MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

AND NATURAL RESOURCES

NATURAL RESOURCES
Renewable and Non-renewable resources- Natural resources and Associated problems-
Forest resources:-Use and over – Exploitation – Deforestation – Case studies – Timber
extraction – Mining – Dams and their ground water – Floods – Drought – Conflicts over
water – Dams – Benefits and Problems – Mineral Resources:- Use Effects on Forests and
Tribal People – Water Resources:- Use and Over-Utilization of Surface and Exploitation,
Environmental Effects of Extracting and Using Mineral Resources, Case Studies – Food
Resources: World Food Problems, Changes caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing, Effects
of Modern Agriculture, Fertilizer- Pesticide Problems, Water Logging, salinity, Case Studies
– Energy Resources:- Growing Energy Needs, Renewable and Non Renewable Energy
Sources, Use of Alternate Energy Sources, Case Studies

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

INTRODUCTION
 The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means
to ‘encircle or surround’.
 Thus our environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical
conditions that surround, affect and influence the survival, growth and
development of people, animals and plants”
 This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment
as well as the cultural and social contexts that shape human lives.
 It includes all factors (living and nonliving) that affect an individual organism or
population at any point in the life cycle; set of circumstances surrounding a
particular occurrence and all the things that surrounds us.

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  SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
Environment consists of four segments.
1. Atmosphere- Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
2. Hydrosphere- Various water bodies present on the earth.
3. Lithosphere- Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.
4. Biosphere- Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the
environment.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
 The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises various
branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science,
agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering etc.
 It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the
sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in
the air, water, soil and the effect of from human activity upon these.
 As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different
environments like natural, constructed and cultural environments, environmental
studies is inter disciplinary in nature including the study of biology, geology,
politics, policy studies, law, religion engineering, chemistry and economics to
understand the humanity’s effects on the natural world.
 This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental
issues and citizens and experts in many fields.
 By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the
interdisciplinary and methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that
enables them to facilitate the definition and solution of environmental problems.
 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number of
areas and aspects, which may be summarized as follows:
 Natural resources- their conservation and management
 Ecology and Biodiversity
 Environmental pollution and control
 Human population and environment
 Social issues in relation to development and environment

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 These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance
to every section of society. Several career options have emerged in these fields that are
broadly categorized as:
(i) Research and development in environment:
Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining various
environmental problems in a scientific manner and carry out R&D activities for
developing cleaner technologies and promoting sustainable development.
(ii) Green advocacy:
With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and Laws related to
environment, need for environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to
plead the cases related to water, air, forest, wildlife, pollution and control etc.
(iii) Green marketing:
While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing
emphasis on marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have
ecomark or ISO 14000 certification. Environmental auditors and environmental
managers would be in great demand in the coming years.
(iv) Green media:
Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like
television, radio, newspaper, magazine, hoardings, advertisements etc., for which
environmentally educated persons are required.
(v) Environmental consultancy:
Many non-government organizations, industries and government bodies are
engaging environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling
environment related problems.

 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

 The importance of environmental studies is that, the current trend of environmental
degradation can be reversed if people of educated communities are organized,
empowered and experts are involved in sustainable development.
 Environmental factors greatly influence every organism and their activities.

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  At present a great number of environmental issues, have grown in size and
complexity day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. These issues
are studied besides giving effective suggestions in the environment studies.
 The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of our natural resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the
environment etc.
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues being of International Importance:
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming, ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely national
issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and
cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development:
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth,
Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become
phased out in the developed world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has,
fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ factories to South. When the West developed, it
did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Evidently
such a path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution:
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this plant lives in India.
Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land
area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural
experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and
organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for An Alternative Solution:
It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an
alternative goal. We need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally
sound and sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

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 (3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-
consuming wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction:
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequences to our
activities cause destructing the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the
name of development.
6. Need For Wise Planning of Development:
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the
product have all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of
development. Our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the
environment and development.

 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1. Growing Population: A population of over thousands of millions is growing at
2.11 per cent every year. Over 17 million people are added each year. It puts
considerable pressure on its natural resources and reduces the gains of
development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the population
growth. Although population control does automatically lead to development, yet
the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates.
2. Poverty: India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty
and environmental degradation are mixed with one another. The vast majority of
our people are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their
basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still
below the poverty line.
3. Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor w ho depend upon the
resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the
challenge of environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge.
4. Agricultural Growth: The people must be made familiar with the methods to
sustain and increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment. High
yielding varieties have caused soil salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.
5. Need to Increase Ground water: It is essential of rationalizing the use of
groundwater. Factors like community wastes, industrial effluents, chemical

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 fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected quality of the
groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other
water bodies. Suitable strategies for conservation of water, provision of safe
drinking water and keeping water bodies clean should be developed.
6. Development and Forests: Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With
increasing demand of water, plan to harness the mighty river through large
irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would submerge forests; displace
local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the river Narmada,
Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific debate.
Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of
agriculture and other uses. Vast areas that were once green, stand today as waste
lands. These areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal
communities inhabiting forests, respects the trees, birds and animals give them
sustenance. We must recognize the role of these people in restoring and conserving
forests. The modern knowledge and skills of the forest department should be
integrated with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local communities.
The strategies for the joint management of forests should be evolved in a well
planned way.
7. Degradation of Land: At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha
possess any potential for production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly
and 85 suffers from varying degrees of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha,
40 are completely unproductive. The remaining 83 mha is classified as forest land,
of which over half is denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of
livestock have to be supported on 13 mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land
classified as pasture land, most of which is overgrazed. Thus, out of 226 mha,
about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying degrees. Water and wind
erosion causes further degradation of almost 150 mha This degradation is to be
avoided.
8. Evil Consequences of Urbanization: Nearly 27% of Indians live in urban areas.
Urbanization and industrialization has given birth to a great number of
environmental problems. Over 30 percent of urban Indians live in slums. Out of

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 India’s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment
facilities. Hence, coping with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.
9. Air and water Pollution: Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and
pollution causing technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of
treating their wastes. A great number of cities and industrial areas have been
identified as the worst in terms of air and water pollution. Acts are enforced in the
country, but their implement is not so easy. The reason is their implementation
needs great resources, technical expertise, political and social will. Again the people
are to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement
these rules.

INSTITUTIONS IN ENVIRONMENT
Managing natural resources require efficient institutions at all levels i.e. local,
national, regional and global. Among the large number of institutions that deal with
environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known organization include
government organizations like the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs like the BNHS, WWF-1, etc.
 The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai
 World Wide fund for nature- India (WWF-1), New Delhi
 Centre or science and environment (CSE), New Delhi
 C.P.R Environmental Education Centre, Madras
 Centre for Environment Education (CEE)
 Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Institute of Environment Education
& Research, Pune
 The Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON)
 Wild life Institute of India (WII), Dehradhun
 Zoological survey of India (ZSI)
 The madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT)
 Botanical Survey of India (BSI)

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 NATURAL RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION
 Natural resources can be defined as ‘variety of goods and services provided by
nature which are necessary for our day-to-day lives’.
 Eg: Plants, animals and microbes (living or biotic part), Air, water, soil, minerals,
climate and solar energy (non- living or abiotic part).
 They are essential for the fulfillment of physiological, social, economical and cultural
needs at the individual and community levels.
TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES
They are of two types of resources namely Renewable and Non-Renewable
Resources.
1. Renewable resources: The resources that can be replenished through rapid
natural cycles are known as renewable resource. These resources are able to
increase their abundance through reproduction and utilization of simple
substances.
Ex: Plants, (crops and forests) and animals.
 Some examples of renewable resources though they do not have life cycle but
can be recycled.
Ex: Wood and wood-products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibers
(e.g. Cotton, jute, animal wool, silk and synthetic fibers) and leather.
 In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable
resources.
 Solar energy although having a finite life, as a special case, is considered as a
renewable resource in as much as solar stocks is inexhaustible on the human
scale.
2. Non renewable resources: The resources that cannot be replenished through
natural processes are known as non-renewable resources. These are available in
limited amounts, which cannot be increased. These resources include fossil fuels
(petrol, coal etc.), metals (iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc etc.), minerals and
salts (carbonates, phosphates, nitrates etc.).Once a non-renewable resource is
consumed, it is gone forever.

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  Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories, viz.
A) Recyclable and
B) Non-recyclable

A) Recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected

after they are used and can be recycled. These are mainly the non-energy
mineral resources, which occur in the earth’s crust (Ex: Ores of aluminum,
copper, mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (e.g. Phosphate sock
and potassium and minerals used in their natural state (asbestos, clay, mica
etc.)
B) Non-recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which cannot be
recycled in any way.
Ex: Fossil fuels and uranium, which provide 90 per cent of our energy
requirements
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS:
 The main problem associated with natural resources is unequal consumption.
 A major part of natural resources are consumed in the ‘developed’ world. The
‘developing nations’ also over use many resources because of their greater human
population. However, the consumption of resources per capita (per individual) of
the developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most developing
countries.
 Advanced countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse
gases.
 Energy from fossil fuels consumed in relatively much greater quantities in
developed countries. Their per capita consumption of food too is much greater as
well as their waste.

FOREST RESOURCES
A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of trees, shrubs or any other
woody vegetation usually in a closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means
‘outside’. India’s Forest Cover is 6,76,000 sq.km (20.55% of geographic area). Scientists
estimate that India should ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we only have

Environmental Science 9
 about 12% thus we need not only to protect our existing forests but also to increase our
forest cover.
1. FUNCTIONS OF FOREST
2. It performs very important function both to human and to nature.
3. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wild life.
4. They recycle rain water.
5. They remove pollutant from air.
6. They control water quality.
7. They moderate temperature and weather.
8. They influence soil condition and prevent soil erosion.

USES OF FOREST
1. Commercial uses
2. Ecological uses
1. Commercial uses:
i. Wood – used as a fuel
ii. Supply wood for various industries – Raw materials as pulp, paper, furniture
timber etc.
iii. Minor forest products – gum, dyes, resins
iv. Many plants – Medicines
v. Supply variety of animal products – honey. Ivory, horns etc.
vi. Many forest lands are used for - Mining, grazing, for dams and recreation.
2. Ecological uses: Forest provides number of environmental services.
i. Production of oxygen: Photosynthesis produces large amount of oxygen
which is essential for life.
ii. Reducing global warming: Carbon dioxide is one of the main green house
gas. It is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis. Therefore the problem of
global warming caused by CO2 is reduced.
iii. Soil conservation: Roots of trees bind the soil tightly and prevent soil
erosion. They also act as wind breaks.
iv. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Watershed in forest act like giant
sponges and slowly release the water for recharge of spring.

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 v. Pollution moderators: Forest can absorb many toxic gases and noises and
help in preventing air and noise pollution.
vi. Wild life habitat: Forest is the home of millions of wild animals and plants.

