PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNMENT AND 2.

when they receive the benefits, rewards, and

CITIZENSHIP advantages, and
WEEK 1: POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE 3. the methods by which they receive them.
uA. NATURE AND DEFINITION OF POLITICS uTHE STUDY OF POLITICS: POLITICAL SCIENCE
u“Politics exists because people disagree about the •Political science is a classical discipline that deals
aims and objects of human endeavor and, probably with the study of political phenomena. Its goal is to
even more so, about the methods to be used in deepen human understanding of the forms and nature
achieving them” (S. G. Richards, 1978). In his book, of political action and to develop theoretical tools for
The Nature of Politics and Government. interpreting politically meaningful phenomena.
uThese differences produce different attitudes to oPolitical science focuses on the theory and practice
public issues and lead to the activity of politics. Politics of government and politics at the local, state, national,
therefore involves conflict. This can result in violence, and international levels.
as in many of the developing countries, but in the •Political Science deals with the systematic study of
Western democracies the differences are usually political structures, political processes and political
resolved peacefully. behavior.
u“A disagreement in which incompatible policies are uAPPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF DIFFERENT
advocated can only be resolved ultimately by one side POLITICAL STRUCTURES AND INSTITUTIONS
obtaining the power to make its viewpoint prevail over uTHE TRADITIONAL APPROACH
the other. uTraditional approach to the study of political science
uThe acquisition of power therefore is a prerequisite of is a combination of views on and orientations to
achieving political objectives.” politics in philosophical, ethical and institutional terms.
uThus, is the nature of politics. Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, the great issues
uDEFINITIONS OF POLITICS of politics have revolved around the organization and
uThe term “politics” is generally applied to behavior functioning of the state- the political institution par
within civil governments, but politics has been excellence.
observed in all human group interactions. uTHE TRADITIONAL APPROACH
It consists of social relations involving authority or uTraditional approaches exhibit certain well-defined
power, the regulation of political units, and the features, such as: (a) are largely normative and
methods used to formulate and apply social policy. stresses on the values of politics, (b) emphasize on
uPolitics is the way in which we understand and order the study of different political structures and
our social affairs, and acquire greater control over the institutions
situation. uVarious forms of the traditional approach:
-B. Pomton and P. Gill uPhilosophical-This approach firmly believes that
uPolitics is the strategy for maintaining cooperation values cannot be separated from the study of politics
among people with different needs and ideals in life, or and political system. Therefore, its main concern is to
for resolving the conflict within the group, whether this judge what is good or bad in any political society.
is a family, a tribe, a village or a nation-state. uHistorical-As the name of this approach is related to
–Tuibeo,A. history, it emphasizes on the study of history of every
uPolitical Scientist Harold Lasswell, (1936) author of a political reality to analyze any situation.
major study of the distributive consequences of uInstitutional-This approach is concerned with the
political activity, gave his book the title, Politics--Who study of formal structures and institutions like
Gets What, When, and How. Lasswell, in effect, legislature, executive, judiciary, political parties, etc.
defined "politics" as involving questions as to "who uLegal- This approach is concerned with the legal
gets what, when, and how." process, legal bodies or institutions, justice and
uPolitics, according to Lasswell, is concerned with independence of judiciary.
determination, by official governmental decision uTHE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
making and action, of: uThe behavioral approach to political science mainly
1. Who in political society receives what benefits, emphasizes on scientific, objective and value free
rewards, and advantages and how much of them they study of political phenomenon.
receive, uThis approach stresses upon the use of empirical as
well as scientific methods of study political behavior.
uThis approach shifts its emphasis from the study of flour, of the rent, of the shoes and of the
the state and government to the day-today problems, medicine, all depends on political decisions.
activities and behavior of individuals and groups. The political illiterate is so stupid that he is
uCharacteristics of Behavioral Approach: proud and swells his chest saying that he
uRegularities -believes that there are certain hates politics. The imbecile doesn’t know that,
uniformities in political behavior which can be from his political ignorance is born the
expressed in generalizations or theories in order to prostitute, the abandoned child, and the worst
explain and predict political phenomena. thieves of all, the bad politician, corrupted and
uVerification -emphasizes testing and verifying flunky of the national and multinational
everything. According to the behaviorists, what cannot companies.” -Bertolt Brecht
be verified is not scientific.
uTechniques -put emphasis on the use of those MEANING OF GOVERNANCE
research tools and methods which generate valid, The World Bank defines governance as “the manner
reliable and comparative data. in which power is exercised in the management of a
uQuantification -After collecting data, the researcher country's economic and social resources for
should measure and quantify those data. development”…” Governance has been defined as
uCharacteristics of Behavioral Approach: “the rules of the political system to solve conflicts
uValues -believe that to do objective research one has between actors and adopt decision (legality).”
to be value free. ETYMOLOGY OF GOVERNANCE
uSystematization -research in Political Science must ➔ The word “governance” came from the Latin
be systematic. Theory and research should go verb “gubernare,” or more originally from the
together. Greek word “kubernaein,” which means “to
uPure Science -believes that the study of Political steer.”
Science should be verified by evidence. ◆ The gov’t steers the direction of the
uIntegration -Political Science should not be separated country
from various other social sciences like history, ➔ Basing on its etymology, governance refers to
sociology and economics, etc. the manner of steering or governing, or of
IMPORTANCE OF POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT directing and controlling, a group of people or a
1. It is very important to care about politics because state.
you should know what is going on around you. DEFINITION OF GOVERNANCE
2. Another reason you should care about politics is uGovernance is commonly defined as the exercise of
because you should have a say in what will happen. power or authority by political leaders for the well-
3. You should care about politics because the being of their country’s citizens or subjects.
decisions people make will affect many lives. uIt is the complex process whereby some sectors of
Why Are Politics Important in This Society? the society wield power, and enact and promulgate
➔ Because politics affects our daily life more than public policies which directly affect human and
we know. Politics is the science of optimum institutional interactions, and economic and social
allocation of resources for the betterment of development.
everyone. It requires great understanding and
skills. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE
➔ Common man too needs to have a basic grasp GOOD GOVERNANCE INDICATORS
of politics specially in a democracy - which is uGood governance is understood through its eight
essentially a system of check and balances. A indicators or characteristics: (1) Participatory; (2) Rule
democracy is not run by the government alone of Law; (3) Effective and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5)
but by both the citizens and the government. Responsive; (6) Equitable and Inclusive; (7)
◆ The gov’t and citizen is responsible for Consensus-Oriented; and (8) Accountability. They are
the country inextricably related to each other.
➔ “The worst illiterate is the political illiterate, he
doesn’t hear, doesn’t speak, nor participates in
the political events. He doesn’t know the cost
of life, the price of the bean, of the fish, of the
1. PARTICIPATION the citizens or those who will be directly
● Good governance essentially requires affected.
participation of different sectors of the society. ● It also means that transactions involving public
Participation means active involvement of all interests must be fully disclosed and made
affected and interested parties in the decision- accessible to the people. It is anchored on the
making process. democratic right to information and right to
● It requires an enabling environment wherein access of the same.
pertinent information is effectively 5. RESPONSIVENESS
disseminated and people could respond in an ● Responsiveness means that institutions and
unconstrained and truthful manner. processes serve all stakeholders in a timely
● It also means gender equality, recognizing the and appropriate manner.
vital roles of both men and women in decision- ● It also means that actors and structures of
making. governance easily give genuine expression to
2. RULE OF LAW the will or desire of the people.
● Democracy is essentially the rule of law. It is ● In other words, the interests of all citizens must
through the law that people express their will be well protected in a prompt and appropriate
and exercise their sovereignty. That the manner so that each of them can appreciate
government is of law and not of men is an and take part in the process of governance.
underlying democratic principle which puts no 6. EQUITY AND INCLUSIVENESS
one, however rich and powerful, above the law. ● Equity and inclusiveness mean that all the
○ Follow the rule of law leads to members of the society, especially the most
sovereignty vulnerable ones or the grassroots level, must
● Rule of law demands that the people and the be taken into consideration in policy-making.
civil society render habitual obedience to the ● Everyone has a stake in the society and no
law. It also demands that the government acts one should feel alienated from it.
