Chapter 1: The Key Concept of Social Welfare Policies, Programs and Services

Introduction:

Social Welfare , Social Services and Social Work are three controversial words that
are used interchangeably today , While these concepts are interrelated ,each has its
own particular meaning , and it is essential for us social work practitioners to distinguish
one from the other for a common frame of reference . (Thelma Lee Mendoza )

Learning Outcomes:

After the discussion of this chapter, the student will have the following outcomes:
Understand the key concepts of social welfare policies, programs and services; and
Internalize the importance of social welfare policies, programs and services.
Main Content:

The key concept of social work, social welfare, social services and social policy, social
problem, need; provision .
a. Understanding the key concept of social work and social welfare
What is Social Work?
Social Work Definition: As defined by RA. 4373 – it is the profession which is primarily
concerned with organized social service activity aimed to facilitate and strengthen basic
relationships in the mutual adjustment between individuals and their environment for the
good of the individuals and the society by the use of social work methods.
- is the profession which is concerned with man‘s adjustment to his environment ;a
person in relation to a person ( or their ) social situation ..This is referred to as a
person‘s social functioning ‗, which result from the performance of his various social
roles in society e.g ,son ,father , husband , employee, employer ,patient , committee ,
chairman , citizen . (Thelma Lee Mendoza).
- It seeks to enhance the social functioning of the individuals, singly and in groups, by
activities focused upon their social relationships which constitutes the interraction
between man and his environment.(United States Council on Social Work Education
)
- The new global definition of social work as approved by the International Federation
of Social Workers (IFSW )and the International Association of Schools of Social Work
(IASSW ) in July 2014 is now ;
- Focus on social change and development ,social cohesion and people empowerment
rather than merely helping people in need adjust to the demands of the environment .

Basic function of Social Work divided into 3 broad interdependent and interrelated
categories;
1. Restoration of Social Function - An individual person is restored from his/her total
being
 2. Provision of resources - Through provisions of material basic needs which cannot
be availed by her/himself alone .
3. Prevention of social dysfunction - To avoid social dysfunction but to become a social
functioning individual .
What is the definition of Social Welfare?
Here are the definitions of Social Welfare from the book (Social Welfare and Social Work) of
Thelma Lee Mendoza:
- In its broadest sense, social welfare covers practically everything that men do for the
good of society.
- Social Welfare is characterized as an organized concern of all people for all people.
(Gertrude Wilson)
- It is defined as "the organized system of social services and institutions, designed to
aid individuals and groups to attain satisfying standards of life and health. (Walter
Friedlander)
- Social Welfare includes those laws, programs, benefits and services which assure or
strengthen provisions for meeting social needs recognized as basic to the well-being
of the population and the better functioning of the social order. These provisions may
be directed toward strengthening. (Elizabeth Wickenden)

What is the conceptions/perspectives on Social Welfare?

To understand the perspective of Social Welfare, let us consider the following;
1. Residual- this is considered as a temporary aid. It is offered during emergency
situations such as health crisis, calamities, medical problem etc. One of the
examples is Social Amelioration Program of the Philippine government, Cash
Assistance to the people affected by Lockdown due to Covid 19.
2. Residual model generally holds that the government should be involved in social
welfare only as a last resort safety net when other avenues fail in the moment of
crisis and emergency.
3. Institutional- in contrast to residual, this is a permanent welfare for the people. As
part of reality, there are some individuals that have difficulties to provide their needs.
Therefore, society has the responsibility to support its members and provide needed
benefits and services when they fail to meet all their needs. People have the right to
receive benefits and services on an ongoing basis. Public education is one of the
services.
4. Developmental conception/perspective- factors to identify the social interventions that
have a positive effect on economic development.
a) Investment in services to people; education, nutrition, health care
b) Investment in physical facilities; creation of economic and social
infrastructures, such as roads, bridges, irrigation, drinking water
systems, etc. Developing program that help needy people engage in
productive employment and self-employment.
 b. Understanding the key concept of social work program and social services.