12.4.3 REASON FOR DEFICIENCY OF FOREST:

In India the minimum area of forest required to maintain good ecological balance is about
33% of total area. But at present it is only about 12%. So over exploitation of forest
material occurs.

OVER EXPLOITATION OF FOREST: Due to over population, there is an

increased demand for medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. Hence exploitation of forest
materials is going on increasing.
Cause of over exploitation:
1. Increasing agricultural production.
2. Increasing agricultural activities.
3. Increase in demand of wood resources.

DEFORESTATION: It is process of removal of forest resources due to natural

or manmade activities (i.e.) destruction of forests.
Causes of deforestation:
1. Developmental projects: Developmental projects causes deforestation
through two ways.
 Through submergence of forest area.
 Destruction of forest area.
Ex: big dams, hydro electric projects, road construction etc.
2. Mining operations: It reduces forest areas. Ex: Mica, coal, Manganese and
lime stone.
3. Raw materials for industries: Wood is an important raw material for various
purposes.
Ex: Making boxes, furniture and paper etc.
4. Fuel requirement: Wood is the important fuel for rural and tribal population.

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 5. Shifting cultivation: Replacement of natural forest ecosystem for mono
specific tree plantation. Ex: Teak
6. Forest fires: Forest fire destructs thousands of acres of forest.
7. Over grazing: Over grazing by cattle reduces the cultivation land
Consequences of deforestation (or) impacts of deforestation:
1. Economic loss
2. Loss of biodiversity
3. Destructs the habitats of various species
4. Reduction in stream flow
5. Increases the rate of global warming
6. Disruption of weather patterns and global climate
7. Degradation of soil and acceleration of the rate of soil erosion.
8. Induces and accelerates mass movement / land slides.
9. Increases flood frequency, magnitude / severity.
10.Breaks the water cycle
11.Breaks the nutrient cycle

PREVENTIVE MEASURES (OR) AVOID OF DEFORESTATION (OR)

METHODS OF CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
1. New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace the
trees cut down for timber
2. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged.
3. Forest pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides by using aero planes
4. Forest fire must be controlled by modern techniques.
5. Over grazing by cattle must be controlled.
6. Steps should be taken by the government to discourage the migration of people
into the islands from mainland.
7. Education and awareness programmes must be conducted.
8. Strict implementation of law of Forest conservation Act.

MINING
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 The process of extracting mineral resources and fossil fuels like coal from
the earth is called as mining.
Types of mining
1. Surface mining: Mining of minerals from shallow deposits
2. Underground mining: Mining of minerals from deep deposits
Steps involved in mining
1. Exploration
2. Development
3. Exploitation
4. Ore processing
5. Extraction and purification of minerals
The extent of damage by underground mining is more than that of surface mining,
which needs enormous amount of land area for its operation and management.

Effects of mining
1. Pollute soil, water and air.
2. Destruction of natural habitat.
3. Continuous removal of minerals leads to the formation of trench where water is
logged which contaminates the ground water.
4. Vibrations cause earth quakes.
5. Produces noise pollution
6. Reduces shape and size of the forest.
7. Increased risk of landslides.
8. Spoils the aesthetic beauty.

 WATER RESOURCES
Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country
is for irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and
domestic consumption.
USES
 Is essential for all forms of life.
 Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and
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 environmental activities. Virtually, all of these human uses, require fresh water.
 No plant or animal species can survive without water. If water in our body drops by
1% we feel thirst, if it drops by 10% we face death.

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:
Water from various water bodies

Evaporated by solar energy

Enters in to the atmosphere as clouds

Falls again on earth as rain or snow

Ultimately returns to the ocean.

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES

Fresh water resources

Surface water Underground water

Standing water bodies flowing water bodies

UNDERGROUND WATER
Aquifer: Layers of highly permeable rock that can store water is called an aquifer. Layer
of sand and gravels are good aquifers. Clay and crystalline rocks are not good aquifers.
Effects of over utilization of water
1. Decrease of ground water:
i. Increased usage decreases the ground water.
ii. Insufficient rain fall
iii. Building construction activities sealing the permeability of the soil.
2. Ground subsidence: If ground water withdrawal is greater than it’s recharge rate,
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 then the sediments in the aquifers get compacted. As a result shrinkage of land surface
takes place.
Problems: a. Structural damages to the buildings
b. Fracture in pipes.
c. Reversing the flow of canals.
3. Lowering of water table: Over utilization of ground water in arid and semi arid
regions for agriculture disturbs the state of equilibrium of the hydrological cycle.
Problem: a. Lowering of water table
b. Decrease the number of aquifers
c. Change the speed and direction of water.
4. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area over exploitation of ground water leads to
the intrusion of salt water from sea. Therefore that water cannot be used for drinking and
agriculture.

5. Over utilization of water causes earth quakes, landslides and famines.

6. Drying up of wells: Due to over utilization, ground water level decreases much
faster than can be regenerated. It leads to drying up of dug well and bore wells.
7. Pollution of water: Near the agricultural land ground water decreases therefore
water containing nitrogen enters into the ground and pollute the ground water.
Problem: Water which contains excess nitrate content is not suitable for drinking.

 MINERAL RESOURCES
Naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids with uniform chemical composition are
called as minerals.
 USES AND EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS
1. Development of industrial plants and machinery. - Fe, Al & Cu
2. Construction work – Fe, Al &Ni
3. Generation of energy - coal, lignite, uranium
4. Designing defense equipments like weapons and ornaments
5. Agricultural purposes – fertilizers and fungicides – Zn & Mn
6. Jewellery –Au, Ag & Pt
7. Making alloys for various purposes
8. Communication purposes – telephone, wires, cables and electronic devices

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 9. Medicinal purposes, particularly in ayurvedic system

 ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGES CAUSED BY MINING ACTIVITIES

1. Devegetation:
 Topsoil and vegetation get removed
 Deforestation leads to several ecological losses
 Land scape gets badly affected
2. Ground water contamination: Mining pollutes ground water; sulphur is converted
into sulphuric acid which enters into the soil.
3. Surface water pollution: Radioactive wastes and other acidic impurities affect
the surface water, which kills many aquatic animals.
4. Air pollution: Smelting and roasting are done to purify the metal which emits
air pollutants and damage the nearby vegetation. It causes many health problems.
5. Subsidence of land: Mainly underground mining results in cracks in houses, tilting
of buildings and bending of rail tracks.

 EFFECTS OF OVER EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS

1. Rapid depletion of mineral deposits
2. Wastage
3. Environmental pollution
4. Needs heavy energy requirements.

MANAGEMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES

1. The efficient use and protection of mineral resources.
2. Modernization of mining industries
3. Search for new deposit
4. Reuse and recycling of the metals.
5. Environmental impacts can be minimized by adopting eco friendly mining
technology.

FOOD RESOURCES
Food is an essential requirement for survival of life. Main components are carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins.

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  TYPES OF NUTRITION
1. Nutritious nutrition: To maintain good health and disease resistance, we need large
amount of carbohydrate, proteins, fats and smaller amount of micronutrients such as
vitamins and minerals such as Fe, Ca and iodine. Food and agricultural organization (FAO)
of United Nations estimated that on an average, the minimum calorie intake on a global
state is 2500 calories/day.
2. Under nutrition: People who cannot buy enough food to meet their basic energy
needs suffer from under nutrition. They receive less than 90% of this minimum dietary
calorie.
Effect of under nutrition: Suffer from mental retardation and infectious diseases.
3. Mal nutrition: Besides minimum calorie intake we also need proteins, minerals,
vitamins, iron and iodine. Deficiency leads to malnutrition resulting in several diseases.
India 3rd largest producer of crops, nearly 300 million Indians are still under nourished.
World food summit 1996: The world food summit, 1996 has set the goal to reduce the
number of under nourished and mal nourished people to just half by 2015.

 OVER GRAZING
It is a process of eating the forest vegetation without giving a chance to regenerate.

EFFECTS OF OVER GRAZING

1. Land degradation
 Over grazing removing the cover of vegetation
 Exposed soil gets compacted
 Soil moisture reduces.
 Desertification - OG leads to poor, dry and compacted soil.
 Land cannot be used for further cultivation.
2. Soil erosion: When the grasses are removed the soil becomes loose and gets eroded
by the action of wind and rain fall.
3. Loss of useful species: OG affects the plant population and their regenerating
capacity. OG replace the plant of high nutritive value with plant of low nutritive value.

AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants animals for
human use. It includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, breeding and
Environmental Science 17
 raising livestock, dairying and forestry.
1. TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
2. Traditional agriculture
3. Modern (or) industrialised agriculture
1. Traditional agriculture
Small plot, simple tools, surface water, organic fertilizer and a mixture of crops constitute
traditional agriculture. They produce enough food to feed their family and to sell it for
their income.
2. Modern agriculture
Hybrid seeds of single crop variety, high tech equipments, lot of fertilisers, pesticides and
water to produce large amount of single crops.
EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE
1. Problems in using fertilizers
a. Excess of fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance. (e.g) Punjab and
Haryana deficiency of nutrient zinc in the soil affect the productivity of the
soil.
b. Blue baby syndrome (nitrate pollution): Nitrate present in the fertilizer
causes blue baby syndrome, when the amount exceeds the limit leads to
death.
c. Eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus in the crop fields washed out by
runoff water in the water bodies, which increases the nourishment of the
lakes called eutrophication. Hence algal species increases rapidly. Life time of
the species is less and they decompose easily and pollute the water which
affects the aquatic life.
d. Problems in using pesticides
1. Death of non target organism.
2. Producing new pest – super pest
3. Bio magnification – Most of the pesticides are non bio degradable, keep on
concentrating in the food chain and it is harmful to human beings.
4. Risk of cancer:
a. It directly acts as carcinogen
b. It indirectly supports immune system.
3. Water logging: Land where water stand for most of the year.
Causes of water logging:

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 1. Excessive water supply
2. Heavy rain
3. Poor drainage
Remedy:
1. Preventing excessive irrigation
2. Subsurface drainage technology
3. Bio drainage like trees like Eucalyptus

ENERGY RESOURCES
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD
 Developed countries like USA and Canada constitute only 5% of the world’s population
but consume 25% of the world’s available energy.
 Energy consumed by a person in a developed country for a single day is equal to
energy consumed by a single person in a poor country for one year.
 Developed country GNP increases and energy consumption increases. In the poor
country GNP and energy consumption are less.
TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES:
1. Renewable energy resource (or)Non conventional energy resources
2. Non renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES: Energy which can be regenerated.
Merits of renewable energy resources
1. Unlimited supply
2. Provides energy security.
3. Fits into sustainable development concept.
4. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
5. Decentralized energy production.
Types of renewable energy resources
1. Solar energy: Nuclear fusion reaction of sun produces enormous amount of energy.
Several techniques are available for collecting, storing and using solar energy.
a. Solar cell (or) Photovoltaic cell (or) PV cell:
 Solar cell consists of p- type semi conductor (Si doped with B) and n-type
semi conductor (Si doped with P). P-type forms top layer and n-type forms
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 bottom layer.
 Solar rays fall on the top layer, the electrons from valence band promoted to
the conduction band which crosses the p-n junction into n-type semi

conductor. Potential difference between the two layers is created which

causes flow of electrons.