within the limits of the powers and functions ● Particularly, those who belong to the
prescribed by the law. The absence of rule of grassroots level must not only be the subject of
law is anarchy. legislation but they must be given the
3. EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY opportunity to participate in decision or policy
● Good governance requires that the institutions, making.
processes, and actors could deliver and meet 7. CONSENSUS-ORIENTED
the necessities of the society in a way that ● Governance is consensus-oriented when
available resources are utilized well. decisions are made after taking into
● That the different actors meet the needs of the consideration the different viewpoints of the
society means that there is effective actors of the society.
governance. ● Mechanisms for conflict resolution must be in
● That the valuable resources are utilized, place because inevitably conflict will arise from
without wasting or underutilizing any of them, competing interests of the actors.
means that there is efficient governance. ● To meet the consensus, a strong, impartial,
● Effectiveness (meeting the needs) and and flexible mediation structure must be
efficiency (proper utilization of resources) established. Without such, compromises and a
must necessarily go together to ensure the broad consensus cannot be reached that
best possible results for the community. serves that best interest of the whole
4. TRANSPARENCY community.
● Transparency, as an indicator of good ○ Paghingi ng opinyon ng tao before
governance, means that people are open to passing a bill.
information regarding decision-making process ○ Supreme Court has Authority to declare
and the implementation of the same. a law is unconstitutional if it seems like
● In legal terms, it means that information on it is not good for the greater number of
matters of public concern is made available to people.
8. ACCOUNTABILITY •STATE by Robert M. Maclver
● Accountability means answerability or •The state is an association which, acting through law
responsibility for one’s action. as promulgated by a government endowed to this end
● It is based on the principle that every person or with coercive power, maintains within a community
group is responsible for their actions most territorially demarcated the universal external
especially when their acts affect public interest. conditions of social order. [kulang yung definition ni
● The actors have an obligation to explain and Maclver]
be answerable for the consequences of •STATE by Max Weber
decisions and actions they have made on •The state is an association that claims the monopoly
behalf of the community it serves. of the legitimate use of violence.

WEEK 2: THE STATE ELEMENTS OF THE STATE

DEFINITIONS OF STATE 1. PEOPLE/POPULATION
•Modern Term “State” •People refers to the mass of population living within
● •The modern term “state” is derived from the the state. “People” answers the question, “who
word “status”. It was Niccolò Machiavelli governs whom?”
(1469-1527) who: •According to Plato, there is no specific number
○ first used the term “state” in his requirement; “…the state shall neither be too small nor
writings. His significant work is titled as yet one that seems great but has no unity.” Aristotle,
“Prince”. on the other hand, says “the number should be neither
○ “The state is the most universal and too large nor too small; It should be large enough to
most powerful of all institutions.” be self-sufficing and small enough to be well
○ “The state is a natural institution.” governed.”
STATE by James W. Garner
● A state is a community of persons, more or 2. TERRITORY
less numerous, permanently occupying a •Territory is the demarcated area that rightly belongs
definite portion of territory, having a to the population. “Territory” answers the question,
government of their own to which the great “where?” It is a definite portion of the surface of the
body of inhabitants render habitual earth which is the subject of the jurisdiction and
obedience(internal soverignity) , and enjoying sovereign rights of a state in accordance with the
freedom from external control (external international law.
sovereignty). •There can be no state without a fixed territory.People
● J. Garner almpst complete definition of state need territory to live and organize themselves socially
wit ALL ELEMENTS OF STATE included. and politically.Territory refers to the terrestrial (land),
•STATE by Alisha Holland fluvial/maritime (water),and aerial (air-space) domains.
•State is a numerous assemblage of human beings •The territorial domains are: a. terrestrial (land) b.
(population), generally occupying a certain territory fluvial (water) which includes maritime and c. aerial
(teritory) among whom the will of the majority or of an (air). It consists the land within its boundaries, the air
ascertainable class of persons is by the strength of space above the land, the inland waters and all the
such a majority made to prevail against any of their natural resources therein, and the sea beyond the
members who oppose it.(soverignity) state’s coastlines, including its seabed and
•STATE by John William Burgess subsoil(mining). In the case of archipelagic states this
•State is a particular portion of mankind viewed as an territorial sea stretches to 12 miles (19kms) from the
organized unit. coastlines to the open sea.
•STATE by US Pres. Woodrow Wilson •As in the case of the population, there is no definite
•State is a people organized for law within a definite size with regard to the extent of area of the state to be
territory. fixed. There are large and small states. However,
•STATE by Aristotle territory should be permanent and large enough to be
•State is a union of families and villages having for its self-sufficing. Vatican is the smallest with a total land
end a perfect and self-sufficing life by which we mean area of 0.44 km2; Russia is the largest with
a happy and honorable life. 17,098,242 km2
3. GOVERNMENT •
● There is a possibility to have a government •2. NECESSITY OR FORCE THEORY
without a STAT - Example: Philippine’s situation during
○ Ex: The PH when we are controlled by American Period
foreign countrym, we have no state •Necessity or force theory maintains that the state
because we have no sovereignty must have been created as a product of the existence
•There can be no state without government. of the strong and the weak in society, and as a result
Government is the agency to which the will of the state of their struggle against each other wherein those who
is formulated, expressed, and carried out. are strong are able to dominate and impose their will
•It is an institution or aggregate of institutions by which upon the weak.
an independent society makes and carries out those •The creation of the state through the constant war
rules of action necessary to enable men to live in a and invasion of the great warriors in the ancient time
social state, or that which are imposed upon the dominated the weak and later on formed a state.
people by those who possess the power or authority of •3. NATURAL OR INSTINCTIVE THEORY
prescribing them. - Man is looking for association and as a result
4. SOVEREIGNTY they form what they call a state
•Sovereignty is the supreme power of the state to •The Natural or Instinctive Theory holds that the state
command and enforce obedience its will from the is founded out of man’s natural instinct for association.
people within its jurisdiction, and corollarily, to have The social urge of the human being to be within a
freedom from foreign control. group of people in the community as in sociology
•The word “sovereignty” means supreme and final describes that “man is a social being.”
legal authority above and beyond which no legal •The social group provides the political development to
power exists. Sovereignty has two aspects: 1) Internal stay and work together with common goal in the
sovereignty which means that the State is supreme community and later on transforms into a state.
over all its citizens, and associations;if AFP ISIS will •4. PATRIARCHAL THEORY
not be controlled INTERNAL sovereignity will be gone - Means that a state originated from a single
2) External sovereignty which means that the state is couple, dumami anak so nabuo yung state
independent and free from foreign or outside control. •The Patriarchal theory attributes the origin of states to
the enlargement of the family which remained under
•THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE STATE the authority of the father or mother.
•1. DIVINE RIGHT THEORY •By natural stages, the family grew into a clan, then
- State is created by GOD, and GOD assigned developed into a tribe which broadened into a nation
someone to govern that state and the nation became a state.
•The Divine Right Theory holds that the state is of •5. SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY
divine creation and the ruler is ordained by God to - The people agreed and voluntarily create a
govern the people. Reference has been made by particular state
advocates of this theory to the laws which Moses •Social contract theory asserts that the early states
received at Mount Sinai. must have been formed by deliberate and voluntary
•The rulers of the past advocated the political compact among the people to form a society and
dominance of authority and power through their own organize government for their common good.
ordained mandate that they represented the state as •This theory justifies the right of the people to revolt
on the basis of the divine right (as God created the against a bad ruler.
state). It was in this nature that the divine rights of •6. HISTORICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
kings have the absolute power and influence over their - Scientific theory, although very slow process
subjects. •The Historical or Evolutionary theory explains that
•This is the oldest theory concerned in the origin of “the state is the product of growth, a slow and steady
state. According to this theory, state is established and evolution extending over a long period of time and
governed by God himself by agent or vice regent or ultimately shaping itself into the complex structure of a
vicar of God. The chief exponent of this theory in early modern state.” This theory is more scientific.
times were the Jews and supporters were the early
church fathers.
HISTORICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY THEORY: - Compensation based on the current market
PROFESSOR GARNER value of the property.