Program - it is system of activities or services maintain over a period of time. It is usually

designed to provide the social needs.
Social work programs-sets of activities or projects that can be categorized under social
security, social services and public assistance.
Social Services - these are the specific services or projects under the social programs to
respond the needs or problems of individuals, groups or community.

c. Understanding the key concept of social needs and social problems

Need - is a condition or a situation in which something necessary or requirements.
Social needs - It usually refers to the relationship with others. As described in Maslow‘s
hierarchy of needs, it is the need of love and belongingness. It is all about acceptance,
connection, intimacy, companionship and friendship.
Social Problem : It is an unmet meet of an individual person and if not met it becomes a
problem , thus , if this problem cannot be solved it will lead to a social problem.(As Thelma
Mendoza )

d. Understanding the key concept of social provision and social policy

What is social Provision and Social Policy?
Social Provisions - It is the implementation of social policies to make the resources available
for the target groups. The examples of these are, social insurance, public assistance, public
housing, medical/health care assistance etc.
Social Policy - it is the statement of guidelines and principles. It analyses the role of
government and private sectors to address the social needs.

e. What is social agency?

It is a social service agency or a social service department of another kind of human service
organization that has been set up to deal with persons who are experiencing problems in the
management of their personal lives, or problems that may have been created by
faulty/unwholesome person-to-person, person-to-situation relationship.
As a venue for helping the place may be in the client‘s home, or in the community.

f. What is networking?
Networking for social workers involves building, maintaining, and leveraging professional
contacts in the field. You can network at large conferences hosted by professional
associations or by having coffee with a colleague who works in your department. Most
networking begins with a face-to-face connection, though the internet has shifted the way we
establish and continue professional relationships.
g. What is resource mobilization?
Resource mobilization is the process of getting resource from resource provider, using
different mechanisms, to implement the organization‗s work for achieving the pre-determined
organizational goals. It deals in acquiring the needed resources in a timely-cost effective
manner‗. Resource mobilization advocates upon having the right type of resource, at the
right time, at right price with making right use of acquired resources thus ensuring optimum
utilization of the same.

Assessment :

Activity # 1 (Write your answers in another sheet of papers.)

(3 points each) In your own words, define the following items:
Social Work
Social Welfare
Social Programs
Social Services
Social agency
(5 points each) Give an example of, (a) residual and (b) institutional.

Activity # 2 (Write your answer in another sheet of paper.

Personal Reaction on the predominant and current need of the people ( globally , nationally )
and how the society ; the government and its people in varied sectors respond to these
needs. (10 points, write your answer in another sheet of paper)
Chapter 2: Social Welfare Policy Framework
Learning Outcomes:

After discussing this chapter, the students will have the following outcomes:
1. Illustrate the framework and guiding theories of social welfare policies for
understanding policy & program delivery system; and
2. Appreciate the importance of social policy framework.
Main Content:

a. Human Needs

Based on Hepworth & Jarsen, the basic human needs are as follows:

Human needs (based on Hepworth_& Jarsen) Source of Response

Physical needs: Economic, legal and health care institutions,

Food clothing, housing, Health care, Safety formal social welfare, law enforcement and
Protection Disaster relief organizations
Emotional needs: Parents, marital partner, friends, siblings,
Feeling need, Companionship, Sense of cultural reference groups, social network
belonging
Positive self-concept: Acceptance, love and positive feedback by
Identity, self-esteem, self-confidence significant others (parents, etc.)
Personal Fulfilment: Educational, recreational, religious,
Education, accomplishment, recreation employment and other social institutions

Human being has a basic need and has contemporary responses;

MASLOW‘S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Self-actualization

Esteem needs|Self-esteem

Love |Belongingness| Closeness

Safety | Security | Protection

Sex|Activity|Exploration|Manipulation|Novelty

Food| Air| Water| Temperature| Elimination| Rest

The Physiological needs of human being are already existing from conception to childhood.
The love of a mother is very necessary when it comes to the needs of love and
belongingness, and this needs would continue until adulthood. Aside of the family, to be part
of a group is very essential to meet this needs including the communications with others,
give and receive love and affection, enjoying companionship with friends and fellow being.
In addition to this, some people meet their social needs by joining clubs or becoming a
member of a church. Even young people who join ―gangs‖ are trying to meet their social
needs, people may feel unloved, lonely and that they no longer belong. Eventually these
unmet needs leads to a social problem and without response from other people around with ,
fewer people to talk to, one can become withdrawn and quiet. So, with these unmet social
needs will put people at risk for depression. This unmet social needs possibly will lead to
unresolved feelings of loneliness. Without knowing that this simple needs will turn to an
unresolved problem and worst of it, if it will lead to a social problem.