Uses: It is used in calculators, electronic watches, street light, water pumps etc.

b. Solar battery: Large number of solar cells connected in series is called solar
battery. It is used in remote areas where continuous power supply is a
problem.
c. Solar water heater: It consists of insulated box painted with black paint
with glass lid. Inside the box black painted copper coil is present. Cold water
is allowed to flow, it is heated up and flows out into a storage tank from
which water is supplied through pipes.
2. Wind energy: Moving air is called wind. The energy recovered from the force of the
wind is called wind energy It’s speed is high.
a. Wind mills: When a blowing wind strikes the blade of the wind mill, it
rotates continuously. And rotational motion of the blade drives number of
machines like water pump, flour mills and electric generators.
b. Wind farms: When a large number of mills are installed and joined together
in a definite pattern – it forms wind farm. It produces large amount of
electricity.
Condition: Minimum speed for wind generator is 15 Km/hr
Advantages:
1. It does not cause air pollution
2. Very cheap

Environmental Science 20
3. Bio mass energy:
Bio mass: Organic matter produced by plants or animals used as source of energy
Bio gas: Mixture of methane, carbondioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Methane is the major
constituent. It is obtained by anerobic fermentation of animal dung (or) plant wastes in
the presence of water.

Bio fuels: Fuels obtained by the fermentation of biomass.

Ex: Ethanol, methanol
Ethanol: Produced from sugar cane. Calorific value is less.
Methanol: Obtained from ethanol Calorific value too less.
Gasohol: Mixture of ethanol and gasoline India trial is going on to use gasohol in cars and
buses.
Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen produced by pyrolysis, photolysis and electrolysis of water. It
has high calorific value. Non polluting one because the combustion product is water.
Disadvantages:
1. Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive.
2. Safe handling is required.
3. Difficult to store and transport.
NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:
Energy which cannot be regenerated is called as non-renewable.
1. Coal: It is a solid fossil fuel.
Disadvantages:
1. When coal is burnt large amount of CO2 is released which causes global
warming.
2. S, N produces toxic gases during burning.
2. Petroleum: Crude oil is a liquid consists of more than hundreds of hydrocarbons and
Environmental Science 21
 small amount of impurities. The petroleum can be refined by fractional distillation. In
the world level 25% of oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia. At present rate of usage, the
world crude oil reserves are expected to get exhausted in just 40 years.

3. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): Petroleum gases obtained during FD and cracking
can be easily converted into liquid under high pressure as LPG. It is colorless and
odorless gas, but during cylindering mercaptans are added to detect leakage.
4. Natural gas: These are found above oil in oil wells. It is a mixture of methane and
other hydrocarbons. Calorific value is high. There are two types. Dry gas and wet gas.
5. Nuclear energy: Dr.H.Bhabha is a father of nuclear power development in India. 10
nuclear reactors are present in India. It produces 2% of India’s electricity. Nuclear
energy can be produced by two types of reactions. Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fission; It is a nuclear change in which heavier nucleus split into lighter
nuclei on bombardment of fast moving neutrons. Large amount of energy is released
through chain reaction.
Ex: Uranium with fast moving neutron gives barium and krypton in addition to three
neutrons; in the second stage it gives nine neutrons and so on. This process of
propagation of the reaction by multiplication is called chain reaction.
Nuclear fission: It is a nuclear change in which lighter nucleus is combined together
at extremely high temperature (1 billion 0C) to form heavier nucleus and a large
amount of energy is released.
Ex: Isotopes of hydrogen combine to form helium molecule.

ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Environmental Science 22
 INTRODUCTION:
ECOLOGY:
 The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
 The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) – means
“house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of. Hence,
ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the pattern of relations
between the organism and their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with
their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
ECO SYSTEM:
 In 1935, the British ecologist A.G.Tansley coined the term “eco system”.

Environmental Science 23
  The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological
sphere (or) house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living
organism does exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and
interdependent manner. Hence,
 A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as
ecosystem.
(OR)
 A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is
called as “ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the
ecosystems.

FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOLOGY

STRUCTURE:
 Living /Biotic
 Non-Living /Abiotitic
PROCESS:
 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter
CHANGE:
 Dynamic (Not static)
 Succession etc.
FUNCTION:
 Food chain
 Food web
 Ecological pyramids
 Energy Flow
 Cycling of matter

CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM
 Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.
 It contains both biotic and abiotic components.

Environmental Science 24
  The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow of
energy.
 The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
 Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called as
“ecological succession”.

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:
 The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
 A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
 These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.
 The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.
1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and
Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types
based on salt content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems
Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>

Environmental Science 25
 2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:
An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.
STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an
ecosystem explains the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the
biotic (living) components.
 Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components.
2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.

Biotic
Components

Eco System

Abiotic
Components

Fig: Components Of Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic

component”.
Examples: Plants (Producers)

Environmental Science 26
 Animals (Consumers) and
Micro Organisms (Decomposers)
 The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on
how they get their food.

A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.

A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)

 Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
 Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence
they are also called “Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)
B.Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:
 Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend
directly (or) indirectly on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
 Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

 Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
 They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant
eaters.
Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

Environmental Science 27
  They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.
Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.
iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to
devour)
 Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food.
Examples: humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.
iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)
 Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores.
Examples: beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.
C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)
 Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and
decompose them into simple compounds. During the decomposition inorganic
nutrients are released.
 The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple
products are called decomposers (or) reducers.
Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
2. Abiotic Components:
 The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”
 These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in
metabolic activities and then return to the environment. The abiotic
component of the ecosystems divided into three portions.
1. Climate factors : Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current,
rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.

Chemical Factors

Organic Substances Inorganic Substances

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 FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of
energy.
Types of functions:
 Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves
through photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their
own food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This
is called secondary function of eco system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and
producers and decompose them into simpler compounds. During the
decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following
terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.
A. Food Chain:
 Anything which we eat to live is called food.
 Food contains energy.
 Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
 The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of
organisms is called as “food chain”.
 A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus,
a food chain is a picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from
autotrophs (producers) to series of organisms in an environment, as
shown in the following figure.

Environmental Science 29
 SUN Producers Herbivores Decomposer

Carnivores Omnivores

Figure: Schematic representation of food chain.

 Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for
plants.
 The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of
the sunlight, chlorophyll, water and air. The consumers, including animals
and humans, cannot make their own food. They are always depending
upon the producers for their energy.
 Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals
and plants and release nutrients that become part of the soil, which are
re-used by new plants, back to the starting point of the food chain.
Types of food chain:
Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chains:
 Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to
decomposer food chain (or) detritus food chain through herbivores and
carnivores.
 It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and
b. Aquatic food chain
a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food
chain. Example: Grassland food chain
Forest land food chain
Desert land food chain
Grass land food chain
Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles
Forest food chain

Environmental Science 30
 Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion
b. Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial
food chain. It is seen in aquatic (water) eco system. Food chain in water is
called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond
Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish Large fish Man
Marine Food chain:
Sea Weeds Small fish Large fish Sharks and other animals

Figure:

Food chain

Grazing food chain Detritus food chain Parasite food chain

Terrestrial food chain Aquatic food chain

Marine food chain Fresh water food chain

Standing water food chain Running water food chain

Environmental Science 31
 2. Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter
(plants and animals) and goes to decomposer through consumers. Detritus food
chains, independent of solar energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic
matter.
Example:
Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish Large
fish
3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this
food chain either consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to
smaller organisms. A parasitic food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’
links.
Example: Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi

B. Food Web:
 Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.
 So, food web is a network of food chains.
 In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of
organisms are connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of
options of eating and being eaten at each tropic level. Thus, there is a inter
connecting of various food chains are called food webs and as shown in following
figure.

Bird(Eagle)
Snake Fish

Insect

Frog Grass

Grasshopper

Environmental Science 32
 Figure: FoodSpWarerbow

Hawk

Snake Insect

Mouse

Cat Lizard

Grain Grass

This food web shows many linear food chains <as shown in figure>. These linear food
chains are inter connected with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a
food web. The grazing food chains are as follows:
 Grains Mouse Cat
 Grains Mouse Hawk
 Grains Mouse Snake Hawk
 Grains Insect Sparrow Hawk
 Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
 Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk
The above food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.
C. Ecological Pyramids:
 The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles
Elton in 1927.
 Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which
the tropic levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
 An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.

Environmental Science 33
 Apex

Tertiary Consumers (Omnivores)

Decrease in number (or) Biomass (or)

Secondary Consumers
(Carnivores)

Primary Consumers
(Herbivores)

Producers

Bas
Figure: Formation of an Ecological Pyramid

 In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.

 On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in
organist population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.

Environmental Science 34
 1. Pyramid of numbers:
 It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

1. Upright Pyramid of numbers:

 The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic
level to higher tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”.
Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright
pyramid of numbers.
 The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and
st
large in numbers. So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1 tropic level).
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic
level. Since the numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses,
the size of which is lower.
 The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III
tropic level. Since the numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the
rats, the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic
level. The number and size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in
figure>.
 Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and
carnivores are decreases from lower tropic level to the higher tropic level.
Thus, these pyramids are upright.
 Therefore, the numbers of individual organisms permit area, decreases from
lower tropic level to higher tropic level as shown in figure.

Environmental Science 35
 Distance in

Apex

Large Fish Tertiary Consumers

Tertiary Consumers

Secondary Consumers
Small Fish Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
Zoo Plankton Ex: Protozoa

Producers
Phytoplankton (Algae)

Environmental Science 36
 Base
Large Fish

Small Fish

Zoo Plankton Ex: Protozoa

Primary Consumers

Phytoplankton (Algae)
Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in an aquatic (pond) ecosystem

Environmental Science 37
 2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:
 A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
 In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number.
So, these producers occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II
tropic level. Since the number of birds, insects and other species are higher
when compared to the trees, the size of which is broader.
 The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy
the third tropic level. Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when
compared to the birds, insects the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV tropic
level. Since the number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the fox and
snakes the size of which is very (or) narrow lower. So the pyramid is narrow
on both sides and broader in the middle and hence it is called partially
upright of number as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
Lion, Tiger

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary Consumers

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Producers
Trees

Environmental Science 38
 Lion, Tiger
Tertiary Consumers
Snakes, Foxes
Secondary

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees
Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in the forest ecosystem

3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the
following figure.

Hyper parasites-Fleas, Microbes

Tertiary Consumers

Parasites, Lice & Bugs Secondary Consumers

Birds
Primary Consumers

Trees
Producers

2. Pyramid of Biomass:
 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological
material (or) organism) present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in gram per unit area.