- Rejected the other theories,but only accept the 3. POWER OF TAXATION
historical/natural growth theory - Hindi pwede mag add and magtanggal ng tax
•The state is neither the handiwork of God, nor the ng walang binabasehang batas.
result of superior physical force, nor the creation of - Dapat maliwanag kung saan gagamitin ang
evolution or convention, nor a mere expansion of the revenue from that tax.
family. The state is not a mere artificial mechanical - Example: sin tax revenue is for the benefit of
creation but an institution of natural growth or second hand smokers.
historical evolution says professor Garner. •Power of Taxation is the inherent power of the
sovereign, exercised through the legislature, to
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATE AND NATION impose burdens upon subjects and objects within its
•COMPARISON BY DEFINITION jurisdiction for the purpose of raising revenues to carry
•State is a community of persons occupying a definite out the legitimate objects of the government.
territory, having a government of their own, and
enjoying freedom from external control. WEEK 3: POLITICAL POWER
•A nation is a society of inhabitants of a specific MEANING AND NATURE OF POWER
geographic region united and bound together by a Power may be explained in different ways because its
common racial ancestry, the same language and meaning is within the context of human relations. We
culture, historical past, laws and a shared interests are encountered with many different explanations in
and sentiments over the passing of many years. various disciplines. Even within a single social
- 4 elements of state: community of discipline, power is defined in several different ways.
person/population,territory, ¡Some social scientists define it as the use of force
government,freedom from external whereas many others explain it as the capacity to
control/sovereignty. secure the desired goals through the use of force or
•The state is a political concept, while nation is an threat of use of force or even by exercising influence.
ethnic or racial concept. ¡According to Morgenthau “Power is the power of man
•A state is not subject to external control while a nation on others” and as a “man’s control over the minds and
may or may not be independent of external control. actions of other men.”
•A state cannot become a state without a nation or ¡• Another definition is from Schwarzenberger who
nations that consists of its people. view power as “the capacity of one to impose his will
•A single state may consist of one or more nations or on others by reliance on effective sanctions in case of
peoples and conversely, a single nation may be made non-compliance.”
up of different states. ¡• Charles P. Schleicher defines power as “the ability
to exercise such control as to make others do what
INHERENT POWERS OF THE STATE they otherwise would not do by rewarding or promising
1. POLICE POWER to reward them, or by depriving or threatening to
- Depending on the country they can order deprive them of something they value.”
police power. Example: ¡In Social Science and Politics, Power is the ability to
•Police power is the power of government to enforce influence or outright control the behavior of people. It
obedience from the people in the promotion of public is authority when the power is perceived as legitimate
health, morals, or safety, and the general well-being of by the social structure. Power may also be seen as
the community. evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as
•It is the inherent power of government to enact and reserved only to humans as social beings.
enforce laws for the promotion of general welfare. ¡NATIONAL POWER: DIMENSIONS, FEATURES
2. POWER OF EMINENT DOMAIN AND EXERCISE
•Power of Eminent Domain is the power possessed by National Power
the state over all property within the state, specifically ¡National Power is that “combination of power and
its power to appropriate property for a public purpose. capability of a state which the state uses for fulfilling
•This is the power of the state to take private property its national interests and goals” according to
for public use with just compensation. Paddleford and Lincoln.
To Hartman, national power denotes the ability of a ¡DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL POWER
nation to fulfill national goals, how much powerful or ¡The three forms of national power are inseparable
weak a particular nation in securing them. from each other. Without economic power no nation
¡National Power is simply the ability or capability of a can develop her military power, and without the latter
nation to secure the goals and objectives of its no nation can play an active role in international
national interests in relation with other nations. It relations. Psychological power can be enduringly and
involves the capacity to use force or threat of use of really effective only when it is backed by economic
force or influence over others for securing the goals of and military power.
national interest. ¡1. Military Power
¡In this way, we can define National Power as “the ¡Military power is an important dimension of national
ability to control the behavior of other states in power. It is regarded as absolutely essential for
accordance with one’s own will.” National Power is the achieving the objective of security of the nation. For
currency of international relations. every nation, security is the most vital element of its
¡NATURE OF NATIONAL POWER national interest. It is the primary concern of every
¡NATIONAL nation to work for her security.
¡National means pertaining to the nation making ¡Military Power
national power the power of a nation. However, in the ¡Military power is as such a vital part of national
context of national power the term ‘nation’ does not power. The role and importance of a state in
mean the same as in Political Science. international relations depends upon its military power.
¡In the context of national powers, nation stands for No state can get recognition as a super power without
the power of the group of decision makers and being militarily superior.
authorities who exercise power on behalf of the nation. ¡2. Economic Power
It is the power of the decision-makers who formulate ¡Economic power is the second important dimension
and implement the foreign policy of the nation and of national power. It is constituted by the ability of a
thereby attempt to secure national goals. nation to satisfy its own needs and to control the
¡POWER behavior of other states by affording or denying
¡For understanding the nature of power in the context access to economic goods and services.
of National Power, it is necessary to distinguish ¡The economic means of foreign policy are today the
between Power and Force, and Power and Influence. most vital means which a state can use for influencing
¡Power and Force: the actions and behavior of other states. No state can
¡Force means physical force, violence in the form of become a military power without having adequate
police action, imprisonment, punishment or war. economic power.
¡Power means a psychological relationship of control ¡Economic Power
which is backed by the use of force, or threat of use of ¡Economic power is used by rich and developed
force. nations to influence other states by granting them
¡When physical force, war and other means involving economic aid and loans, and try to secure their
the use of military power or police power are actually interests in international relations. It is used as a
used to secure certain objectives, power stands means to induce as well as to coerce a desired
replaced by force. change in the behavior of other states.
¡Power and Influence: ¡3. Psychological Power
¡Both involve the ability to produce an intended ¡Psychological power means the power of opinion and
change or effect in the behavior of others. However, image of the nation. The role of propaganda and
the two are not the same. Power involves a use of persuasive negotiations in international relations have
force or threat of use of force. Political Power or Legal been used by the states for securing an intended
Power is backed by authority or sovereignty of the change in the behavior of other states.
state. ¡Psychological Power
¡Influence involves the attempt to change the behavior ¡By the use of psychological and cultural means a
of others through persuasion and not by threats or nation always tries to influence the people and leaders
force. The scope of influence is wider than the scope of other nations. The ability to influence others through
of power and it is more democratic than power. systematic publicity and educational and cultural
¡DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL POWER
relations constitutes the psychological part of the ¡When punitive action is taken against another nation,
national power of a nation. it becomes a case of use of force. However, when
¡METHODS OF EXERCISING NATIONAL POWER only threat of punitive action is given without the actual
¡1. Persuasion use of physical violence against the other state, it
¡The art of persuasion consists in defining and becomes a case of exercise of power through the use
logically explaining a particular problem or issue or of punishment. As such the difference between force
dispute to other nations or any other nation. An and punishment is in the actual use of force versus the
attempt is made to persuade other nations to adopt a threat of use of force.
particular and desired view or perception of the nature ¡Force or Physical Violence
of issues involved in any bilateral or multilateral ¡Physical force or violence can be used by resorting to
problem, dispute or issue. war or acts of reprisals by a powerful state. Resort to
¡Persuasion is widely used by diplomats and war is the extreme form of exercise of force in
statesmen for securing the desired and defined international relation. It is a risky and dangerous
objectives of the foreign policy. But success in method, which can damage the national power of the
persuasion can be achieved only when it is state which resorts to war. This consideration makes
supplemented by other methods and when it is the resort to war as a method of last resort.
supported by a strong national power and effective ¡NATURE AND DEFINITION OF AUTHORITY
foreign policy. ¡Authority
¡2. Rewards ¡Authority is “the right or the capacity or both to have
¡The offering of rewards can be material or economic proposals or prescriptions or instructions accepted
or psychological. A nation can give material help to without recourse to persuasion, bargaining or force”.
another nation in times of crisis or in other ways. ¡Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics defines authority
¡The practice of giving economic aid and easy loans or as “the power or right to give orders and enforce
grants-in-aid is another method of winning support and obedience, the power to influence others based on
inducing a change in the behavior of other states. recognized knowledge or expertise.”