Common needs basically are:

1. Survival Needs- These are the biological needs of human being such as food,
water, air, shelter, clothing, rest, sleep, sex etc. to sustain life.
2. Daily Living Needs - As a social and rational being, human has function such as:
a. Social needs - refer to have a relationship with others once the
physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled.
b. Safety needs - it is the need for freedom from threat and danger
c. Belonginess , love and acceptance needs.
3. Psychological needs are;
a. Esteem needs- a need for achievement, for self-fulfillment to realize one‘s
potential
b. Self-actualization needs – Refers to the fulfilment of individual and what has
been achieved.
c. Cognitive needs - The ability to know and understand.
4. Aesthetic needs – Refers to the corresponding arrangement of one part to another
size, shape and position.
5. Spiritual needs - to worship the higher Being /God

Charlotte Towle emphasized the significance of the factors when it comes to human
development and for the persons to be motivated towards social goals. In relation to Towle‘s
idea, Abraham Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs. And according to the hierarchy of
needs, the physiological needs must be first achieved before the social needs to be
considered.

Human needs in social work practice

Social Work practice recognizes the importance of needs concept. And it has a big role to
solve the problem of a person. The social worker recognize the needs of each client ,
understanding him/her own needs and problem in a very unique way. And the principle of
individualization is very relevant in addressing the uniqueness of the person. Clients are
treated not just as human being but as this human being with his/her personal differences.
A person is treated with a sense of significance , and when an individual person ‗s sense
of significance is fulfilled, she/he will experience a high degree of subjective well-being, feel
a strong sense of identity, belonging, interpersonal connection, social support, and maintain
the sense that efforts are contributing to a cause beyond oneself .
On the other hand ,when a person ‗s social needs are not met, and sense of personal
significance is threatened, a person compensate through fight or flight responses in an
attempt to restore or escape a lost sense of significance. In other words , Fight responses
include displays of superiority and displays of power. Demonstrations of superiority include
harnessing status symbols or sabotaging others, and displays of power include aggressive
attempts to control or manipulate others. Flight responses include social withdrawal.
The sense of withdrawal therefore has a negative connotation and negative consequences
on the social life of a human person ,whatever a person suppressed be it a simple want or
need it may lead to an unmet need and it will end to a social problem .Therefore , a social
worker knowing the basic human needs learned to analyze critically basic human and
survival needs of clients and can assist them with their survival needs;
The primary mission of social work as a profession is to ―enhance human well-being‖ and
also to ―help meet the basic human needs of all people.‖. Identifies common human
needs as a well-established concept that reinforces social work's historical commitment in
meeting basic needs and enhancing well-being of client . This old concern of social
welfare and social services to respond to the various needs of the poor people ;
nonetheless ; (as Prof. Malou Alcid of UP , Manila pointed out ) that a Social Worker no
longer focus on the human needs nor her/his role is not limited to delivery of social
welfare services or on provisions of material needs rather on the social change and
development of an individual person for example a landless peasant who can be a farm
owner and can join the middle class .

b. Institutional

Institution can be categorized into two; Formal and in formal rules which organized social,
political and economic relations. Formal institution is written such as laws, regulations,
contract and constitution that are imposed by the third party. And the informal institutions are
usually unwritten such as norms, procedures, conventions and traditions that are often
manifest in culture. The two categories can be complemented or competed depending on
the context where they operate. Institution has a great impact in all aspects of human being.
Key features of institutions include the following:

 They are reproduced through routine actions—they live through enactment

 They provide relative certainty and predictability for everyday social,
economic and political interactions
 They tend to persist over time but can change incrementally and in rare
instances, suddenly
 They are often internalised and unconscious, in that social actors may not
even recognize that they are following institutionalized ways of interacting
 They shape behaviour and thus affect developmental outcomes.
 c. Philosophical
There are three areas that directly deals with social work when it comes to social justice and
social actions:
1. Role of Government – The government has great role to meet the basic needs of the
citizens. Social welfare programs such as health care services, child welfare
services, housing, food and financial assistance etc. depend on the funding of
government. And there would always be an issue on how to balance and solve the
gap between the elite rulers and citizenry the conflict between public corruption and
public welfare.
2. Distributive justice - Ethically, the social worker should advocate an open and fair
distribution of resources. The social workers have a great responsibility when it
comes to the allocation procedure which is non-discriminatory and based on
consistent and applied principles.
3. Welfare and rights – a social justice issue is always associated to the concept of
rights. And the welfare must be considered as a fundamental right that provides
protections against social issues.

d. Principles and concepts of social policy

Social policy needs to be guided some principles in order to attain the goal. State and other
institution put social policy into a force, hence it would have a direct effect to society. A
state‘s regulations regarding welfare need to be determined by analyzing its social policies.
Some of the basic principles related with social policies are social needs and social
problems, equal rights and social justice, equity and choice, reciprocity and obligation, and
division.
Welfare state should provide some rights to the people. And these are elaborated below.
a. Equality: Social policy is very relevant in achieving equality. Resources must have a
fair distribution in order to reach the equality.
b. Equal opportunity: it means that all people should be treated equally and will be given
an equal opportunity, regardless of gender, disability, status, ethnicity etc.
c. Need : Basic needs are food, caring, and housing. Needs should be considered by
the state.
d. Freedom and rights: There are different types of rights. Civil rights mean the absence
of arbitrary arrest and detention but having freedom to discuss any opinion. Social
rights mean social welfare and social security, right to education. Political rights
include voting and joining political parties and freedom to explain opinion in a
democratic way.
The state has the responsibility to insure those rights. The main goal of social welfare policy
is to protect everyone from conflict. Everyone must be treated in equal treatment, regardless
of sex equal opportunity must be given too according to the expressed needs and rights to
have as an individual being.
Environmental Factors that influence the making of the policy
1. Public opinion – It is based on the opinion, desires, wants needs of the majority in
society. The mass media and the expectation and opinion of the people has a major
role of this.
2. Science and Technology or technological change - it is the overall process of
inventions, innovation and diffusion of technology.
3. Economic Conditions - refers to the state of macro-economic variables and trends in
a country at a point in time; this includes GDP - gross domestic product, growth
potential , unemployment rate, Inflation ,and monetary policy orientations.
4. Business Lobbying - this concern on the professional lobbyist whose business trying
to influence legislation , regulations or other government decisions , actions or
policies on behalf of group or individuals who hire them.
5. Interest Groups / NGO‘s - Concern on individuals or organization who /which play an
important role in the development of political / organized system.

Factors that affect the nature of Policy

1. Needs and Resources
2. Political events /developments
3. Values, Knowledge and Power

Perspectives / Concepts that influence the making of Policy

1. Welfare is right
2. Government has the major responsibility for social welfare.
3. Social Justice at the very minimum is the equitable distribution of benefits and
obligations in society , and compensation for losses and injuries for which the
individual cannot be held responsible.
4. Social Welfare requires provisions for social defense and control.
5. Social Policies, programs and services must be geared to national development
goals .
6. The goal of social and economic development is the humane development of all
people.
7. The goal of social welfare should be broadened from the well -being of the
individual to the general welfare of the community .
8. Social welfare strategies should move from the remedial , restorative and
rehabilitative functions to preventive and developmental approaches.
9. Balance Urban and Rural development
10. Coordination between and among government , NGO‘s and PO‘s should be
horizontal and complementary.
11. Social Policy , programs and services must be adopted to local conditions , adapt
to the culture of the people
12. Social policies and goals should be based on the existing philosophy and values of
the society.
Assessment:

Activity 2. Write your answer/s in another sheet of paper. Don‘t forget to write your name,
year and section.
Why is it important to understand the human needs when it comes to delivery system? (not
less than 100 words, 20 points)
What is the relevance of institutional concept in social work practice? (not less than 100
words, 10 points)
Summarize the concept of social policy. Why is it important for you to understand that
concept? (20 points)
Chapter 2: Overview of Policy Formulation Process
Learning Outcomes:
After discussing this chapter, the students will acquire the following outcomes:
1. Recognize the importance of policy formulation processes; and
2. Internalize the policy formulation process including models and stages.
Main Content:

a. MODELS OF PUBLIC POLICY-MAKING

These address how public policy is made. Policy-making is only one part of the entire
policy process.
1. INSTITUTIONAL MODEL
Focuses on the traditional organization of government. Describes the duties and
arrangements of bureaus and departments. Considers constitutional provisions,
administrative and common law, and judicial decisions. It focuses on formal arrangements
such as federalism executive reorganizations, presidential commission, etc. Traditionally
political science has studied government institutions--Congress, presidency, courts, political
parties, etc.--that authoritatively determine, implement, and enforce public policy. Strictly
speaking, a policy is not a public policy until it is adopted, implemented and enforced by
some governmental institution.
Government lends legitimacy to policies, they are then legal; Government extends
policies universally to cover all people in society; Government monopolizes the power to
coerce obedience to policy, or to sanction violators.
Traditional studies using the institutional approach focused on institutional structures,
organization, duties and function, without investigating their impact on public policy.
2. ELITE-MASS MODEL
A policy-making elite acts in an environment characterized by apathy and information
distortion, and governs a largely passive mass. Policy flows downward from the elite to the
mass. Society is divided into those who have power and those who do not. Elites share
values that differentiate them from the mass. The prevailing public policies reflect elite
values, which generally preserve the status quo. Elites have hither income, more education,
and higher status than the mass. Public policy may be viewed as the values and preferences
of a governing elite. The elites shape mass opinion more than vice versa. Public officials and
administrators merely carry out policies decided on by the elite, which flows 'down' to the
mass. It assumes that:
1. society is divided into the powerful few and the powerless many; only the few
allocate values (the mass do not decide public policy).
2. The few are not typical of the mass; elites are drawn disproportionately from
the upper strata.
3. There must be slow and continuous movement of nonelites into elite
positions, but only after they accept elite values, in order to maintain stability
and avoid revolution.
 4. All elites agree on basic social system and preservation values, i.e., private
property, limited government, and individual liberty.
5. Changes in public policy will be incremental rather than revolutionary,
reflecting changes in elite values (not mass demands).
6. Active elites are subject to little influence from apathetic masses.
Implications are the responsibility for the state of things rests with the elites, including
the welfare of the mass. The mass is apathetic and ill-informed; mass sentiments are
manipulated by the elite; the mass has only an indirect influence on decisions and policy. As
communication flows only downward, democratic popular elections are symbolic in that they
tie the mass to the system through a political party and occasional voting. Policies may
change incrementally but the elites are conservative and won't change the basic system.
Only policy alternatives that fall within the range of elite value consensus will be given
serious consideration. Competition centers around a narrow range of issues, and elites
agree more than they disagree; there is always agreement on constitutional government,
democratic procedures, majority rule, freedom of speech and of the press, freedom to form
political parties and run for office, equality of opportunity, private property, individual initiative
and reward, and the legitimacy of free enterprise and capitalism. The masses cannot be
relied on to support these values consistently, thus the elite must support them.
3. GROUP MODEL
Public policy results from a system of forces and pressures acting on and reacting to
one another. Usually focuses on the legislature, but the executive is also pressured by
interest groups. Agencies may be captured by the groups they are meant to regulate, and
administrators become increasingly unable to distinguish between policies that will benefit
the general public and policies that will benefit the groups being regulated. Interaction
among groups is the central fact of politics. Individuals with common interests band together
to press their demands (formal or informally) on government. Individuals are important in
politics only when they act as part of or on behalf of group interests. The group is the bridge
between the individual and the government.
The task of the political system is to
1. Establish the rules of the game
2. Arrange compromises and balance interests
3. Enact compromises in public policy
4. Enforce these compromises