Environmental Science 39
  Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of
biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
 The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first
tropic level to consumer level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of
biomass”
 A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
 In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer
levels (as shown in figure)

Apex
Base

Lion- 10kgs Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, fox- 100kgs

Secondary Consumers
Distance in

Insects, Birds- 1000kgs Primary Consumers

Trees-10000kgs Producers

Environmental Science 40
 Lion, Tiger Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees Producers

ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

 The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer
level are called as Inverted pyramid of biomass.
 Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
 In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer
levels as shown in the following figure.

Big fish
Tertiary Consumers

Sma ll fish Secondary Consumers

Insect
Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

Environmental Science 41
 Big fish Tertiary Consumers

Small fish
Secondary Consumers

Insects Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

Figure: Pyramid of biomass in pond (eco system)

3. Pyramid of Energy:
 It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
 In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level.
At each successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in
the form of heat, respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of
the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decrease in energy at each and
every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of
energy is always upright as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
5 Kcals

50 K cals Secondary Consumers

Decrease in

500 K Cals Primary Consumers

5000 K cals Producers

Environmental Science 42
 5 K Cals Tertiary Consumers

50 K cals
Secondary

500 k cals Primary Consumers

5000 K cals Producers

MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild
animals
Types:
1. Tropical – deciduous, evergreen, wet green
2. Littoral and swamps
3. Sub tropical
Characteristics:
Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc
Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals
Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh
water and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic
ecosystems.

Environmental Science 43
 Types:
A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature –
organisms: algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often
exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing,
swimming etc.
B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification,
especially during summer is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone
Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone
Third layer – very poor or no sunlight – Profundal zone
Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Organisms:
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached
to sediments eg. Snails
Types of lakes : Many types
1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content
2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer
contamination
3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over
evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic
eruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.

C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role.
Oxygen and nutrient content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face
extreme difference in climatic conditions but they do not suffer from oxygen
deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large surface area of
running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have very narrow

Environmental Science 44
 range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims of
industrial pollution.
D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
 Three phases:
1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of
dissolved oxygen – plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more
oxygen are found.
2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of
plants and fishes that require less oxygen are seen.
3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought –
deposited in plains and delta – very rich in biodiversity.

E. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface –

2,50,000 species – huge variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg,
oils, natural gas, sand etc. – major sinks of carbon di oxide – regulate
biochemical cycles.
 Two zones:
1. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary
productivity.
2. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
 Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
 Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
 Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.

F. Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal
actions – very rich in nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are
highly tolerant – many species are endemic – high food productivity – however
to be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.

Environmental Science 45
 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:
Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic –
overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate
a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg.
Savannas in Africa. Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry
seasons – termite mounds produce methane – leads to fire – high in
photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of high CO 2 – global
warming.
b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and
very hot summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow –
soil is quite fertile – cleaned for agriculture.
c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox,
etc. – A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the
year – known as permafrost – summer insects and birds appear.
Components:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: grass, caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.

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 3. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION
 Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of air, water and land that may be harmful to human life
and other animals, living conditions, industrial processes and cultural assets.
Pollution can be natural or manmade.
 The agents that pollute are called pollutants.
POLLUTANTS
Pollutants are by-products of man’s action. The important pollutants are summarized
below:
• Deposited matter—Soot, smoke, tar or dust and domestic wastes.
• Gases—CO, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, halogens (chlorine, bromine
and iodine).
• Metals—Lead, zinc, iron and chromium.
• Industrial pollutants—Benzene, ether, acetic acid etc., and
cyanide compounds.
• Agriculture pollutants—Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.
• Photochemical pollutants—Ozone, oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes,
ethylene, photochemical smog and proxy acetyl nitrate.
• Radiation pollutants—Radioactive substances and radioactive fall-outs
of the nuclear test.
Classification of Pollutants
Nature of disposal: On the basis of natural disposal, pollutants are of two
types:

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 1. Non-degradable pollutants: These are the pollutants, which degrade at a very
slow pace by the natural biological processes. These are inorganic compounds
such as salts (chlorides), metallic oxides waste producing materials and
materials like, aluminum cans, mercuric salts and even DDT. These continue to
accumulate in the environment.
2. Biodegradable pollutants: These include domestic sewage that easily
decomposes under natural processes and can be rapidly decomposed by natural/
artificial methods. These cause serious problems when accumulated in large
amounts as the pace of deposition exceeds the pace of decomposition of
disposal.

Nature of form: On the basis of the form in which they persist after their release
into the environment, pollutants can be categorized under two types:
(i) Primary pollutants: These include those substances, which are emitted
directly from some identifiable sources. This include-
a. Sulphur compounds: SO2, SO3, H2S produced by the oxidation of
fuel.
b. Carbon compounds: Oxides of carbon (CO+CO2) and hydrocarbons.
c. Nitrogen compounds: NO2 and NH3.
d. Halogen compounds: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid
(HCl).
e. Particles of different size and substances: These are found
suspended in air. The fine particles below the diameter of 100u are
more abundant and include particles of metals, carbon, tar, pollen,
fungi, bacteria, silicates and others.
(ii) Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are produced by the
combination of primary emitted pollutants in the atmosphere.
Ex: In bright sunlight, a photochemical reaction occurs between
nitrogen oxides; oxygen and waste hydrocarbons from gasoline that
forms peroxy-acetyle nitrate (PAN) and ozone (O3), both of them are
toxic components of smog and cause smarting eyes and lung damage.

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 TYPES OF POLLUTION
1. AIR POLLUTION
Introduction: Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of
the air, irrespective of indoors or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to
the air in the atmosphere can be termed as pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases,
dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and makes it difficult for plants, animals and
humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.
The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in the air in such
concentration which are harmful to man and his environment. A number of ingredients
find their way in the air and these are mostly gases, which rapidly spread over wide areas.
Causes of Air pollution:
1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil
fuels like coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one of the major causes
of air pollution. Pollutants emitting from vehicles cause immense amount of
pollution. Carbon Monoxide produced by improper or incomplete combustion
emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides that is
produced from both natural and manmade processes.
2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture
related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities emit harmful
chemicals into the air and cause water pollution.
3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release
large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and
chemicals into the air thereby depleting the quality of air. Petroleum refineries also
release hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that pollute the air and also
cause land pollution.
4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are
extracted using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are
released in the air causing massive air pollution.
5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution.

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 6. Suspended Particulate matter: Suspended particulate matter popular by
its acronym SPM, is another cause of pollution.

Types of Air Pollutants

 Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources.
The pollutants that are a direct result of the process can be called primary
pollutants. A classic example of a primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide
emitted from factories
 Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and
reactions of primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary
pollutants is known to be as secondary pollutant.

Common air pollutants

1. Carbon Dioxide: CO2 content of air has increased by 20% during the last
century. CO2 causes nausea and headache. Its increase in the air may
cause green house effect, rise in the atmospheric temperature. This may
melt the polar ice resulting in rise in level of oceans and flooding of
coastal regions.
2. Carbon Monoxide: It is a very poisonous gas and is produced by incomplete
combustion of fuel. If inhaled. It combines with hemoglobin and reduces
its oxygen-carrying capacity. This leads to laziness, reduced vision and
death.
3. Oxides of Nitrogen: These include NO and NO2, which are released by
automobiles and chemical industries as waste gases and also by burning
of materials. These are harmful and lower the oxygen carrying capacity of
blood.
4. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 and SO3 are produced by burning of coal and
petroleum and are harmful to buildings, clothing, plants and animals. High
concentration of SO2 causes chlorosis (yellowing of leaves), plasmolysis,
damage to mucous membrane and metabolic inhibition. SO 2 and SO3 react
with water to form Sulphuric and sulphurous acids. These may precipitate
as rain or snow producing acid rain or acid precipitation.

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 5. Photochemical Oxidants: Formed by the photochemical reactions between
primary pollutants, viz. oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons. Nitrogen
oxides in the presence of sunlight react with un-burnt hydrocarbons to
form peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), Ozone, aldehydes and some other complex
organic compounds in the air.
6. Hydrocarbons: These are un-burnt discharges from incomplete combustion
of fuel in automobiles. These forms PAN with nitrogen oxides, which is
highly toxic.
7. Particulate Matter: Industries and automobiles release fine solid and liquid
particles into the air. Fly ash and soot from burning of coal, metal dust
containing lead, chromium, nickel, cadmium, zinc and mercury from
metallurgical processes; cotton dust from textile mills; and pesticides
sprayed on crops are examples of particulate pollutants in the air. These
are injurious to respiratory tract.
8. Aerosols: Aerosols are chemicals released in the air in vapor form. These
include fluorocarbon (carbon compound having fluorine) present in
emissions from the Jet aero planes. Aerosols deplete the ozone layer.
Thinning of ozone layer results in more harmful ultraviolet rays reaching
the earth, which are harmful to skin, and can lead to skin cancer also.
9. Radioactive Substances: These are released by nuclear explosions and
explosives. These are extremely harmful for health.
10. Fluorides: Rocks, soils and. minerals containing fluorides release an
extremely toxic gas called hydrogen fluoride on heating. This gas is highly
injurious to livestock and cattle.

Control measures
The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion,
gravitational settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the
atmosphere. However, control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and
effective method through preventive or control technologies.
1. Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are
1. Using unleaded petrol

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 2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content
3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as
opposed to private vehicles
4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located
on busy streets
5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide
and absorb noise
6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city
preferably on the downwind of the city.
7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons
2. Control measures in industrial centers:
1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and
every industry
2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout
must be made mandatory
3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried
out to know the emission levels.

Equipment used to control air pollution

Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.
1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate
temperature so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the
smoke consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.
2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-
static precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove
particulates from the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants are
shown below. All methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed safely.
Wet scrubber can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.
3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt
with chemical treatment.

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 WATER POLLUTION
Introduction: Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on
humans and aquatic life.”

Sources of water pollution

1. Point sources: These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations
through pipes, ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.
Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and
oil tankers.
2. Non point sources: These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of
discharge. They are large land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff,
subsurface flow or deposition from the atmosphere.
Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands,
livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses and parking
lots.

Types, effects and sources of water pollution

Water pollution is any chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has a
harmful effect on living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
S.No Pollutants Human sources Health Effects
1 Infectious agents Human and animal Variety of diseases
Ex: Bacteria, Viruses, wastes
Protozoa, and parasitic
worms.

2 Oxygen demanding wastes Sewage, Animal Degrade water quality by

(Dissolved oxygen) feedlots, paper mills depleting water of dissolved
Ex: Organic wastes such as and food processing oxygen. This causes fish and
animal manure and facilities other forms of oxygen-
plant debris consuming aquatic life to die.

3 Inorganic chemicals Surface runoff,  Make freshwater unusable

Ex: Water soluble inorganic industrial effluents for drinking and irrigation

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 chemicals: and household  Cause skin cancer and
Acids, Compounds of toxic cleansers neck damage, Damage to
metals such as lead (Pb), nervous system, liver and
arsenic (As) and selenium kidneys
(Se) and Salts such as NaCl  Harm fish and other
in oceans and fluoride (F-) aquatic life
found in some soils.  Lower crop yields
 Accelerate corrosion of
metals exposed to such
water

4 Organic chemicals Industrial effluents,  Can threaten human

Ex: Oil, Gasoline, Plastics, household cleansers health by causing nervous
Pesticides, Cleaning and surface runoff system damage and some
solvents and Detergents. from farms. cancers.
 Harm fish and wildlife.

