Mobile Communications

Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

• Frequencies • Multiplexing
• Signals • Spread spectrum
• Antenna • Modulation
• Signal propagation • Cellular systems

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 Frequencies for communication

twisted coax cable optical transmission

pair

1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 µm 1 µm
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

• VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

• LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
• MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
• HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
• VHF = Very High Frequency

• Frequency and wave length:

λ = c/f
• wave length λ, speed of light c ≅ 3 x 108 m/s, frequency f
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 Frequencies for mobile communication

• VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio

– simple, small antenna for cars
– deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections

• SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication

– small antenna, focusing
– large bandwidth available

• Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum

– some systems planned up to EHF
– limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance
frequencies)
• weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.
– WLAN uses unlicensed spectrum in ISM-bands (Industrial, Scientific,
Medical) in the 2.4 GHz and 5.2 to 5.8 GHz range)

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 Frequencies and regulations

• ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands

worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Europe USA Japan

Cellular GSM 450-457, 479- AM PS, TDM A, CDM A PDC

Phones 486/460-467,489- 824-849, 810-826,
496, 890-915/935- 869-894 940-956,
960, TDM A, CDM A, G SM 1429-1465,
1710-1785/1805- 1850-1910, 1477-1513
1880 1930-1990
UM TS (FDD) 1920-
1980, 2110-2190
UM TS (TDD) 1900-
1920, 2020-2025
Cordless CT1+ 885-887, 930- PACS 1850-1910, 1930- PHS
Phones 932 1990 1895-1918
CT2 PACS-UB 1910-1930 JCT
864-868 254-380
DECT
1880-1900
W ireless IEEE 802.11 902-928 IEEE 802.11
LANs 2400-2483 IEEE 802.11 2471-2497
HIPERLAN 2 2400-2483 5150-5250
5150-5350, 5470- 5150-5350, 5725-5825
5725
Others RF-Control RF-Control RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433, 315, 915 426, 868
868

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 Signals I

• physical representation of data

• function of time and location
• signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
• classification
– continuous time/discrete time
– continuous values/discrete values
– analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
– digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
• signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f = 1/T, amplitude A, phase shift ϕ
– sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = At sin(2 π ft t + ϕt)

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 Fourier representation of periodic signals

∞ ∞
1
g (t ) = c + ∑ an sin( 2πnft ) + ∑ bn cos(2πnft )
2 n =1 n =1

1 1

0 0
t t
ideal periodic signal real composition
(based on harmonics)

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 Signals II

• Different representations of signals

– amplitude (amplitude domain)
– frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
– phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase ϕ in polar coordinates)
A [V] A [V] Q = M sin ϕ

t[s] ϕ
I= M cos ϕ

ϕ f [Hz]

• Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier

transformation
• Digital signals need
– infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
– modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)

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 Antennas: isotropic radiator

• Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to

space for radio transmission
• Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) -
only a theoretical reference antenna
• Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
• Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna

z
y z

y x ideal
x isotropic
radiator

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 Antennas: simple dipoles

• Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
λ/4 on car roofs or λ/2 as Hertzian dipole
Î shape of antenna proportional to wavelength

λ/4 λ/2

• Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y y z

simple
x z x dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

• Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to

the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)

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 Antennas: directed and sectorized

• Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile

phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
y y z

directed
x z x antenna

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

z
z

x
sectorized
x antenna

top view, 3 sector top view, 6 sector

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 Antennas: diversity

• Grouping of 2 or more antennas

– multi-element antenna arrays
• Antenna diversity
– switched diversity, selection diversity
• receiver chooses antenna with largest output
– diversity combining
• combine output power to produce gain
• cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
λ/2 λ/2
λ/4 λ/2 λ/4 λ/2

+ +

ground plane

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 Signal propagation ranges

• Transmission range
– communication possible
– low error rate
• Detection range
– detection of the signal
possible sender

– no communication
possible transmission

• Interference range distance

detection
– signal may not be
detected interference
– signal adds to the
background noise

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 Signal propagation

• Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)

• Receiving power proportional to 1/d²
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
• Receiving power additionally influenced by
• fading (frequency dependent)
• shadowing
• reflection at large obstacles
• refraction depending on the density of a medium
• scattering at small obstacles
• diffraction at edges

shadowing reflection refraction scattering diffraction

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Real world example

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 Multipath propagation

• Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due
to reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

• Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

Î interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI)
• The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
Î distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts

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 Effects of mobility

• Channel characteristics change over time and location

– signal paths change
– different delay variations of different signal parts
– different phases of signal parts
Î quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

power long term

• Additional changes in fading

– distance to sender
– obstacles further away
Î slow changes in the average power
received (long term fading)
t
short term fading

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 Multiplexing

• Multiplexing in 4 dimensions channels ki

– space (si) k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
– time (t)
– frequency (f) c

– code (c) t c
t
• Goal: multiple use s1
f
of a shared medium s2
f
c
• Important: guard spaces needed!
t

s3
f

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 Frequency multiplex

• Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands

• A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
• Advantages:
• no dynamic coordination
necessary k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
• works also for analog signals
c
f
• Disadvantages:
• waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
• inflexible
• guard spaces
t

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 Time multiplex

• A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time

• Advantages:
• only one carrier in the
medium at any time
• throughput high even k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
for many users
c
• Disadvantages: f
• precise
synchronization
necessary

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 Time and frequency multiplex