¡The lease of territories or a military bases or ¡“Authority can most simply be defined as legitimate
equipment—industrial or military, transit and trade power. Authority is, therefore, based on an
facilities and grant of right to allow passage of ships acknowledged duty to obey rather than on any form of
are some of the other forms of rewards which a state coercion or manipulation. In this sense authority is
can offer to other states for securing a desired change power cloaked in legitimacy or rightfulness”.
in their behaviors. ¡TYPES OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY
¡3. Punishment ¡1. TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY
¡A powerful nation can inflict punishment on an ¡Traditional authority is power that is rooted in
offending or unhelpful state by imposing economic traditional, or long-standing, beliefs and practices of a
sanctions or norms or policies or placing trade society.
restrictions or ensuring a denial of a possible reward. ¡It exists and is assigned to particular individuals
Denial or reduction in foreign aid or loan or refusal to because of that society’s customs and traditions.
export certain items or technology can be used by a ¡Traditional authority is legitimated by the sanctity of
powerful nation for inflicting a punishment or pressure tradition. The ability and right to rule are passed down,
on other nations. often through heredity. It does not change overtime,
¡Punishment does not facilitate social change, tends to be irrational
¡The most effective punishment is the one which and inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo.
secures the desired objective of a state without the ¡TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY
actual infliction of punishment on other states. Threat ¡Traditional authority is typically embodied in
of punishment is a better method of exercise of feudalism or patrimonialism. In a purely patriarchal
national power than its actual infliction. structure, “the servants are completely and personally
¡4. Force or Physical Violence dependent upon the lord”, while in an estate system
¡By the use of military power or physical force, a (i.e., feudalism), “the servants are not personal
powerful nation can compel a desired behavior of servants of the lord but independent men” (Weber
another nation. As a method of exercising power, 1958, 4). But, in both cases the system of authority
force is related to punishment. does not change or evolve.
¡2. CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY PHILIPPINE POLITCS, GOVERNMENT AND
¡Charismatic authority stems from an individual’s CITIZENSHIP
extraordinary personal qualities and from that WEEK 4: THE GOVERNMENT
individual’s hold over followers because of these EARLY ATTEMPTS TO CLASSIFY GOVERNMENTS
qualities. Aristotle made one of the earliest attempts to classify
¡Such charismatic individuals may exercise authority government structures. He distinguished between
over a whole society or only a specific group within a states ruled by one person, by the few and the many-
larger society. monarchy, aristocracy and mixed government.
¡They can exercise authority for good and for bad, as His intention was not only to describe but to evaluate
this brief list of charismatic leaders indicates: Joan of and thus he extended his classification scheme to
Arc, Adolf Hitler, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King their 'perverted' forms, which he labelled tyranny,
Jr., Jesus Christ, Muhammad, and Buddha. Each of oligarchy and democracy.
these individuals had extraordinary personal qualities EARLY ATTEMPTS TO CLASSIFY GOVERNMENTS
that led their followers to admire them and to follow Charles baron de Montesquieu, a French philosopher
their orders or requests for action. of the eighteenth century, produced one of the most
¡CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY famous schemes of classifying governments:
¡Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose 'There are three species of government: republican,
mission and vision inspire others. It is based upon the monarchical and despotic.’
perceived extraordinary characteristics of an Montesquieu's classification differed from Aristotle's in
individual. Weber saw a charismatic leader as the that aristocracy and democracy were part of his
head of a new social movement, and one instilled with republican type of government, but his categorization
divine or supernatural powers, such as a religious was firmly in the classical mold since the type of
prophet. Weber seemed to favor charismatic authority, government depended on the number of people
and spent a good deal of time discussing it. holding power.
¡3. LEGAL-RATIONAL AUTHORITY CLASSIFICATIONS OF GOVERNMENTS
¡Legal-Rational authority derives from law and is a. As to The Number of Persons Exercising Sovereign
based on a belief in the legitimacy of a society’s laws Power
and rules and in the right of leaders to act under these Monarchy is a government in which supreme and final
rules to make decisions and set policy. authority is in the hands of a single person.
¡This form of authority is a hallmark of modern Absolute Monarchy is a government in which the ruler
democracies, where power is given to people elected rules by divine right
by voters, and the rules for wielding that power are Limited Monarchy is a government in which the ruler
usually set forth in a constitution, a charter, or another rules in accordance with the Constitution
written document. Tyranny is an autocratic form of rule in which one
¡Legal-rational authority is empowered by a formalistic individual exercises power without any legal restraint
belief in the content of the law (legal) or natural law Dictatorship is an authoritarian type of government
(rationality). Obedience is not given to a specific where there is absolute control by one person.
individual leader - whether traditional or charismatic - a. As to The Number of Persons Exercising Sovereign
but a set of uniform principles. Weber thought the best Power
example of legal-rational authority was a bureaucracy Aristocracy is a government in which political power is
(political or economic). exercised by few privileged classes which is known as
¡LEGAL-RATIONAL AUTHORITY aristocracy or oligarchy.
¡This form of authority is frequently found in the In an oligarchy, a small group of people has all the
modern state, city governments, private and public power in the government.
corporations, and various voluntary associations. In a. As to The Number of Persons Exercising Sovereign
fact, Weber stated that the “development of the Power
modern state is identical indeed with that of modern Democracy is a government in which political power is
officialdom and bureaucratic organizations just as the exercised by a majority of the people.
development of modern capitalism is identical with the a) Direct or pure democracy is a government in
increasing bureaucratization of economic enterprise. which the will of the state is formulated or expressed
¡
directly and immediately through the people in a mass Atheocracy is a government where religion is
meeting or primary assembly. forbidden
a. As to The Number of Persons Exercising Sovereign FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
Power Autarchy is a government by an absolute ruler
b) Indirect, representative or republican Bureaucracy is a government by civil servants
democracy is a government in which the will of the FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
state is formulated and expressed through a relatively Confederacy is a union of sovereign states
small and select body of persons chosen by the Dyarchy is a government by two; dual monarchy
people to act as their representatives. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
As to Extent of Powers Exercised by The Central or Ethnocracy is a form of government by a
National Government particular ethnic group
•Unitary Government is a government in which the Geniocracy is a government of intelligent people
control of national and local affairs is exercised by the FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
central or national government. Gynarchy
•Federal government is a government in which the is a government by women; gynocracy
powers of government are divided between the Heptarchy is a government by seven people
national and local governments. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
As to the Relationship Between the Executive and Judiciocracy is a government by judges.
Legislative Branches of Government Kakistocracy is a government by the worst
•Parliamentary government is a government in which FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
the state confers upon the legislature the power to Kleptocracy is a government by thieves
terminate the tenure of office of the real executive. Malarchy is a government by bad leaders
Legislatures called parliaments operate under a FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
parliamentary system of government in which the Matriarchy is a form of government by women or
executive is constitutionally answerable to the mothers
parliament. Parliaments usually consist of chambers Meritocracy is a government by those with merit
or houses, and are usually either bicameral or FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
unicameral. Minarchy is a government with the smallest
As to the Relationship Between the Executive and possible size
Legislative Branches of Government Nomocracy is a government through established
•Presidential government is a government in which the laws
state makes the executive constitutionally independent FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
of the legislature as regards to tenure to a large Ochlocracy is a government by mobs
extent. Particracy is a government by political parties
As to the Relationship Between the Executive and FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
Legislative Branches of Government Patriarchy is a government by fathers
A presidential system is a system of government Plutocracy is a government by the wealthy
where an executive branch is led by a president who FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
serves as both head of state and head of government. Polyarchy
In such a system, this branch exists separately from is a government by many people
the legislature, to which it is not responsible and which Republic is a government by elected officials
it cannot, in normal circumstances, dismiss. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
FORMS OF GOVERNMENTS Robocracy is a government by robots
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT Stratocracy is a government by armed forces
Anarchy is the state of having no government. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
Adhocracy is a type of organization that operates in Technocracy is a government by technical experts
opposite fashion to a bureaucracy; government in Tetrarchy is a government by four people
unstructured fashion FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT Theocracy is a government by a deity through the
Androcracy or andrarchy is a form of government in clergy or by religious law
which the government rulers are male. Timocracy is a government by the propertied class
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT stability is very dangerous because societies can
Triumvirate is a government by three people easily fall into chaos and violence.