5 Plant nutrients Sewage, manure and  Can cause excessive

Ex: Water soluble runoff of agricultural growth of algae and other
compounds containing and urban fertilizers aquatic plants, which die,
nitrate, Phosphate and decay, deplete dissolved
Ammonium ions. oxygen in water thereby
killing fish
 Drinking water with
excessive levels of
nitrates lower the oxygen
carrying capacity of the
blood and can kill urban
children and infants.

6 Sediment Land erosion  Causes cloudy water

Ex: Soil, silt, etc. thereby reducing
photosynthetic activity
 Disruption of aquatic food
chain

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  Carries pesticides,
bacteria and other
harmful substances
 Settles and destroys
feeding and spawning
grounds of fish
 Clogs and fills lakes,
artificial reservoirs,
stream channels and
harbors

7 Radioactive materials: Nuclear power Genetic mutations, birth defects

Ex: Radioactive isotopes of: plants, mining and and certain cancers.
Iodine, Radon, Uranium, processing of
Cesium and Thorium. uranium and other
ores,

nuclear weapon
production
and natural sources.
8 Heat (Thermal pollution) Water cooling of  Low dissolved oxygen
Ex: Excessive heat electric power plants levels thereby making
and some types of aquatic organisms more
industrial plants. vulnerable to disease,
parasites and toxic
chemicals.
 When a power plant starts
or shuts down for repair,
fish and other organisms
adapted to a particular
temperature range, can
be killed by an abrupt
temperature change
known as thermal shock.

Environmental Science 55
 Control measures of water pollution
1. Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central
government
2. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment
areas of rivers, ponds or streams
3. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent
disposal of wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
4. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.
5. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence
more trees should be planted.
6. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into
any natural water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply
schemes and domestic sewage must be used for irrigation.
7. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective
control of water pollution.
8. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution
using the media.
9. Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and
these laws should be modified from time to time based on current requirements
and technological advancements.
10. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

discharge a lot of heat that is not utilized along with traces of toxic radio nuclides
into nearby water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and processing
installations are also responsible for increasing the temperatures of water bodies. The
operations of power reactors and nuclear fuel processing units constitute the major
contributor of heat in the aquatic environment. Heated effluents from power plants are
discharged at 10 C higher than the receiving waters that affect the aquatic flora and
fauna.
11. Coal-fired power plants: Coal fired power plants constitute a major
source of thermal pollution. The condenser coils in such plants are cooled with water
from nearby lakes or rivers. The resulting heated water is discharged into streams
thereby raising the water temperature by 15C. Heated effluent decreases the dissolved
content of water resulting in death of fish and other aquatic organisms. The sudden

Environmental Science 56
 fluctuation of temperature also leads to "thermal shock" killing aquatic life that has
become acclimatized to living in a steady temperature.
12.Industrial effluents: Industries like textile, paper, pulp and sugar
manufacturing release huge amounts of cooling water along with effluents
into nearby natural water bodies. The waters polluted by sudden and heavy
organic loads result in severe drop in levels of dissolved oxygen leading to
death of several aquatic organisms.
13.Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is discharged into rivers, lakes,
canals or streams with minimal treatment or without any treatment. These
wastes have a higher organic temperature and organic load. This leads to
decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the receiving waters resulting in the
set-up of anaerobic conditions causing release of foul and offensive gases in
water. Eventually, this leads to development of anoxic conditions resulting in
rapid death of aquatic organisms.
14.Hydro-electric power: Generation of hydroelectric power sometimes leads
to negative thermal loading in water systems. Apart from electric power
industries, various factories with cooling requirement contribute to thermal
loading.

SOIL POLLUTION

Introduction
Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which
may cause harmful effect on living organisms”.

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 Types, effects and sources of soil pollution

S.No Pollutants Sources Health Effects

1 Industrial wastes Industrial pollutants are These pollutants affect
mainly discharged from and alter the chemical
various origins such as pulp and biological properties
and paper mills, chemical of soil. As a result,
fertilizers, oil refineries, hazardous chemicals can
sugar factories, tanneries, enter into human food
textiles, steel, distilleries, chain from the soil or
fertilizers, pesticides, coal water, disturb the
and mineral mining biochemical process and
industries, drugs, glass, finally lead to serious
cement, petroleum and effects on living
engineering industries etc. organisms.

2 Urban wastes Plastics, glasses, metallic Alter the constitution of

cans, fibers, paper, rubbers, soil
street sweepings, fuel Cause Water logging
residues, leaves, containers, Cause
abandoned vehicles and biomagnifications
other of toxic materials
through food chain
discarded manufactured
products.
3 Agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, Water logging,
practices weedicides, farm wastes, Salinisation,
manure debris, soil erosion micronutrient imbalance,
loss of fertile soil

4 Radioactive Atomic reactor, nuclear Mutations,

pollutants radioactive devices,
Explosion of hydrogen changes functions of
weapons and cosmic living beings,
radiations Biomagnifications,

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 cancers, Infant mortality

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 5 Biological agents The human and animal Variety of diseases
wastes, garbage, waste Cause nutrient
water imbalance

6 Pesticides chlorinated hydrocarbon Reduces the activity of

insecticide sex hormones of male
Organic phosphorous and female.
pesticides Causes diseases to
human beings.

7 Fertilizers Different fertilizers The nitrate causes

discharge N, Na, K, S, cancer, blue baby
Nitrates etc syndrome in infants.
8 Polymer, Waste from Biomagnifications, water
different logging, create cancers
Plastics & other sources in animals and human
water beings.

Control measures of soil pollution

1. Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices.

Ex: Planting trees on barren slopes
2. Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting
cultivation
3. Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.
4. Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes
also helps arrest soil erosion in the long term.
5. Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and
animals pose a disposal problem. Open dumping is the most commonly
practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for solid waste
disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports field.
6. Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of
toxic chemical pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of
synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be

Environmental Science 60
 used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them wastefully and
polluting the soil.
7. Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary
habits.
Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal
methods.
8. Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should
be imparted to educate people on health hazards by environmental
education.
Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can
achieve this.
9. Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes
such as paper, plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and
industrial effluents etc should be recycled and reused.
Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated
waste treatment methods should be adopted.
10.Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and
pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear
explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

NOISE POLLUTION
Introduction
Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes
discomfort to all living beings". Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB) , that is the
tenth part of the longest unit Bel. One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.

Types of noise: Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years. Noise
is classified as:
1. Industrial Noise
2. Transport Noise
3. Domestic Noise

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 Industrial Noise:
It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines. Sources
of such noise pollution are caused by machines from machines in various factories,
industries and mills. Noise from mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable
and a nuisance to the public. The Indian Institute of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai
reported that increasing industrial pollution damages the hearing ability by at least
20%. Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial blower, are
exposed to 112dB for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.
Transport Noise:
Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft.
The number of automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles,
buses, trucks and diesel engine vehicles has increased enormously in the recent
past further aggravating the problem of transport noise. Noise levels in most
residential areas in metropolitan cities are hovering around the border line due to
increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise pollution leads to
deafening in the elderly.
Domestic noise:
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and
community. Common sources of noise are musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios,
Transistors, Telephones, and loudspeakers etc. Statistically ever since the industrial
revolution, noise in the environment has been doubled every ten years.

Effects of Noise pollution

 Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:
o contraction of blood vessels
o making skin pale
o Excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for
high blood pressure.
o Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress
o Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion
 Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc

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  The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood,
which in-turn increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive
spams and dilation of the pupil of the eye.
 Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behavior. Noise pollution may cause
damage to the heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional
disturbance.
 The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that
diminishes some part of the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of
certain frequency pattern leads to chronic damage to the inner ear.
 Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders
 Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and
semicircular canals of the internal ear.
 The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes.
People are subjected to psychiatric illness.
 Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.
 The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severe
noise pollution causes:
 Popularly dilation
 Impairment of night vision and
 Decrease in rate of color perception
Control measures:
1. SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic
treatment to machine surface, design changes, limiting operational timings,
etc
2. TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the source
inside a sound insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or provision
of sound absorbing materials along the path.
3. RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering
the work schedule or provision of personal protection devices such as ear
plugs for operating noisy machinery. The measure may include dissipation
and deflection methods.
4. OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.

Environmental Science 63
 Preventive measures

1. Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic

2. Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas
3. Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals
4. Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof
5. Reduction of traffic density in residential areas
6. Giving preference to mass public transport system.

MARINE POLLUTION
Introduction
The discharge of waste substances in to the sea resulting in harm to the living resources,
hazards to the human health hindrances to the fishery and impairment of quality use of
sea water.

Sources
1. Dumping the wastes: Dumping of untreated wastes and sewages in the oceans
by coastal towns, cities and industries. Rivers on the way to sea carry huge amount
of sewage garbage agricultural discharge pesticide heavy metals. Huge quantity of
plastic dumped in to the sea.
2. Oil: This is discharged in to the sea as crude oil and as separate fraction. Oil and
it’s fractions are used in houses automobiles and industries. This causes
devastation of marine environment
3. Radioactive materials enter the ocean from nuclear weapon testing.
4. Toxics: Toxic waste is the most harmful form of marine pollution. Once toxic
wastes affects an organism it quickly passes along the food chain and as sea food
which cause various problems.
5. Marine Debris: Garbage like plastic bags, ropes helium balloons

Effects of marine pollution

1. Heavy metals and organic pollutants damages birds by thinning of egg shells
and tissue damage of egg.

Environmental Science 64
 2. Oil pollution causes damage to marine animals and plants including algae
bird, fish etc.
3. Oil spilling in the sea causes abnormal low body temperature in birds
resulting in hypothermia. During Exxon Valdez accident 150 rare species of
bald eagles are affected by ingested oil.
4. Oil films are able to retard the rate of oxygen uptake by water.
5. Hydrocarbon and benzpyrene accumulate in food chain and consumption of
fish by man may cause cancer.
6. Many marine birds ingest plastic that causes gastrointestinal disorders.
7. Oil spills inhibit photosynthesis and the growth of planktons. All aquatic
animals depend either directly of indirectly on planktons the basis of tropic
chain.
Control of marine pollution
 Nature and world conservation union suggest the principles
1. The industrial unit on the coastal lines should be equipped with pollution
control instrument.
2. Urban growth near the coast should be regulated.
 Methods of removal of oil
1. Physical methods.
 skimming the oil off the surface with suction device
 Floating oil can be absorbed using absorbing materials like ploy
urethane foam. Chopped straw and saw dust also used to absorbed oil
from the sea water.
2. Chemical methods like dispersion , emulsification and using chemical
additives are used to coagulated the oil

Protective method
1. Municipal and industrial waste should be treated before disposing in to sea
2. Coastal waste are periodically analyzed for detecting pollution level
3. Soil erosion in the coastal land should be arrested be suitable techniques
4. Recreation beaches should be maintained to meet hygienic and aesthetic
standard.