It is also called equilibrium theory, as in physics. Influence is determined by numbers,
wealth, and organizational strength, leadership, access to decision makers and internal
cohesion. Policy makers respond to group pressure by bargaining, negotiating, and
compromising among competing demands. Executives, legislators, and agency heads all put
together coalitions from their consistencies to push programs through. Political parties are
coalitions of groups. The Democrats have traditionally been central city, labor,
ethnics/immigrants, the poor, Catholics, liberals, intellectuals, blacks, and Southern blue
collar workers. Republicans have been wealthy, rural, small town, whites, suburbanites,
white collar workers, conservatives, and middle class.
The entire system assumes:
1. a 'latent' group supports the rules of the game
2. there is overlapping group membership which keeps groups from moving too far
out of the political mainstream
 3. there are checks and balances on groups competition
4. SYSTEMS MODEL
Relies on information theory concepts such as input, output, and feedback. Sees the
policy process as cyclical. Asks, "what are the significant variables and patterns in the public
policy-making system?" What goes on within the 'black box' of conversion of demands into
public policy? What are the inputs and outputs? Public policy is viewed as the response of
the political system to forces brought to bear on it from the outside environment. The
environment surrounds the political system. In this model, "environment" means physical:
natural
resources, climate, topography; demographic: population size, age, and distribution, and
location; political: ideology, culture, social structure, economy, and technology. Forces enter
the political system from the environment either as demands or as support. Demands are
brought to it by persons or groups in response to real or perceived environmental conditions,
for government action. Support is given wherever citizens obey laws, vote, pay taxes, etc.,
and conform to public policies.
The political system is a group of interrelated structures and processes that can
authoritative allocate resources for a society. The actors are the legislature, the executive,
the administrative agencies, the courts, interest groups, political parties, and citizens.
Outputs are decisions and actions and public policy. The political system is an
identifiable system of institutions and processes that transform inputs into outputs for the
whole society. The elements with the system are interrelated and it can respond to forces in
the environment, and it seeks to preserve itself in balance with the environment. The system
preserves itself by producing reasonably satisfactory outputs (compromises are arranged,
enacted and enforced). It relies on deep rooted support for the system itself and its use, or
threat of use, of force.
Macro level policies are those that concern the whole system, and are influenced by
official and unofficial groups (media, etc.). It may center on the proper role of Congress or
the President, or the relationships of government and business or citizens and businesses.
Subsystem policies involve legislators, administrators, and lobbyists and researchers who
focus on particular problem areas; also called sub-governments, policy clusters, coalitions,
or iron triangles. E.G. civil aviation, harbors, agricultural subsidies, grazing lands, etc.
Micro⌐level policies are efforts by individuals, companies, or communities to secure some
favorable legislation for themselves. Typically presented to a legislator as a re\quest from the
"home" district. The incentive to engage in micro-politics increases as the extent of
government benefits, programs and regulations increases.
It asks questions such as:
1. What are the significant characteristics of the environment that generate
demands?
2. What are the significant characteristics of the political system that enable it to
endure over time and turn demands into output?
3. How do environmental inputs affect the political system?
4. How do characteristics of the political system affect public policy?
5. How do environmental characteristics affect public policy?
6. How does public policy through feedback, affect the environment and the
political system itself?
5. STREAMS AND WINDOWS MODEL
This model posits three streams which are always simultaneously ongoing. When the
three streams converge, a policy window opens, and a new policy may emerge. The
problem stream focuses the public's and policy-makers' attention on a particular problem,
defines the problem, and calls for a new policy approach (or else the problem fades).
Attention comes through monitoring data, the occurrence of focusing events, and feedback
on existing polices, though oversight studies os program evaluation. Categorization of the
problem is important in determining how the problem is approached and/or resolved: values,
comparisons, and categories.
The political stream is where the government agenda is formed: the list of issues or
problems to be resolved by government. This occurs as the result of the interaction of major
forces such as the national mood, organized interests, and dynamics of public administration
(jurisdictional disputes among agencies, the makeup of government personnel, etc>). The
players are often quite visible, as members of the administration, appointees and staff,
Congress, medica, interest groups, those associated with elections, parties and campaigns,
and public opinion. A consensus is achieved among those groups and a bandwagon effect