MEANING OF IDEOLOGY CONSERVATISM
Ideology is a comprehensive set of normative beliefs, •Concreteness
conscious and unconscious ideas, that an individual, Liberalism is too abstract. It focuses on freedom and
group or society has. equality, not on the concrete way people live every
An ideology is less encompassing than the ideas day, which is the focus of conservatism.
expressed in concepts such as worldview, imaginary CONSERVATISM
and ontology. •Human fallibility
MEANING OF IDEOLOGY Humans are frequently ignorant, prejudiced, and
Political ideologies can be proposed by the dominant irrational.
class of society such as the elite to all members of •Unique circumstances
society as suggested in some Marxist and critical- There is no universal answer to the problems of
theory accounts. society; the circumstances are unique in each country.
In societies that distinguish between public and private CAPITALISM
life, every political or economic tendency entails Capitalism is a political and economic ideology which
ideology, whether or not it is propounded as an explicit states that individuals are free.
system of thought. They are free to make money, own businesses, sell
POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES goods and services and crucially own private property.
LIBERALISM Emphasis within capitalist countries is on the role of
•Individualism individuals rather than the state.
The individual takes priority over society CAPITALISM
•Freedom In a capitalist economy, capital assets—such as
Individuals have the right to make choices for factories, mines, and railroads—can be privately
themselves. owned and controlled, labor is purchased for money
LIBERALISM wages, capital gains accrue to private owners, and
•Equality prices allocate capital and labor between competing
No person is morally or politically superior to others. uses.
Hierarchies are rejected PILLARS OF CAPITALISM
•Rationalism •Private property
Humans are capable of thinking logically and allows people to own tangible assets such as land and
rationally. Logic and reason help us solve problems houses and intangible assets such as stocks and
LIBERALISM bonds
•Progress •self-interests
Traditions should not be kept unless they have value. people act in pursuit of their own good, without regard
New ideas are helpful because they can lead to for sociopolitical pressure.
progress in the sciences, the economy, and society PILLARS OF CAPITALISM
•The free market •competition
Liberalism and capitalism go hand in hand. Liberals through firms’ freedom to enter and exit markets,
like the free market because it easily creates more maximizes social welfare, that is, the joint welfare of
wealth both producers and consumers
CONSERVATISM •market mechanism
Conservatism, political ideology or doctrine that that determines prices in a decentralized manner
emphasizes the value of traditional institutions and through interactions between buyers and sellers
practices. Conservatism is a preference for the PILLARS OF CAPITALISM
historically inherited rather than the abstract and ideal. •freedom to choose
CONSERVATISM customers can buy different products, investors can
•Stability pursue more lucrative ventures, workers can leave
Stability is a precious thing, and change must be their jobs for better pay
made gradually in order to preserve it. Undermining •limited role of government
to protect the rights of private citizens and maintain an unit of government was the barangay, which consisted
orderly environment that facilitates proper functioning of from 30 to 100 families. The term came from the
of markets Malay word balangay, meaning boat
SOCIALISM barangays were headed by chieftains called datu
Socialism is an economic system in which the factors the subjects served their chieftain during wars,
of production are valued in relationship to their voyages, planting and harvest, and when his house
usefulness to people. needs to be built or repaired; they also paid tributes
Socialists take into account both individual needs and called buwis
greater social needs. the chief or datu was the chief executive, the
They allocate resources using central planning, as in a legislator, and the judge; he was also the supreme
command economy. commander in times of war
SOCIALISM alliances among barangays were common and these
The mantra of socialism is, "From each according to were formalized in a ritual called sanduguan
his ability, to each according to his contribution. conflicts between or
SOCIALISM among barangays
Everyone in society receives a share of the production were settled by
based on how much each has contributed. violence; those who
This system motivates them to work long hours if they win by force is
want to receive more. Workers receive their share of always right
production after a percentage has been deducted for Laws
the common good were either customary (handed down from generation
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIALISM to generation orally) or written (promulgated from time
•Collectivism to time as necessity arose)
Human beings are social by nature, and society dealt with various subjects such as inheritance,
should respect this. Individualism is poisonous property rights, divorce, usury, family relations,
•Public ownership divorce, adoption, loans, etc.
Society, not individuals, should own the property those found guilty of crimes were punished either by
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIALISM fine or by death; some punishments can be
•Central economic planning considered as torture by modern standards
The government plans the economy; there is no free however, it must be noted that ancients did not believe
market in endangering society by letting loose a gang of
•Economic equality thieves of recidivists who are incapable of reform
All citizens have roughly the same level of prosperity. Legislation
Differences Between Socialism, Capitalism, before laws are made, the chief consults with a council
Communism of elders who approved of his plan
they are not immediately enforced until the new
WEEK 4 legislation is announced to the village by the
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE umalohokan, who also explains the law to everyone
PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT Judicial Process
disputes between individuals were settled by a court
A. The Barangay and the the Sultanate
made up of the village chief and the council of elders;
In early Philippine history, the barangay was a
between barangays, a board made up of elders from
complex sociopolitical unit which scholars have
neutral barangays acted as arbiter
historically considered the dominant organizational
the accused and the accuser faced each other in front
pattern among the various peoples of the Philippine
of the “court” with their respective witnesses
archipelago. The term, barangay, refers to both a
both took an oath to tell the truth; most of the time, the
house on land and a boat on water; containing
one who presents the most witnesses wins the case
families, friends and dependents and is currently the
if the losing party contests the decision, he is bound to
basic political unit of the Philippines.
lose in the end because the chief always take the side
Government
of the winner
Trial by Ordeal
to determine the innocence of an accused, he is made – a grant designed to reward those persons
to go through a number of ordeals which he must pass who have rendered valuable services to the king of
examples include dipping one’s hand in boiling water, Spain. Those who were given encomienda were called
holding a lighted candle that must not be extinguished, “encomenderos”.
plunging into a river and staying underwater for as
long as possible, chewing uncooked rice and spitting, In exchange to these privileges, the encomendero was
etc. obliged by law to promote the welfare of his
among the Ifugaos, ordeal by combat was common, constituents. He must 1. protect them from enemies
i.e. bultong (wrestling), alaw (duel) (bandits and pirates), 2. assist the missionaries in
propagating Christianity, 3. maintain peace and order,
THE SPANISH COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION 4. promote education, and to render humane
1565 - 1821 treatment among his subjects.
The Spanish Colonial administration Encomienda System
The Philippines was a crown colony
ruled by Spain through Mexico from 1565 to 1821, as Three Classes of Encomienda
such, Spain ruled the Philippines with the help of the Royal Encomienda
Council of the Indies, created in 1524, which was an - those that were set aside for the King of
overseas ministry governing the colonies of Spain. Spain
The head of the council was the Viceroy of Mexico. Ecclesiastical Encomienda
The Spanish Laws - those which were assigned to the religious
Laws in the Philippines were from Spain and consisted order
of royal decrees of the king. The numerous laws Private Encomienda
governing the colonies were compiled and published - those who were given to the Spaniards who helped
in the convenient colonial code entitled “Recopilacion in the conquest and colonization of the Philippines
de las Leyes de Indies”, popularly known as the Laws
of Indies. Divide and Rule
Spanish Institutions - Using people to fight their own people, one
Polo fighting for his new master, while the other preserving
- The forced labor rendered by Filipinos to the his own independence.
government annually.

Spanish institutions
Frailocracy
Falla - exemption fee for rendering forced labor. - The rule of the friars
- This made the clergy, by way of the Royal
Tribute – the tax called tributo, as a symbol of Patronage, obtained certain political powers and
vassalage to Spain. privileges

Bandala – system that caused a lot of hardships to Isolation Policy

the Filipinos where products were sold compulsory to
the government. - Prohibiting people from trading with other
Asian countries.
-This policy is to ward off the expressed
interests of other colonial powers over the island.

THE GOVERNOR GENERAL

He was the King’s official representative in the
Philippines.
Encomienda System He was vested with executive, legislative and judicial
powers
He also exercised religious and extraordinary powers He laid the foundation of agricultural progress of the
called cumplase. Philippines.
He promoted the country’s economy.

Executive Power
- He enforced Spanish laws and royal decrees Carlos Ma. De la Torre
in the Philippines. He appointed all subordinate (1869-1871)
officials including “alcaldes mayores” (provincial He abolished press censorship.
governors). He is the most liberal-minded governor.