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 Nuclear Pollution
Nuclear pollution is the physical pollution of air, water and soil by radioactive materials.

Sources of Nuclear Pollution

The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade.

Effects of Nuclear Pollution

Studies have shown that the health effects due to radiation are dependent on the level of
dose, kind of radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells irradiated. Radiation
effects can be somatic or genetic.

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 1. Somatic effects: Somatic affects the function of cells and organs. It
causes damages to cell membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting
in abnormal cell functions, cell division, growth and death.
2. Genetic effects: Genetic effects the future generations. Radiations can
cause mutations, which are changes in genetic makeup of cells. These
effects are mainly due to the damages to DNA molecules. People suffer
from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to doses around 100 to
1000 roentgens.

Management of Radioactive Waste

 The radioactive waste which comes out from industry, nuclear reactors
should be stored and allowed to decay either naturally in closed drums or
in very large underground air tight cemented tanks (Delay and Decay).
 The intermediate radioactive waste should be disposed off into the
environment after diluting it with some inert materials (Dilute and
Disperse)
 Now-a-days small quantities of high activity wastes are converted into
solids such as concrete and then it is buried underground or sea.
(Concentrate and contain)

Control Measures

 Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and

scientifically.
 Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the
geology of the area, tectonic activity and meeting other established
conditions.
 Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
 Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of
radioactive elements as fuel and careless handling of radioactive isotopes
must be prevented.

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  Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be
ensured in nuclear plants.
 Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x-
rays.
 Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area
should be ensured.
 Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury the
waste in hundreds of meters deep in the earth’s crust is considered to be the
best safety long term option.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction
Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people
generating enormous quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental
degradation. The waste is normally disposed in open dumps creating nuisance and
environmental degradation. Solid wastes cause a major risk to public health and the
environment. Management of solid wastes is important in order to minimize the adverse
effects posed by their indiscriminate disposal.

Types of solid wastes

Depending on the nature of origin, solid wastes are classified into

1. Urban or municipal wastes

2. Industrial wastes
3. Hazardous wastes

 Sources of urban wastes: Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials

thrown out from homes.
Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste
metals, etc.
 Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets,
hotels, offices, institutions, etc.
Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.

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  Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction materials.
Ex: Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.
 Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic materials
Ex: Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN WASTES

urban wastes are classified into:
 Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organisms
are called bio-degradable wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
 Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials that cannot be
degraded by micro organisms are called non-biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.

SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES

 The main source of industrial wastes is chemical industries, metal and
mineral processing industries.
Ex: Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes
 Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities
 Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic
materials.
 Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish,
organic wastes, acid, alkali, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood,
oils, paints, dyes, etc.

EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and

immediate surroundings, biodegradable materials undergo decomposition
producing foul smell and become a breeding ground for disease vectors.

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 2. Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes
that affect soil characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped
on the soil
3. Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the
groundwater.
4. Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics,
radioactive materials and batteries) produce furans, dioxins and
polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to human beings.
5. Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode of collection,
transportation, segregation of wastes and disposal techniques.

STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Two important steps involved in solid waste management are- Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
of Raw Materials
1. Discarding wastes
 Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste
also gets reduced.
 Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use can be
reused. Rubber rings can be made from discarded cycle tubes and this
reduces waste generation during manufacture of rubber bands.

2. Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful

products
Ex: Old aluminum cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new
cans and bottles, preparation of cellulose insulation from paper, Preparation
of automobile body and construction material from steel cans This
method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e, 3R's help save money, energy,
raw materials and reduces pollution.

Discarding wastes
The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:

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 1. Landfill
2. Incineration and
3. Composting
1. LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in which alternate layers of 80
cm thick refuse is covered with selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solid
waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and land is used for parks, roads and small buildings.
This is the most common and cheapest method of waste disposal and is mostly employed
in Indian cities.
Advantages:
1. It is simple and economical
2. Segregation of wastes is not required
3. Land filled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes
4. Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.
5. Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.
Disadvantages:
1. Large area is required
2. Land availability is away from the town, transportation costs are high
3. Leads to bad odor, if landfill is not properly managed.
4. Land filled areas will be sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application of
insecticides and pesticides at regular intervals.
5. Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet weather.

2. INCINERATION:
 It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more
hazardous material and organic content. It is a thermal process and very effective
for detoxification of all combustible pathogens. It is expensive when compared to
composting or land-filling.
 In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator.
Combustible substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non-
combustible matter such as glass, porcelain and metals are separated before
feeding to incinerators.

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  The non-combustible materials can be left out for recycling and reuse. The leftover
ashes and clinkers may account for about 10 to 20% which need further disposal by
sanitary landfill or some other means.
 The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of
steam power for generation of electricity through turbines.
 Municipal solid waste is generally wet and has a high calorific value. Therefore, it
has to be dried first before burning. Waste is dried in a preheated from where it is
taken to a large incinerating furnace called "destructor" which can incinerate about
100 to 150 tons per hour.
 Temperature normally maintained in a combustion chamber is about 700 C which
may be increased to 1000 C when electricity is to be generated.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment
2. Requires very little space
3. Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits
4. Safest from hygienic point of view
5. An incinerator plant of 3000 tons per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Its capital and operating cost is high.
2. Operation needs skilled personnel.
3. Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air
pollution.

3. COMPOSTING: It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country.

In this method, bulk organic waste is converted into fertilizer by biological action.
Separated compostable waste is dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and
finally covered with earth of 20cm and left for decomposition. Sometimes, Actionmycetes
are introduced for active decomposition. Within 2 to 3 days, biological action starts.
Organic matter is destroyed by actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated increasing the
temperature of compost by 75C and the refuse is finally converted into powdery brown

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 colored odorless mass called humus that has a fertilizing value and can be used in
agriculture. Humus contains lot of Nitrogen essential for plant growth apart from
phosphates and other minerals.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Manure added to soil increases water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
2. This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.
3. Manure can be sold thereby reducing cost of disposing wastes
4. Recycling can be done

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Non-consumables have to be disposed separately
2. The technology has not caught-up with the farmers and hence does not have an
assured market.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
FLOODS
Increased rainfall or rapid snow melting causes more flow of water in the streams. This
excess water flow in a stream covering the adjacent land is called a flood. Floodplain is
defined in terms of a flood frequency. Flood frequency is referred as 10 -year flood, 100-
year flood, etc. A 10-year flood at any point in a stream is that discharge of water which
may be expected to occur on average once in 10 years. Floodplains are genera lly fertile,
flat and easily formed.

CAUSES OF FLOOD

 Construction of buildings in a flood plain

 Removing vegetation
 Paving roads and parking areas
 Deforestation
 Heavy rainfall
 Urbanization

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  Earthquakes

Effects of flood
 Erosion of top soil and vegetation
 Damage and loss to land, house and property
 Spread of endemic waterborne diseases
 Interruption of basic facilities of community such as highways, railways,
telephone, electricity and day-to-day essentials
 Silting of reservoirs and dams
 FLOOD CONTROL
 Construction of flood control dam
 Deepening, widening and straightening of streams
 Lining of streams
 Banning of construction of buildings in floodplains
 Converting flood-plains into wildlife habitat, parks, and recreation areas.

LANDSLIDES

 Landslides occur when mass of earth material move downward. It is also called
mass wasting or mass movement.
 sudden landslide occurs when unconsolidated sediments of a hillside are saturated
by rainfall or water logging.
 Many landslides take place in coincidence with earthquakes. The most common
form of landslides is earthquake induced landslides or more specifically rock falls
and slides of rock fragments that form on steep slopes.
 The size of area affected by earthquake induced landslides depends o n the
magnitude of the earthquake, its focal depth, the topography and geologic
conditions near the causative fault, the amplitude, frequency, composition and
duration of ground shaking.

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 3.3.9.2.1 Control measures for landslides
 Avoid construction activity in landslide occurring areas.
 Reducing slope of hilly side
 Stabilizing the slope portion
 Increasing plantation of deep rooted vegetation on the slope.

EARTHQUAKES
 An earthquake occurs when rocks break and slip along a fault in the earth.
Earthquakes occur due to deformation of crust and upper mantle of the earth.
 Due to heating and cooling of the rock below these plates, movement of adjacently
overlying plates and great stresses, deformation occurs.
 Tremendous energy cans build-up between neighboring plates.
 If accumulated stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, the rocks break suddenly
releasing the stored energy as an earthquake.
 The earthquake releases energy in the form of waves that radiate from the
epicenter in all directions.
 The 'p' wave or primary wave alternately compresses and expands material in the
same direction it is travelling.
 This wave can move through solid rocks and fluids.
 These are the fastest waves. The is wave or secondary wave is slower and shake
the ground up, down, back and forth perpendicular to the direction in which it is
travelling. Surface waves follow both the 'P' and 'S' waves.
 The magnitude of an earthquake is measured in Richter scale. The Richter scale is
logarithmic.

Effects of earthquake
 Ground shaking
 Liquefaction of ground
 Ground displacement
 Landslides
 Flood
 Fire

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  Tsunami

Control of earthquake
 There is virtually no technique to control the occurrence of earthquake. However,
certain preventive measures can be taken to minimize the damage.
 Minimizing development activity (especially construction, mining, construction of dams
and reservoirs) in areas known to be active seismic zones.
 Continuously monitoring seismic activity using 'seismographs' and alerting people
regarding any recorded disturbance in advance.

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 SOCIAL ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENT
Introduction:
From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development
Man is part of the nature and he is bound to obey the laws of nature. He depends on his
environment for basic things. More developmental activities are adopted in order to
increase the quality of life. For that he uses the available resources. The Earth has limited
supply of resources and renewable resources. These are to be managed in a scientific
manner for availing the generations to come. Hence developmental activities are to be
taken with more care about the environment and its protection. It brings benefits to all
not only to the present generation but also for future generations.

Sustainable development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generation to meet their own needs.

Important components of Sustainable development:

1. Economic development

2. Community development

3. Environmental protection

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 True sustainable development aims at optimum use of natural resources with high
degree of reusability, minimum wastage, least generation of toxic by-products and
maximum productivity. Aspects of sustainable development:

Inter generational equity-It states stat we should hand over a safe, healthy and
resourceful environment to future generation.

Intra generational equity:

A technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth of
poor countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

Approaches for sustainable development:

1. Devloping appropriate technology-technology which is locally adoptable, ecofriendly,
resource efficient and culturally suitable should be adopted. It uses local labour, less
resources and produces minimum waste.
2. Reduce ,Reuse and Recycle (3Rapproach) –Optimum use of natural resources using it
again and again instead of throwing it on wasteland or water and recycling the material
in to further products. It reduces waste generation and pollution.
3. Providing environmental education and awareness-Thinking and attitude of people
towards earth and environment should be changed by providing environmental
awareness and education.
4. Consumption of renewable resources- It is very important to consume the natural
resources in such a way that the consumption should not exceed the regeneration
capacity.
5. Non-renewable resources should be conserved by recycling and reusing.
6. By population control we can make sustainable development.

