerosene Oil It is a mixture of hydrocarbons (C 10 to C16). It is used as
domestic fuel in stoves.
Gaseous Fuels
(i) Natural Gas: It is obtained from wells dug in the oil-bearing regions. It is
mainly composed of methane, ethane and other hydrocarbons. It is also called marsh
gas because it mainly consists of methane (about 88.5%).
(ii) Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): The natural gas compressed at very high
pressure of about 1000 atmosphere is called CNG. The use of CNG as a fuel
for automobiles has reduced pollution in urban cities. As it undergoes complete
combustion in CNG engine so there is nil possibility of release of CO in the
atmosphere. Further, CNG is much safer fuel with lower operating cost.
(iii) Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG): The main constituents of LPG are n-
butane, isobutane, butylene and propane. It is mainly used as domestic fuel. To
help in the detection of gas leakage, a strong-smelling substance, viz. ethyl
mercaptan, is added to the LPG gas cylinders. LPG is also used as motor fuel
because it easily mixes with air and burns cleanly without residue and without
knocking.
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity, a shortened form of Biological diversity, refers to the existence of
number of different species of plants and animals in an environment.

Biodiversity is also defined as the existence of variability among living organisms on

the earth, including the variability within and between species, and within and between
ecosystems.

The year 2010 was declared as the International Year of Biodiversity.

Biodiversity represents the quality and characteristic features of life in an eco- system.
Being a combination of genes, species and the ecosystem itself, biodiversity can be
considered at three levels: genetic diversity; species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

These are briefly explained below.

Species Diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety of different species of plants, animals, fungi, and
organisms that are present in a region. It is estimated that there are above 30 million
species on the earth. Even within a small pond, we can notice a great variety of species.
Species diversity differs from ecosystem to ecosystem. For example, in a tropical
ecosystem more diversity is found than in temperate ecosystem. The most diverse
group of species is invertebrates - animals without backbones.
At present, conservation scientists have been able to identify and categorize about 1.8
million species on earth. Many new species are being identified. Areas that are rich in
species diversity are called ‗hotspots‘ of diversity.
Genetic Diversity
It is the variation in genes that exists within a species. Genetic diversity corresponds to
the variety of genes contained in plants, animals, fungi, and micro-organisms. It occurs
within a species as well as between species. Each human being is different from all
others. This genetic variability is essential for a healthy breeding of a population of
species.
Ecosystem Diversity
It indicates the variation in the structure and functions of ecosystems. It tells about trophic
levels, energy flow, food and total stability of ecosystems. The ecosystems can be of
various types as governed by the species composition and the physical structure.
Following are a few examples:

(i) Terrestrial ecosystems

(ii) Aquatic ecosystems
(iii) Artificial or man-made ecosystems
Significance of Biodiversity
Environmental services from species and smooth running cycles of ecosystems are
necessary at global, regional, and local levels.
Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the water cycles, production of oxygen,
reduction in carbon dioxide, protecting the soil, etc. It is also essential for preserving
ecological processes, such as soil formation, circulation of and cleansing of air and
water, global life support, fixing and recycling of nutrients, maintaining hydrological
balance within ecosystems, maintaining rivers and streams throughout the year, etc.
Biodiversity has many values such as consumptive use value, productive use value,
social values, ethical and moral values.
A healthy biodiversity offers many valuable services as follows.
 The more a region is rich in terms of biodiversity, better is the regulation of the
different cycles. For example, forests regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the
air by releasing oxygen as a by-product during photosynthesis, and control rainfall
and soil erosion.
 Protects water resources from being depleted, contaminated, or polluted.
 Helps in soil formation and protection.
 Helps in nutrient storage and recycling.
 Helps check pollution.
 Contributes to climate stability.
 Helps an ecosystem in recovery from unpredictable events.
 Provides biological resources such as food, medicinal resources, and
pharmaceutical drugs, wood products, ornamental plants, breeding stocks, etc.
 Provides recreation and tourism facilities.
 Helps in research, education, and monitoring.
 Preservation of biological resources is essential for the well-being and long-term
survival of mankind.
India as a Mega Diversity Region
Mega diversity refers to a country‘s ability to exhibit a high level of biodiversity. India is
one of the world‘s 17 mega diversity countries.

Criteria as Mega Diversity region

 Have at least 5,000 endemic plant species

 Have marine ecosystems

Reasons why India is a Mega Diversity region

 India has only 2.4 percent of the world‘s land area, but it has 8.1 percent of the
world‘s species diversity.
  47,000 endemic plant species
 90,000 animal species.
Total 1,37,000 species
 14 major river basins
 Different seasons
 Type of ecosystems
 Coastal Boundary
 5 world heritage sites
 18 biospheres reserves
 High rainfall
 Types of soil

The rich flora and wildlife of India are well-known. India is home to about 500
mammalian species, over 200 avian species, and over 30,000 insect species. The
Zoological Survey of India, headquartered in Kolkata, is in charge of surveying India‘s
faunal resources.
More than 18 percent of Indian plants are endemic (native to a particular region) to the
country and found nowhere else in the world.

These are the reasons why India is Mega biodiversity region

Hotspots of biodiversity
The areas on earth which exhibit high species richness as well as high species
endemism are termed hot spots of biodiversity.
To qualify as a hot spot, an area must satisfy the following criteria:
1. It has at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemic.
2. It must have lost more than 70% of its original habitat.
Hotspot covers 2.5 percent of the Earth‘s geographical area.
Across the world, about 36 areas are marked as hotspots of biodiversity and out of 36, 4
of them are in India
(a) The Western Ghats
(b) The Eastern Himalayas
(c) Indo Burma
(d) Sundaland

Many of the biodiversity hotspots exceed the two criteria. For example, both the
Sundaland Hotspot in Southeast Asia and the Tropical Andes Hotspot in South America
have about 15,000 endemic plant species.
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES
(i) Endemic species can be defined as those species that have very restricted
distribution and are confined over relatively small ranges. Examples: Lion-
tailed Macaque, Nilgiri leaf monkey.
(ii) When there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died, the
species is said to be extinct.
(iii) A species is endangered when it is not critically endangered but is facing a
high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future.
(iv) A species is vulnerable when it is not critically endangered or endangered, but
is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future.