Legislative Power He introduced reforms.
- He enacted and issued laws, regulations and
decrees called superior decrees. Checks to Gubernatorial Powers
Judicial Power The Royal Audiencia
- He was the president or presiding officer of - The Supreme Court during the colonial
the “Royal Audiencia” which was the supreme court of period.
the Philippines during the Spanish Era. Residencia
- The office of the incoming governor general
investigating the acts of the outgoing governor general
Ecclesiastical Power and other officials.
- He had the power to recommend priests for Visitador
appointment and intervene in controversies between - An investigative body sent by the king to
religious authorities. investigate colonial conditions.
Military Power Direct complaints
- The Governor General is also the - Reports to the King by friars and other officials.
commander in chief of the armed forces.
Veto Power Royal Audencia
- He can overrule the royal decrees; called
“cumplace”. THE ROYAL AUDENCIA
Categorized as the Supreme Court.
It was established in the Philippines by virtue of the
From 1565-1898, a total of 122 governors Royal Decree of May 5, 1583.
general served in the Philippines. Accordingly, there Its first president was Governor General Santiago de
were more undesirable governors who only exploited Vera.
the Filipinos than serve them. There were, however, a It functions as an appeals court, hearing and deciding
few good men who truly served well and are worthy to civil and criminal cases.
be remembered by Filipinos. The Royal Audencia also performed non-judicial
The Three Most Remembered Spanish Governor- functions such as doing consultation with the governor
Generals in Philippine History known as “real arcados”.
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT
(1565-1572) Spain instituted the centralized form of
He was the first governor general of the government. The previously independent barangays
Philippines. The governor general who desired that became part of the unitary government.
the Spaniards & Filipinos will live together as one Philippines was divided into provinces
community. He is remembered for his diplomacy with consisting of two types:
natives. Pacified – called alcaldia mayor headed by the alcalde
mayor
Jose Basco y Vargas Unpacified – called corregimentos, each under a
(1778-1787) corregidor
He established Economic Society of the Friends of the The city government was called
Country and the tobacco monopoly. ayuntamiento.
ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION
The Diocese of Manila, the most The history of the Philippine
powerful diocese in Asia was canonically erected on Commission started on Jan. 31 ,1900 and is
February 6, 1579 by Pope Gregory XII encompassing mentioned earlier in the previous chapter. Its creation
all of the Spanish colonies in Asia. The Diocese of was intended to function as the body that would study
Manila covered the whole Philippine archipelago the Philippine situation and recommended to the U.S
making the bishop of Manila at the top of ecclesiastical Congress necessary measures to make the U.S
hierarchy in the colony. The bishop was appointed by administration in the Philippines more effective.
the pope upon the recommendation of the King of With the first one w/c is the Schurman
Spain. The first bishop of Manila was Fr. Domingo de Commission, the following were recommended to the
Salazar. American Government:
Religious Orders a. The establishment of a territorial form of
Augustinians government w/c will create a bicameral legislature that
Franciscans are elected and appointed, provided that insurgency
Dominicans soon comes to an end.
Jesuits b. That once there is already the cessation of
Recollects hostilities, military rule would be withdrawn, and a civil
government must be established.
Causes of Filipino Resistance Against Spain c. Conservation of natural resources
The imposition of the polo d. organization of autonomous local
The tribute and other Spanish policies governments.
The delegation of strong political powers to the friars e. Provision of free primary schools.
All the injustices, abuses and maladministration f. Appointment of capable Filipinos to
committed by government officials government offices.

Some Filipino Heroes On June 3, 1900, the right to exercise

Magalat led the Cagayan Revolt (1596) legislative functions in the Philippines was transferred
Francisco Sumoroy led the Samar Revolt (1649) to the second Philippines Commission called as the
Tamblot & Bankaw led the religious revolt in Bohol Taft Commission, as it was presided by William
and Leyte Howard Taft (his previous position before becoming
Dagohoy led the 85 years of Boholano Revolt (1744- U.S Civil Governor).
1829) During the Taft Commission,499 laws
for the Philippines were proposed to the U.S Congress
Diego & Gabriela Silang led the Ilocos Revolt and have become applicable immediately. Gen. Arthur
Hermano Pule led the Tagalog religious revolt (1840) MacArthur, in the last days of his military
Muslim resistance which lasted throughout the entire administration, offered amnesty on June 21,1900.
period of colonization The opportunity was grabbed by notable
person like T. Pardo de Tavera, Felipe Buencamino
WEEK 4 and Pedro Paterno, who later created the pro-
U.S OCCUPATION TO COMMONWEALTH American Federal party. Those who were captured or
THE U.S CIVIL GOVERNMENT surrendered but remained unyielding were exiled to
War days are over that it was already Guam and other destinations. Mabini and Artemio
time to change government, from military shifting to a Ricarte were some of them
civilian rule. On July 4 ,1901, right after Aguinaldo’s The man responsible for the ending of
capture, the U.S Civil Government was inaugurated the Military Administration in the Philippines was Sen.
with William Howard Taft as Civil Governor. However, John Spooner who passed to the “Army
the military rule , due to the continuing resistance, still Appropriations Act” the provision that would create a
prevailed over Southern Luzon until 1902, Northern Civil Government in the Philippines. This amendment
Mindanao until 1905 (after the execution of is now called as the “Spooner Amendment”.
MacarioSakay), and Southern Mindanao until 1914 THE TAFT ADMINISTRATION
(due to Muslim resistance).
 Taft was the first Civil Governor of the two resident commissioners and the extension of the
Philippines. His administration lasted from 1901-1904. Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution (except for the
During his term, the ff. were some of his right of trial by jury) for the Filipino people.
accomplishments: THE GOVERNOR GENERAL
a. The passage of a relief fund for the In 1904, Luke E. Wright was made Civil
Philippines w/c amounted to $3 million as approved by Governor replacing Taft. In the same year, new
Congress. nationalist political parties emerged like that of Pedro
b. The American purchase of “Church Lands” Paterno’s Independence Party and Pascual Poblete’s
from the Vatican. Pope Leo XIII agreed to sell to the National Party. In 1905, Wright assumed the position
U.S government the 423,000 acres of land that of the Governor General as resistance to American
various religious orders (e.g. Dominicans) possessed rule was finally over. Wright governed from Feb. 1,
during the Spanish period. These were some of the 1904 to April 1, 1906. He was succeeded by Henry C.
lands fought for by landless Filipino farmers during the Ide on April 2.
revolution. The significant contribution of Ide was
The lands that were denied by the friars from the lifting of the ban on independence parties that was
the Filipinos were distributed by the Americans to the instituted by Wright during his term. He was replaced
landless farmers for low costs and interest rates made by James F. Smith on Sept. 20, 1906. The most
payable for 25 years. significant events that took place during his term were
c. The assurance from the U.S that the the election of the members of the Philippine
Philippines will be for Filipinos. Assembly and the inauguration of this legislative body.
d. The passing of the Cooper act, or what is THE PHILIPPINE ASSEMBLY
called as the Philippine Bill of 1902, w/c provided for: As the executive power was vested in
The extension of the Bill of Rights (of the U.S. the Governor General, who also was the chairman of
Constitution) to the Philippines and the Filipino the Philippine Commission, the legislative power was
except, only, for the trial by jury court procedure; partly vested in the Philippine Assembly being the
2. The appointment of two Filipino Resident lower house of the bicameral legislature, of w/c, the
Commissioners who shall function as Philippine Philippine Commission served as the Upper House.
representatives to the U.S. Congress; The assembly was composed of
3. The creation of a Philippine Assembly w/c Filipinos elected by the people. From it would come
shall be composed of Filipinos elected by the people. the two Resident Commissioners who would represent
This shall serve as the lower house of the bicameral the Philippines in the U.S. Congress.
legislature; These representatives were given the same
4. The retention of the Philippine Commission privileges as members of the U.S. House of
(duly appointed by the Governor) w/c would serve as Representatives, except for the voting privilege. The
the Upper House Legislature. first two commissioners were Pablo Ocampo and
5. Conservation of natural resources. Benito Legarda.
After the inauguration of the Civil The first law that passed the Philippine
Government on July 4, 1901, w/ William Howard Taft Assembly was called as the Gabaldon Law. The law
as Civil Governor, the office of the Vice-Governor was created a budget for primary education in the barrios.
likewise created on August 29, 1901. On Sept. 1 of The first leaders of the Philippine
that year, Cayetano Arellano was made Chief Justice Assembly were Sergio Osmena, who served as House
of the Supreme Court. Speaker, and Manuel Luis Quezon as Majority Floor
THE PHILIPPINE BILL of 1902 Leader.