Urban problems related to energy:

Urbanization –Movement of human population from rural; areas to urban areas for
want of better education, communication, health, employment etc.

Causes:
Cities are the main centers of economic growth, trade transportation, medical
facilities and employment.

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 Urban sprawl:
The phenomenon of spreading of the cities in to sub-urban or rural areas is called urban
sprawl. Urban growth is so fast and is difficult to accommodate all commercial industrial
residential and educational facilities within the limited area.

Energy demanding activities:

Urban people consume lot of energy and materials in comparison with rural people.
This is because urban people have high standard of life and their life style demand
more energy.

Examples for energy demands:

1. Residential and commercial lightings.
2. Industries using large proportion of energy.
3. Usage of fans fridge, A.C, washing machines.

Control and prevention of pollution technologies need more

energy.
Solution for urban energy problems:

1. Energy consumption must be minimized in all aspects.

2. Public transportation should be used instead of motor cycles and cars.
3. Using of solar energy and wind energy.
4. Production capacity must be increased.

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 Environmental Ethics

It refers to issues, principles and guidelines related to human interactions

with their Environment. (OR)

Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It deals with morals and values. An ethic is a

principle or value that we use to decide whether an action is good or bad.

Ethics differs from country to country.

Functions of Environment:

1. It moderates climate conditions of the soil.

2 A healthy economy depends on healthy

environment. 3It is the life supporting medium for
all organisms.

3. It provides food , air , water and other important natural resources to the human
beings Environmental problems : Deforestation activities , population growth and
urbanization water Pollution due to effluents and smoke from industries, Scarcity.

Solution to environmental problems:

Reduce the waste matter and energy resources.

Recycle and reuse as many of our waste product And resources as

possible. Avoid over exploitation of natural resources.

Minimse soil degradation and Protect the biodiversity of the earth. Reduce population and
increase the economic growth our country.

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 Ethical guidelines on environmental protection:

1. The earth is the habitat of all living species and not of human beings alone.
2. Natural resources and energies are depleting fast. We must protect them.
3. Involve yourself in the care of the earth and experience nature.
4. Respect nature, you are a part of it.
5. Think of the global cause and act for local protection
6. Keep yourself informed about ecological changes and developments.
7. Observe austerity, reserve scarce resources for the future and the future generations.
8. We must be cooperative, honest, affectionate and polite to society and nature.

CLIMATE:

It is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather condition, seasonal

variations of the region. The average of such conditions for a long period is called climate.

Causes of climate changes:

1. Presence of green house gases in the atmosphere Increases the
global temperature.
2. Depletion of ozone layer increases the global temperature.

Effects of climate change:

1. Small climate changes disturb agriculture which leads To migration of
animals and human.
2. Climate change may upset hydrological cycle which results in floods and
droughts in different parts of the world.
3. Global pattern of winds and oceans currents also gets disturbed by climate change.

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 Green house effect: Green house gases are CO 2 , Methane .Nitrous oxide NO2, CFC
Among these CO2 is the most important green house gas.O 3 and SO 2 act as serious
pollutants causing global warming.Progrssive warming up of a gas surface due to
blanketing effect of man made CO2 atmosphere.

GLOBAL WARMING:
Green house gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb IR radiation.
These gases allow sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and are absorbed by the earth
surface. This sunlight is radiated back as IR which is absorbed by gases. As a result the
earth surface and lower atmosphere becomes warm. This is called global warming.

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 105

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING:

1. Sea level increases as result of melting and thermal expansion of ocean.

2. High CO2 level in the atmosphere have a long term negative effect on crop production
and forest growth.

3. Global rainfall pattern will change .Drought and floods will become more common.
Raising temperature will increase domestic water demand.

4. Many plants and animal species will have a problem of adapting. Many will be at the risk
of extinction, more towering verities will thrive.

5. As the earth becomes warmer the floods and drought becomes more frequent. There
would be increase in water-borne diseases.

Environmental Science 83
 MEASURES TO CHECK GLOBAL WARMING:

1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel.

2. Plant more trees.
3. Shifting from coal to natural gas.
4. Stabilize population growth.
5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks.
6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae.

ACID RAIN:

Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of Co 2 present in the
atmosphere gets dissolved in it. Because presence of SO 2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in
the atmosphere. The pH of the rain is further lowered. This type of precipitation of water
is called acid rain.

Formation:
Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The thermal power
plants industries and vehicles release NO 2 and SO2 in to the atmosphere due to the
burning of coal and oil. These gases reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere and from
acids like HNO3,H2SO4.These acids descends on to the earth as acid rain through rain
water.

SOx +H2O H2SO4

NOy +H2 O HNO3

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 107

EFFECTS:

Effect on human being:

Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by acid
rain.It cause premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis.

On building:

At present Taj mMahal in Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from Madura
refinery.Acid rain corrodes houses, monuments ,statues ,bridges and fences.

Acid rain causes corrosion of metals.

Environmental Science 85
 Terestrial and lake Ecosystem.

Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation.

Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans potatoe ,carrot ,spinach. Acid rain rduces
fish population ,black flies,mosquitoes ,deer flies occurs largely which causes number of
complications in ponds rivers and lakes.

Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic water. The dead
materials are not rapidly decomposed.Hence the nutrients like N,P are locked up in dead
matter.

Control of acid rain:

Emmision of No2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments.

Liming of lakes nad soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of acid rain. In
thermal points low sulphur content coal should be used.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone gas is present in the atmosphere. It is highly concentrated at the stratosphere

Between10to 50 Km above the sea level and is called as ozone layer.

Importance: O 3 protects us from damaging UV radiation of the sun. It filters UV- B

radiation. Now days certain parts of O 3 layer is becoming thinner and O 3 holes are
formed. Because of this more UV–B radiation reaches the earth’s surface. UV –B radiation
affects DNA molecules, causes damages to the outer cell of plants and animals.

It causes skin cancer and eye disease in human beings.

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 Formation of O3 : It is formed in the atmosphere by photochemical reaction

O 2 + hv ------------) O * + O *

The atomic oxygen reacts with molecular O 2 to

form O 3 O*+O 2 + M ----------) O 3 +M

Where M = third body like nitrogen.

Causes of O 3 layer depletion : Refrigerators , air conditioners , aerosol sprays and

cleaning solvents release CFC s into the atmosphere. CFCs releases chlorine which
breakes O 3 to O2

Cl + O 3 ----------- ) Cl O + O 2 (g) Cl O
+ O *---------------) Cl + O 2

Each chlorine atom is capable of breaking several O 3 molecules . It is a chain reaction.

1% loss of O3 results in 2% increase in UV rays reaching the earth surface .

Ozone depletion chemicals CFC , HCFC , BFC. Some times atmospheric sulfur dioxide
Is converted in to H 2 SO 4 which increases the rate of O 3 layer depletion.

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 109

Effects ozone layer depletion:

Effects on human beings

1. UV rays causes skin cancer.
2. Increases the rate of non melanin skin cancer in fair colored people.
3. Prolonged expose to UV rays leads to actinia Katatities ( slow blindness) and cataracts.

Effects on aquatic system :

1. UV rays affects phytoplankton , fish , larval crabs.
2. phytoplankton consumes large amounts of CO 2 .
3. Decrease in phytoplankton results in more amount of CO 2 in atmosphere. This
contributes to global warming.3. Ozone Depleting chemicals can causes global
warming.

Control measures : Manufacturing and using of O 3 depleting chemicals should be

stopped. Use of methyl bromide .which is a crop fumigant should be controlled.
Replacing CFC s by other maerials which are less damage

Environmental Science 88
 ENVVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND LAWS

Water (prevention and control of pollution ) Act.1974.

This act provides for maintaining and restoring the sources of water. It also provide
for preventing and controlling water pollution.
Features of water act.

1. This act aims to protect the water from all kind of pollution and to preserve the quality
of water in all aquifers.
2. The act further provides for the establishment of central board and state boards
For prevention of water pollution.
3. The states are empowered to restrain any person from discharging a
pollutant (or) sewage or) effluent into any water body with out the consent
of the board.
4. The act is not clear about the definition of pollutant, discharge of
pollutant Toxic pollutant.

State pollution control board

The consent of this board is needed

1. To establish any industry or any treatment and disposal system or any extension or
addition which likely discharge Or trade effluent into a stream or well or river or on land.
2. To use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of sewage.
3. To begin to make any new discharge of sewage.
Act also empowers the state board to order closure or stoppage of
supply of Electricity, water or any other service to the polluting unit.

AIR PREVENTION ACT 1981

This act was enacted in the conference held at Stock Holm. It envisages the
establishments Of central and State control boards to monitor air quality and
pollution control.
Important features:
1. The central board may lay down the standards for quality of air.
2. The central board co-ordinates and settle the disputes between state boards.
Environmental Science 89
 3.The central board provides technical assistance and guidance to state boards.
4.The state boards are empowered to lay down the standards for emission of
air pollutants from industries or other resources.
5. The state boards are to examine the manufacturing processes and control
equipment for for the prescribed standards.
6. The direction of central board is mandatory on state boards.
7. With out the consent of the central board operation of an industrial unit is
prohibited in heavily polluted area.
8. Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment for three months or fine of Rs
10000 or both.

This act applies to all pollution industries. This act empowers the state
board to order closure of any industrial unit or stoppage of water supply or
stoppage of electricity.

FOREST (COSERVATON) ACT 1980

This act is enacted in 1980. It aims to arrest deforestation. This act covers
all types of Forests including reserved forests, protected forests and any forest
land.

IMPORTANT Features of the act :

1. The reserved forests shall not be diverted or dereserved wit out the
permission Of central govt.
2. The forest land may not be used nonforest purposes.
3.This act stops illegal activities with in forest area.
Features of amendment act of 1988

.1.Forest departments are departments are forbidden to assign any forest land by way
of lease or to any private person or NG body for re- afforestation.
2. For re-afforstation clearance of any forest land is forbidden.
3.The division of forest land for non –forest uses is punishable.

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 WILD LIFE ACT 1972.

This act was amended in 1983, 1986, and 1991.This act is aimed to protect and preserve
all animals and plants that are not Domesticated. India has 350 species of mammals,
1200 species of birds and about 20000 Known species of insects. Some of them are listed
as endangered species in wild life protection act. Wild life is declining due to human
action. Wild life products like skins, firs, feathers, Ivory etc. have decimated the
population of many species. Wild life population monitored regularly and management
strategies formulated to protect them.

Important Features
1The act covers the rights and non- rights of forest dwellers.
2It allows restricted grazing in sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks.