• Combination of both methods

• A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
• Example: GSM
• Advantages:
– better protection against
tapping k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
– protection against frequency
selective interference c
– higher data rates as compared to f
code multiplex
• but: precise coordination
required

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 Code multiplex

• Each channel has a unique code k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

• All channels use the same spectrum

c
at the same time
• Advantages:
– bandwidth efficient
– no coordination and synchronization
necessary
f
– good protection against interference and
tapping
• Disadvantages:
– lower user data rates
– more complex signal regeneration t
• Implemented using spread spectrum
technology
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 Modulation

• Digital modulation
– digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
– ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
– differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
• Analog modulation
– shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
• Motivation
– smaller antennas (e.g., λ/4)
– Frequency Division Multiplexing
– medium characteristics
• Basic schemes
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
– Phase Modulation (PM)

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 Modulation and demodulation

analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier

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 Digital modulation

• Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying

• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): 1 0 1
– very simple
– low bandwidth requirements
t
– very susceptible to interference

1 0 1
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
– needs larger bandwidth
t

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

1 0 1
– more complex
– robust against interference
t

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 Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

• bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between the carrier
frequencies
• special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
Î MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
• bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled
• depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency,
original or inverted is chosen
• the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
• Equivalent to offset QPSK

• even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter Î

GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM

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 Example of MSK

1 0 1 1 0 1 0
data bit
even 0101
even bits odd 0011

odd bits signal hnnh

value - - ++

low h: high frequency

frequency n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
high
frequency

MSK
signal
t

No phase shifts!
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 Advanced Phase Shift Keying

• BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying): Q

– bit value 0: sine wave
– bit value 1: inverted sine wave I
– very simple PSK 1 0

– low spectral efficiency

– robust, used e.g. in satellite systems 10 Q 11

• QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):

– 2 bits coded as one symbol I
– symbol determines shift of sine wave
– needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK 00 01
– more complex
A
• Often also transmission of relative, not
absolute phase shift: DQPSK - Differential
QPSK (IS-136, PHS) t

11 10 00 01

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 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines amplitude and

phase modulation
• it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
• 2n discrete levels, n = 2 identical to QPSK
• bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to comparable
PSK schemes

Q 0010
0001 Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
0011 Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same
0000
phase, but different amplitude. 0000 and
I 1000 have different phase, but same
1000 amplitude.
Î used in standard 9600 bit/s modems

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 Hierarchical Modulation

• DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T

stream
• High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
• Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
• QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM Q
• Example: 64QAM
– good reception: resolve the entire
64QAM constellation
10
– poor reception, mobile reception: I
resolve only QPSK portion
– 6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
00
– HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
000010 010101
LP uses remaining 4 bit

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 Spread spectrum technology

• Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe

out narrow band signals for duration of the interference
• Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using
a special code
• protection against narrow band interference
power interference spread power signal
signal
spread
detection at interference
receiver

f f
• protection against narrowband interference
• Side effects:
– coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
– tap-proof
• Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

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 Effects of spreading and interference

dP/df dP/df

user signal
i) ii) broadband interference
narrowband interference
f f
sender
dP/df dP/df dP/df

iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver

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 Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel
quality

1 2 5 6
narrowband channels
3
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal

channel
quality
2
2 spread spectrum channels
2
2
2
1

spread frequency
spectrum

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 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I

• XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)

– many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
• Advantages
– reduces frequency selective tb
fading
user data
– in cellular networks
0 1 XOR
• base stations can use the
tc
same frequency range
chipping
• several base stations can sequence
detect and recover the signal 01101010110101 =
• soft handover
resulting
• Disadvantages signal
– precise power control necessary 01101011001010

tb: bit period

tc: chip period

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 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II

spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator

chipping radio
sequence carrier

transmitter

correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision

radio chipping
carrier sequence

receiver

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 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I

• Discrete changes of carrier frequency

– sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number
sequence
• Two versions
– Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
– Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
• Advantages
– frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
– simple implementation
– uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
• Disadvantages
– not as robust as DSSS
– simpler to detect

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 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II

tb

user data

0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1

td t
f

f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1

tb: bit period td: dwell time

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FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III

narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator

frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
transmitter

narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator

hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer
receiver

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 Cell structure

• Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain

transmission area (cell)
• Mobile stations communicate only via the base station

• Advantages of cell structures:

– higher capacity, higher number of users
– less transmission power needed
– more robust, decentralized
– base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
• Problems:
– fixed network needed for the base stations
– handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
– interference with other cells
• Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side
(GSM) - even less for higher frequencies

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 Frequency planning I

• Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base stations
• Standard model using 7 frequencies:

f3
f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f1 f4
f3 f7 f1
f2
• Fixed frequency assignment:
– certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
– problem: different traffic load in different cells
• Dynamic frequency assignment:
– base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already
used in neighbor cells
– more capacity in cells with more traffic
– assignment can also be based on interference measurements

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 Frequency planning II

f3 f3 f3
f2 f2
f1 f1 f1 f2 f3 f7
f3 f3
f2 f2 f2
3 cell cluster f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f1 f1 f1 f4
f3 f3 f3 f3 f7 f1
f2 f3
f6 f5 f2

7 cell cluster

f2 f2 f2
f1 f f1 f f1 f
3 h 3 h 3
h 2 h 2 3 cell cluster
g2 1 h3 g2 1 h3 g2
g1 g1 g1
g3 g3 g3 with 3 sector antennas

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 Cell breathing

• CDM systems: cell size depends on current load

• Additional traffic appears as noise to other users
• If the noise level is too high users drop out of cells

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