The first stage in the development of Because of the outstanding performance of
the Civil Government was done through the passage Quezon, who was pushing for an independence
of the Philippine Organic Act of 1902 w/c was officially measure, he was sent as Resident Commissioner in
called as the Philippine Bill of 1902, passed on July 1, 1909 replacing Ocampo, and partnering Legarda. In
1902. It provided that a Philippine Assembly would be the U.S., Quezon made impressive remarks regarding
created under conditions that: a) complete peace is the necessity for a Philippine independence law. Both
achieved; b) census is made; c) a lapse of two years Filipinos and Americans were impressed w/ Quezon.
after the publication of a census. It provided also for
Late in 1909, a new Governor was named, William c. Continuation of representation through the
Cameron Forbes, replacing Smith on Nov. 11. resident commissioners and
THE PRO-FILIPINO DEMOCRATS d. Provision for a budgetary system and
From the beginning of the American powers granted to the new Government
civil rule up to the time of Governor William Forbes the e. The creation of a bicameral (Congress)
Americans have continued to deny the reality that the legislature, abolishing Philippine Commission and
Philippines already needed a road for independence. Assembly.
The Republicans, members of a U.S. political party,
never favored this idea. Presidents William McKinley THE PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE MISSIONS
1897-1901, Theodore Roosevelt, 1901-1909, and The first independence mission was composed
William H. Taft, 1909-12 were all republicans. It was of 40 members w/ Manuel L. Quezon as it’s leader. It
only on Nov. 1912 that events turned out differently left Manila on Feb. 23, 1919. They were welcomed by
and the Democrats finally took office when Woodrow War Sec. Newton D. Baker who was a Philippine
Wilson defeated Taft. A new Governor in the independence sympathizer. However, the mission
Philippines was the named, Francis Burton Harrison, a failed w/o even meeting Wilson who was in Paris that
Democrat, in Oct. 1913. time. Later that year, in the Philippines, the Congress
The ff. were the accomplishments of the Harrison passed a “Declaration of Purposes” w/c reiterated
Administration: Philippine aspiration for independence.
a. Pres, Wilson assigned five Filipinos out of This was reinforced by a report that Gov.
the nine members of the Philippines Commission, Harrison made for the U.S Pres. w/c confirmed that
giving The Filipinos the majority of Upper House. stable Gov’t. already exists in the Phil.
b. Harrison replaced American employees w/ The end of the two terms of Pres.
the Filipinos in government service making 89% of all Wilson gave way to the elections of another republican
government offices occupied by Filipinos by 1913. Pres., Warren G. Harding. This also ended the term of
This made Wilson and Harrison very popular among Gov. Harrison who, in Dec. 2, 1920, expressed in his
Filipinos but hated by many Americans since many farewell address that the time for Philippine
lost their jobs due to the “Pro-Filipino” policies. independence had come, and that due to the stable
Gov’t. that already exists. Pres. Harding believed
c. The Jones Bill of 1912:The bill that provided for a otherwise.
complete independence in eight years, but not able to THE WOOD-FORBES MISSION
pass the House of the Representatives. This was the When Pres. Warren Harding assumed
first set back of Rep. William Atkinson Jones, a the presidency he formed a special American mission
democrat. It was submitted again in 1914, at the to the Philippines w/c was tasked to report on the state
opening of the next Congress, only to be amended by of affairs of the latter. This mission was headed by
Sen. Clarke of Arkansas who wanted it in two to four former Gov. Forbes, and the incoming Gov. Leonard
years. It was a better proposal and it won in the Wood. This was the Wood-Forbes Mission. After
Senate w/ vice Pres. Marshall breaking the 41 – 41 in spending four months in the Philippines, they were
this favor. back in the U.S on Dec. 8, 1921. The report that they
THE JONES LAW OF 1916 submitted to the President concluded that the Filipinos
When the bill reached the House of were not yet prepared to assume the responsibilities
Representatives in 1912,and then in 1914, it was of independence.
debated heavily that it lasted up to 1916 when finally CONTINUED MISSION FOR INDEPENDENCE
Pres. Wilson signed it on August 29,1916, without the To counter the claims of the Wood-
Clarke amendment. The Jones law was an American Forbes Mission, the Phil. Congress sent in 1922 a
law w/c was officially called as the Philippine Second Independence Mission to the U.S. It was
autonomy Law. It contained the ff. jointly headed by Senate Pres. Manuel L. Quezon and
a. A separate Bill of Rights intended for the House Speaker Sergio Osmena. They insisted that the
Philippines Philippines was already worthy of independence but,
to no avail, Pres. Harding declined. The third
b. Definition of Filipino Citizenship independence mission in 1923 likewise failed.
1923 CABINET CRISIS
 In 1923, a federal agent Ray Conley, THE TYDINGS-Mc DUFFIE LAW
who was sent for a special mission had allegedly After the rejection of the Hare-Hawes
violated some gov’t. protocols in the conduct of his Cutting Law under Resolution No. 46, Quezon led
work. On this reason, Interior Sec. Jose P. Laurel another mission to the U.S in the attempt of securing
terminated his services. Gov. Wood did not favor another independence law. On March 24, 1934, a new
Laurel’s decision and, instead, reinstated the agent. independence measure called the Tydings-Mc Duffie
As a reaction, Laurel filed his resignation from the Law was passed in the congress and signed into law
Cabinet. For a strong sign of protest, a mass by US Pres. Franklin Roosevelt. The authors of this
resignation by the rest of the Cabinet followed. law were Senator Millard E. Tydings and
Congressman John McDuffie. The law was only a
From 1924-1930, the Philippines sent revised copy from the original Hare-Hawes-Cutting
their yearly fourth to the eighth independence Law.
missions. All of them were unable to secure a law, The only difference was the title & an
from the U.S Congress, that would provide for the elimination of some military reservations. Under this
independence of the Philippines. They were already law the US shall:
many bills presented but none was chosen. a. Provide a 10 year transition period, during
THE OS-ROX MISSION w/c time shall be established the Commonwealth of
The Os-Rox Mission, w/c was also the Philippines;
called the Ninth Independence Mission of 1931, was b. Draft a constitution that is republican by
headed by Senate Pres. Pro-Tempore Sergio Osmena nature w/c includes a Bill of Rights;
and House Speaker Manuel Roxas. By this time many c. Retain the Philippines as an American
American senators and congressmen have already territory during the transition period;
creating a law for Philippine Independence. One of d. Make all the Filipinos owe allegiance to the
them was Sen. Harry Hawes who, together w/ Rep. US;
Hare and Sen. Cutting, created the Hare-Hawes- e. Ensure equal protection of civil & political
Cutting Act. This was favored by the mission. By 1932, rights & economic privileges among Filipinos &
the US Congress had already made approval signs for Americans alike;
the HHC Act. However, someone was not supportive, f. Have the power, to the US Pres., to suspend
Senate Pres. Quezon. any contract or executive order made by the
THE 10TH INDEPENDENCE MISSION Commonwealth once it becomes contrary to the
Desperate enough to get the credit for interest of the US;
achieving the law w/c would give Filipino people their g. Have the power, to the approval of US
independence, Senate Pres. Quezon sent another Pres., over Commonwealth Laws pertaining to
(10th) independence mission. He commissioned currency, coinage, foreign trade ; immigration;
Benigno Aquino to find him another law from other h. Create the US High Commission
American legislators. To Quezon’s disappointment, representing the US Pres. Authorize Philippine
Aquino defected to the Os-Rox mission. representation to the US through a resident
commissioner;
By Jan. of 1933, the Hare-Hawes- i. Supervise & control Philippine foreign affairs;
Cutting Act had already passed as a law in the j. Empower the US Supreme Court to review
Congress. However, it was vetoed by Pres. Herbert important cases passed to the Commonwealth
Hoover on Jan. 13. Persistent, the Congress passed it Supreme Court, w/c includes cases pertaining to the
again that Jan. Later, it was then signed into law by constitution;
Hoover. The last signature would have to come from k. Restrict Filipino immigration in the US while
the Phil. Senate Pres. As expected, Quezon made his not having any limit on the number of Americans who
maneuver. would migrate to the Philippines.