Endangered species are provided with legal protection because their population
decreases very rapidly. Examples: Tiger, Asian elephant, etc.

Endemic Species of India

The following is a list of the species that are unique to India and can only be found
there:

Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley

Lion-Tailed Macaque, The Western Ghats and the
Purple Frog, Western Ghats
Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake
Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills
Nilgiri Langoor
Pygmy Hog, Assam
Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
Malabar Civet, Western Ghats
Indian Giant Squirrel
Bonnet Macaque

Endangered species of India

Sumatran Rhinoceros
Javan Rhinoceros
Snow leopard
Red panda
Forest owlet
Asian Elephant
South Asian river Dolphin
RARE AND THREATENED SPECIES
Rare species, although are not vulnerable or endangered, have a very small population in the
world.

Threatened species are those species which may become extinct if not protected. They
include the rare, vulnerable and endangered species. Examples: Elephant, chinkara,
Nilgiri tahr, Indian wild ass, lion-tailed macaque, tiger, cheetah, sloth bear, rhinoceros,
etc.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

In the last 150 years, the rate at which species are disappearing is about thousands per
decade while the natural extinction rate is only one or two species per decade.

Some of the main causes are as follows:

(i) Degradation of Habitat A habitat is place where living beings find food, cloth
and shelter and a safe place to reproduce and bring up their offspring. Thus,
loss of habitat is the greatest threat to the world.

(ii) Overexploitation of Resources A number of species like tigers, giant pandas,

etc., are on the verge of extinction because of overexploitation of resources.

(iii) Pollution Pollution is responsible for global climatic changes and for the
extinction of most species.

(iv) Poaching of Wildlife Poaching is the illegal killing of wildlife for sale in the
international trade market. The animals are killed due to the following
reasons:
• Some wildlife species are killed for consumption (eating).
• Elephants are killed to obtain their teeth for financial gains.
• Tigers/lions are killed to extract their skin to be sold for decoration of
drawing rooms of some people.

We can stop poaching and conserve wildlife by

(a) Reporting poaching incidents to the concerned officers
(b) Encouraging effective wildlife legislation, and law enforcement
(c) Spreading awareness about the importance of wildlife
(d) Refusing to purchase products that have been illegally obtained from animals
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

As per the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, the objectives of
conservation of biodiversity are

(i) To protect all endangered and rare species

(ii) To protect natural habitats for preserving all varieties of old and new flora,
fauna and microbes
(iii) To increase public awareness through media, government agencies, NGOs,
etc, and implement strict restrictions on export of rare plants and animals
(iv) To reduce pollution
(v) To maintain ecological balance
(vi) To utilize the natural resources in a sustainable way

There are two main methods for the conservation of biodiversity.

In-situ Conservation
In-situ or on-site conservation refers to the conservation of species within their natural
habitats. This is the most viable way of biodiversity conservation. It is the conservation
of genetic resources through their maintenance within the environment in which they
occur.
Examples − National Parks, Wild Life sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves
Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation means the conservation of components of biological diversity
outside their natural habitats. In this method, threatened or endangered species of
animals and plants are taken out of their natural habitat and placed in special settings
where they can be protected and provided with natural growth.
In ex-situ conservation methods, the plants and animals taken away from their habitats
are taken care of in an artificially created environment.
Examples − Captive Breeding, Gene Banks, Seed Banks, Zoos, Botanical gardens,
Aquaria, Tissue Culture.
Bioprospecting

Bioprospecting is the process of discovery and commercialization of new products based on

biological resources. Biodiversity, also known as bioprospecting, is a systematic
exploration for natural molecular compounds, which has huge commercial and
economic value in pharmaceutical, agriculture, cosmetics, bioremediation, aquaculture
and biotechnology related industries. When a potential compound is discovered, it is
analysed and screened for its commercial value. Once approved for use, the plant
source can be cultivated on a larger scale to produce more product. This will in turn
accelerate research, generate more revenue to the rural and regional people. Some of
the bioprospecting-derived products are laccase enzymes from fungi to treat
wastewater from beef factory, algal derived oligosaccharides to treat erythema and anti-
fungal drug obtained from soil fungi. Currently, bioprospecting is performed on the
lesser ventured ecosystems like seas and oceans.

Biopiracy

While biopiracy is when researchers and scientists use sources from nature and
traditional knowledge without permission and exploit the indigenous cultures they're
getting their information from.

The use of bio resources by the multinational companies and other organizations
without any systematic approval from a nation or its related people without any
compensatory payment is called biopiracy. Feeling is developing between developing
and developed nations about injustice, inadequate compensation and benefits sharing.
Due to this some nations are making rules to ban the use of their bioresources without
prior permission.

Example of biopiracy:

1. Patenting of Azadirachta indica – Neem: We Indians have been using Neem since
ancient times. We have shared our knowledge regarding neem across the globe. An
American firm registered a patent in the United States for an insecticide whereas in
1994 the European Patent Office also granted a patent relating to fungicides but many
Indian associations felt that these patents were confiscating ancestral knowledge as
well as knowledge accumulated by farmers and Indian researchers over hundreds of
years.

2. Basmati rice, Neem and turmeric are also are indigenous to the Indo-Pak
subcontinent.