3. I t also prohibits the collection of non timber forest.

4. The rights of forest dwellers recognized by forest policy of 1988 are taken
away by Amended wild life act of 1991.

ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT 1986

This act empowers the central govt. to fix the standards for quality of air, water, soil,
and noise. The central govt. formulates procedures and safe guards for handling of
hazard substances.
Important features: 1. this act empowers the govt. to lay down procedures and safe
guards for the prevention of accidents which cause pollution and remedial measures if
accidents occur.
2 The govt.has the authority to close or prohibit or regulate any industry or its
operation if
The violation of provisions of the act occurs.
3. Violation of the act is punishable with imprisonment for 5 years or fine of one lakh or
both.
4. If violation continues an additional fine of Rs5000 per day may be imposed for entire
period of Violation of rules.
5. The act empowers the officer of the central govt.to inspect the sight or the plant or
machinery for preventing pollution and to collect samples of air , water, soil and other
Environmental Science 91
 materials from any
Factory or its premises for testing.

PUBLIC AWARENESS

In order to conserve our environment each and every one must be aware about our
environment problems and objectives of various environmental policies at natural and
local level.

Objectives of public awareness:

1. To create awareness among rural and city people about ecological Imbalance, local
environment and technological development.
2 To organize meetings, tree plantation programs, group discussion on development,
exhibitions.
3. To focus on current environment problems and situations.
4. To train our planners, decision makers, politicians and administrators.
5. To eliminate poverty by providing employment that over comes the basic
environmental issues.

METHODS TO CREATE ENVIRONMNTAL AWARENESS

1. Environmental education must be imparted to the students in schools and colleges.

2. Media like TV Radio and cable net work can educate the people on environmental
issues through Cartoons, documentaries, street plays.
3. Cinema about environmental education should be prepared and screened in
theatres compulsorily .This films may be released with tax free to attract the
public.
4. All the news papers and magazines must publish the environment related problems.
5.Special audio visual and slide shows should be arranged in public places.
6. Voluntary organizations like NCC, NSS, and ROTRACT Club should be effectively
utilized for creating environmental awareness.
7. Arranging competitions like story and essay writing painting competition on
environmental issues for student as well as public.Attreactive prizes should be
awarded for the best effort.
Environmental Science 92
 8. Public leaders cine actors and popular social reformers can make an appeal to the
public about the urgency of environmental protection.

Environmental Science 93
 Human population and the Environment

Population:- Group of individuals belonging to the same species which live in a given
area at given time.
Population density:- Number of individuals of the population per unit area ® per unit-
volume.
Parameters effecting population:-

Birthrate (OR) Nationality:- Number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a
given year.

Death Rate (OR) Mortality:- Number of deaths per 1000 people in a population in a
given year

Immigration:- It denotes the arrival of individuals from neighboring population.

Emigration:- It denotes the disposal of individuals from the original population to new
areas.

Rate = Number of
births Number of years

Mortality = orn of babies

died er of babies born x Number of
year

h rate = Change of population

Number of year

population Growth :- Results from the difference between the rate of birth and death. In
1980 the global population was about 1 billion people. In 1930 it reached 2 billion. In 1975
it reached 4 billion with in 45 years. Now the population in 6 billion. It reaches 10 billion by

Environmental Science 94
 2050 as per the world Bank calculation.

Causes:- 1. Due to decrease in death rate and increase in birth rate.

2. Availability of antibiotics, immunization increased food production, clean water and air,
decreases the famine related deaths and infant mortality.
3. The poverty and illiteracy lead controlled growth of
population. 4.Child Marriages
5.People’s superstitions. People believe that it is because of God’s grace.

Characteristics of P.G.:-

Exponential growth:- Population growth occurs exponentially live 10, 10 2,

103, 104 etc., Which shows the dramatic increase in global population in the
past 160 years.

Doubling Time:- Time required for the population to double its size at a constant annual
rate. It is calculated as follows:-

Td = 70 / r When r = annual growth rate

If a ration has 2 % annual growth its population will double in 35 years.

Infant Mentality:-

Percentage of infant died out of those born in one year. This rate is decreased in
the last 50 years. This differs widely in developing and developed countries.

Total fertility rates (TFR):

Average number of children delivered by a woman in her life time. The TFR varies
from 2 in developed to 4.7 in developing countries.

This ratio should be fairly balance in the society.

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 Male – female ratio has been upset in many countries including China - India. In china the
ratio of girls and boys is 100 – 140.

Demographic transition:
P.G. is redacted to economic development. The birth rate and death rate full due to
improved living conditions. This results in low population growth. This pheromones in
called demographic transition.

Variation of population among Nation:

At present the worlds population has crossed 6 billions. Less developed countries
(Africa, Asia, S.A) have 80% population while developed countries have only 20%.

In most developed countries like USA, Canada, Australia population increases by

less than 1%. But is less developed countries the population increases by more than 1% /
year.

Kenya is the fastest population growing countries in the world. When 20 million are
residing.

China & India’s populate on was above 1000 million in 2000 years. Its share is 1/3 of
the world population.

Europe and N.H. accoents for 14% of world population.

Variation of pollution based on Age structure

Age structure of population can be classified into 3 classes.

Pre- productive population (0 – 14 years)

Reproductive population (15 - 44 years)

Post reproductive population (Above 45 years)

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 Variation of population is now explained based on the above three classes.

Pyramid shaped Variation of population (increase)

Eg. In India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Algerian Reproductive population is more in companion

to pre reproductive population and post productive population. Hence the population
increases.

Bell shaped variation of population:

Eg: In France, USA, UK, Canada etc., pre reproductive population and reproductive
population is more (OR) less equal. Hence population growth in stable.

Urn shaped variation of populations

Eg: In Germany, Italy, Sweden,

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 In Japan pre productive age group population in smaller than the reproductive age group
population. In the next 10 years. The number of people in reproductive age group less than
before resulting in decrease of population.

Population Explosion:

The enormous increase in population due to low death rate and high birth rate is
called as population expansion.

Doubling time: The number of years needed for a population to double in size. The doubling
time varies from country to country.Population growth is higher in less developed countries.

Cause of population explosion:

1. Invention modern medical facilities, reduces the death rate and increases birth rate, which
leads to population explosion.
2. Increase of life expectancy is another important reason for population explosion. Eg:- In
1956, the average life expectancy of the human beings was 40 years. But now it is 61 years.
3.Illiteracy is one of the reasons for the population explosion.

Effect of population explosion (OR) environmental and social impacts of growing population

Poverty:

1. Population explosion leads to environmental degradation.

2. Population explosion causes over exploitation of natural resources. Hence there will be a
shortage of resources for the futune generation.
3. Increase in population will increases diseases, economic in equity and command wars.
4. Forests, grass lands are under threat.
5. The main reason for the growing unemployment in growing population.
6.Educating vast population is a very big task.
7. Population explosion is the main cause for pollution of air, land, water and noise.
8. Disposal of plastics and wastages is another problem of over population.
9. Scancity of fuel is also due to population explosion.

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 Family welfare programmes

Family welfare programme was implemented by Govt. of India as a voluntary

programme. It is a policy of growth covering human health, family welfare children and
women’s right.

Objectives:
1. Slow down the population explosion by reducing fertility.
2. Pressure on the environment, due to over exploitation of natural resources is reduces.

Population stabilization Ratio

The ratio is derived by dividing crude birth rate by crude death rate.
Developed countries: The stabilization ratio of developed countries is 1. indicating zero
population growth.

Developing countries:

The ratio of developing countries is rearing 3 which in expected to lower down by 2025.
Stabilization in developing countries is possible only through family welfare programmes.

Family planning Programme

If provides educational and clinical services that help couple to choose how many
children to have and when to have them. Family planning programme provides information on
birth spacing birth control and health care for pregnant woman and infants. It also reduced the
number of legal and illegal abortions per year and decreased the risk of death from
pregnancies.

Objectives:

1. Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 / 1000 infants.

2. Achieve 100% registration of births, deaths marriage and pregnancies.
3.Encourages late marriages and late child bearing.
4. Encourages breast feeding.
5. Enables to improve woman’s health education,

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 employment. 6.Constrain the spnead & Aids / HIV.
7.Prevent and control of communical diseases.

Fertility control

methods Traditional

methods

It includes taboos and folks medicine.

Modern methods
It includes birth control techniques like mechanical barriers, surgical methods, chemical
pills and physical barriers to implantation. More than 100 contraceptive methods are on trial.

Family planning programme in India

1. In 1952 India started family planning programme.

2. In 1970 Indian govt. forced FP campain all the over country.
3. In 1978 govt. legally raized the minimum age of marriage for men from 18 to 21 and for
women 15 to 18 years.
4. In 1981 census report showed there is no drop in population. Hence funding for FP
programme has been increased.

Environment & human Health

Healthy person:- Physically fit person with out suffering any disease is called a healthy
person.

Disease:- Harmful changes in the body’s condition by nutritional, biological, chemical (or)
psychological factors are called diseases.

Important Hazards and their health effects refer – bort

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 Chemical Hazards and their health effects refer T.B.

Biological Hazards and their health effects Refers T.B.

Preventive measures:

1. Always wash your hand before eating.

2. Cut short and clean your nails systematic.

3.Drinking chemically treated and filtered water.
4.Eat food always in hot condition.
5. Wash the vegetables and fruits a with clean water before cooking.
6. Avoid plastic containers and Al vessels.
7. Do physical exercise to have proper blood circulation.

Value education

Education is nothing but learning through which knowledge about a particular thing can
be acquired with the help of our knowledge and expedience we can identify our value to
understand ourselves and our relationship with other and their environment.

Types of Education:

Format Education:- (In this all leaning process are self related). All people will read write, will
get good jobs and take with any problem with the help of formal education.

Value Education:- It is an instrument used to analyse our behavior and provide proper
direction to our youth. It teacher the youth the distinction between right & wrong, to be helpful
loving, generous and tolerant.
Eg:- If a person is highly, Qualified and well settled in life, something he does not know how to
behave with his environment.

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 Value based environmental education

The provides knowledge about the principle of ecology, fundamental of environment and
biodiversity. It creates sense of duty to care for natural resources and to mange them in
sustainable key.
Objectives:
1. Improve integral growth of human being.
2. To create altitudes and improvement towards sustainable life style.
3. To increase awareness about our national history, cultural heritage, constitutional rights,
national integration.
4. To understand (about the our) natural environment in which how land, air and water are
interlinked.
5. To know about various living and non living organism and their interaction with the
environment.
Types of values:

1. Universal values (or) social values:

These values tells about the importance of the human conditions. These are reflected in
life, joy, love, tolerance, truth etc.
2. Cultural values:
These values various with respect to time and place. These are concerned with rights &
wrong, good & bad true & false and behavior of human beings. It is reflected in language,
education, law, economics, philosophy etc.
3. Individual values:
These are personal principles and the result of individual personality and experience
parents & teachers are the main key to shape and individual values. I t is reflected in individual
goods, relationship, commitments.

4. Global values:
Human civilization is a part of the planet. Nature and natural pheromone on the earth
are interconnected and inter-linked with special bonds of harmony. If this harmony disturbed
any where leads to catastrophic results due to ecological imbalance.

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