or title effect occurs as everyone wants to be in on the policy resolution and not excluded.
The policy stream is where alternatives are considered and decisions are made.
Here the major focus in intellectual and personal; a list of alternatives is generated from
which policy makers can select one. Policy entrepreneurs and other play a role, such as
academics, researchers, consultants, career public administrators, Congressional staffers,
OMB staff, and interest groups. Trial balloons are sent up to gauge the political feasibility of
various alternatives, either publicly or privately. They must be acceptable in terms of value
constraints, technical constraints, and budgetary constraints. Consensus is developed
though rational argument and persuasion (not bargaining). Tilt occurs when a plausible
solution begins to emerge.
When these three streams converge, a policy window may open, because of a shift
in public opinion, a change in Congress, or a change in administration, or when a pressing
problem emerges. Any one stream may change on its own, but all three must converge for a
policy decision to emerge.
WHAT TYPES OF POLICIES MAY EMERGE?
1. Incremental Policy Output. This model relies on the concepts of incremental
decision-making such as satisficing, organizational drift, bounded rationality, and limited
cognition, among others. Basically can be called "muddling through." It represents a
conservative tendency: new policies are only slightly different from old policies. Policy-
makers are too short on time, resources and brains to make totally new policies; past
policies are accepted as having some legitimacy. Existing policies have sunk costs which
discourage innovation, incrementalism is an easier approach than rationalism, and the
policies are more politically expedient because they don't necessitate any radical
redistribution of values. This model tries to improve the acceptability of public policy.
Deficiencies of Incrementalism–Bargaining is not successful with limited resources.
Can downplay useful quantitative information. Obscures real relationship being political
shills. Anti-intellectual approach to problems; no imagination. Conservative; biased-against
far-reaching solutions.
 2. Rational Model. This model tries to understand all the alternatives, take into
account all their consequences, and select the best. It is concerned with the best way to
organize government in order to assure and undistorted flow of information, the accuracy of
feedback, and the weighing of values. Related to techniques such as PERT, CPM, OR, and
linear programming. This model tries to improve the content of public policy.
Deficiencies of Rationalism--gap between planning and implementation. Ignores role
of people, entrepreneurs, leadership, etc. Technical competence along is not enough
(ignores the human factor). Too mechanical an approach, organizations are more organic.
Models must be multidimensional and complex. Predictions are often wrong; simple
solutions may be overlooked. The costs of rational-comprehensive planning may outweigh
the cost savings of the policy.
3. Public Sector Strategic Planning. An attempt to combine the incremental and
rational approaches to public policy-making. It is an attempt to reconcile the day-to-day
demands with long range strategies for the future. It doesn't see the organization as wholly
determined by the
political environment, neither does it ignore risks. It takes an active stance (versus passive)
toward the future with an outward looking, aggressive focus sensitive to the political
environment. It tries to place the organization in a distinctive position vis-a-vis the political
environment. It concentrates on making decisions (unlike the rational model) but blends
rational analysis with economic and political analyses (unlike the incremental model). It is
highly participatory and tolerant of controversy, it concentrates on the fate of the whole
organization; the fate of subunits is secondary.
4. Neo-institutionalist Model. Attempts to categorize public policies into 4 areas by
the probability of government coercion--immediate or remote--and the object of government
coercion--individual or systemic. The concern in this type of analysis is to relate these types
of policy to the different branches of government and the behaviors associated with each
policy area.

b. Stages

There are commonly five stages in policy formulation process. In some other versions, it is
stated in four stages. And the idea of systematic policy process was first presented by
Harold Lasswell in the early 1950s. at present, the five stages are the following:
Agenda settings – It refers to the first stage the issues have been addressed by the policy
stakeholders and the variety of solutions put forward.
Policy formulation – It refers to the development of specific policy options within government
when the range of possible choices is narrowed by excluding infeasible ones and efforts are
made by various actors to have their favored solution ranked highly among the remaining
few.
Decision making – This is the third stage where the policy makers acquire a particular
course of actions.
Implementation – this is the execution of the solutions of the identified issue.
Evaluation – The final stage which the result is monitored by both government and societal
actors and can be led into reconceptualization policy problems and solutions.

Assessment:

Activity 3 – Write your answer/s in another sheet of paper. Don‘t forget to include your name,
year and section.
Based on your own understanding, explain the models and stages of policy formulation
process. (3 points each)