Later, Quezon, Himself, left for the 11th The Tydings-McDuffie Law was finally
Independence Mission. In Paris, he met Roxas and accepted by the Philippine Legislature on May 1,
Osmena in oreder to settle an agreement. No result 1934. The final signatures were made by Speaker
was reached. On Oct. 17, 1933, Quezon officially Sergio Osmena & Senate Pres. Manuel L. Quezon.
rejected the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law.
 state “the prime duty of the government”, the
Commonwealth took the 1st steps to national security:
a. Gen. Douglas Mc Arthur, w/ the permission
LESSON XII from the US War Department, was appointed as field
THE COMMONWEALTH OF THE PHILIPPINES marshall of the newly created Philippine army;
THE 1935 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION GOVERNMENT REORGANIZATION
On July 10, 1934 the Philippine Quezon established the Government
Legislature elected the representative to the Survey Board to study the existing institution that time.
Constitutional Convention, the delegates’ task was to Its resulted to the revamping of the Executive
draft the Constitution of the Philippines. On July 30, it Departments, Offices & Bureaus w/c were either
was inaugurated at the Legislative Building in Manila. merged or abolished. The Finance Department was
There were 202 members w/ Claro M. Recto as Pres., Established. By 1914, there were already 9
of the Convention. departments.
On Feb.8, 1935, the Convention On economics, the administration put
formally approved a draft w/ 177-1 ratio in favor of up the National Economic Council for the promotion of
approval. On March 23, it was approved by the US industries, crop production, enterprise, tariffs &
Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt & on May 14, it was, taxation.
through a plebiscite, ratified by the Filipino people. The National Development Company
The Constitution consisted 17 articles w/c included the was created for the mass production of staples like
Philippine territory, The Bill of Rights, Citizenship & the rice & corn. The Agricultural & Industrial Bank was
three branches of Gov’t., the executive (vested in the established to help small farmers w/ convenient loans
Pres., of the Commonwealth as provided by law); the on easy terms. On education, in Feb. 19, 1936, the
Legislative (a unicameral National Assembly) & the; National Council of Education was created w/ Rafael
Judiciary (vested in the Supreme Court). Palma (former U.P. Pres.) as its chairman.
THE 1ST COMMONWEALTH ELECTIONS The Court OF Appeals was likewise
The first national election for the created on Feb. 1, 1936 to aid in the speedy
President & the member of the National Assembly was disposition of cases. Justice Pedro Concepcion
held on Sept. 17, 1935. In the Presidential election became the 1st Presiding Justice of this new court.
three parties contested block voting system. This WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE
were: the Coalition Party w/ Quezon for Pres. & When the democratic exercise of voting
Osmena for Vice Pres.; The Nacionalista Social Party began in the Philippines it initially did not include the
w/ Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo for Pres.,& Reymundo women as a part of the voting population. The US
Melliza for Vice Pres.; The Republican Party w/ Bishop itself had only recently allowed its women to vote. And
Gregorio Aglipay for Pres.,& Norberto Nabong for this was only during the term of Pres. Wilson. To
Vice. extend the stretch of democracy & recognize the equal
The Coalition Party won the elections right of women in the building of the nation the
w/ Manuel L. Quezon as President & Sergio Osmena government ordered a plebiscite to be held for the
as Vice President, together w/ an overwhelming purpose of asking the society on whether or not the
majority seat for the members of the National women should be given the right to vote. On April 30,
Assembly. 1937, the result was affirmative, believing that the
b. The Philippine Army drafted able-bodied 20 “Filipinas” must also respond to this call of citizenship.
yr. old men to be enlisted men & officers of the armed THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE
forces. Army strength was more than 40,000; Manuel L. Quezon, on Nov. 13, 1936
c. Reserved Officer Training Corps or ROTC created the institute of National Language. He
courses were introduced in Colleges & Universities; recommended that the Tagalog language be the basis
d. The National Assembly enacted the 1st law of the National Language as was proposed by Jaime
of the Commonwealth, the National Defense Act. C. de Vera, the INL Chairman. On Dec. 30, Quezon
NATIONAL DEFENSE MEASURES made the proclamation between Filipino, based on
In accordance w/ the Philippine Tagalog, as the national language of the Philippines.
Constitution that made the national defense of the Together w/ Filipino, English & Spanish were also
proclaimed as 2nd and 3rd languages as proposed by Party, Pedro Abad Santos of the Socialista & Camilo
Jaime de Vera, a Visayan. Moncado of the Modernist Party. Osmena also made it
TRADE & COMMERCE to his 2nd term. All 24 senators came from the
Due to the much restrictions that the Nacionalista w/ Claro M. Recto leading.
Tyding-McDuffie Law imposed upon the
Commonwealth on Trade & Commerce, Quezon made The Third Republic
an official trip to the US to remedy the problem. In the
US., Pres. Roosevelt created the Joint Preparatory 1940 Constitutional Amendment of 1935 Constitution
Commission on Philippine Affair (JPCPA). This Unicameral assembly was abolished and replaced by
commission dealt on the mutual trade relations a bicameral congress
between the two countries. As part of its operation, April 23, 1946
Commonwealth gov’t sent a representative committee Congress called for a national election set
w/c would study the existing trade relations between Prior to this election, worsening relation between
the Philippines & the US. Francis Sayre, Asst. Sec. of Osmeña and Roxas reached breaking point
State, was named as its 1st chairman. Liberals won over Nacionalista Party
OTHER EVENTS Independence and Republic
A monumental event took place in 1936 July 4, 1946
& this is the “Arnacal” Flight. For the first time in Independence and inauguration of the Third
history two Filipinos aviators, Antonio Arnaiz & Juan Philippine Republic
Calvo, flew all the way from Madrid to Manila American Ambassador Paul McNutt-Lowered the
establishing a new world record. The gov’t of the American flag
republic of Spain granted them the highest President Manuel Roxas- Raised the Philippine flag
decorations reserved for civilians. The 33rd First President of the Third Republic:Manuel A.
International Eucharistic Congress was held in the Roxas
Philippines w/ the celebrated arrival of His Holiness (1946-1948)
Pope Pius XI. EARLY POLITICAL CAREER
The event took place from Feb.2-7, Began his active and prominent role in Philippine
1937 & was the first time that the Pope of Roman politics as a member of the legislature
Catholic Church visited & was heard in the Far East. Was elected to the senate in 1941
NEW CHARTERED CITIES Offered his services to MacArthur as military aide
Before Commonwealth there were only Acted as liaison officer between the Army Commander
the cities of Manila & Baguio that exist. By 1941, 9 and Philippine Government
cities were added: Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Zamboanga, Was appointed presidential secretary by Manuel
Bacolod, Quezon City, Tagaytay, Kawit & San Pablo. Quezon
COMMONWEALTH PLEBISCITE
The plebiscite was in regard to the
restoration of the bicameral legislature, the Senate & Efforts Towards Rehabilitation
House of Representatives, & the presidential term w/c Started on a foundation of a war-damaged nation
was proposed to be 4 years w/ one reelection instead Went to Washington to solicit the help of US for funds
of 6 w/ no reelection. The yes vote won Request for immediate loan of $25 million within 5
overwhelmingly. This was the 1st time Filipino women years and $1 billion at 1.5% interest for 30 years
were allowed to vote. The plebiscite results gave a
room for Quezon & Osmena to seek for another BELL TRADE ACT
election. Law authorized by Congressman C. Jasper Bell on
THE LAST PRE-WAR ELECTIONS April 30, 1946
Adherent to the results of the plebiscite, Provided for free trading relations between
general elections were held on Nov. 11, 1941. At this Philippines and the US up to the year 1954 after
time, better diplomatic relations were being reached which, Philippine exports to the US would be taxed an
between Japan & the USA. The election made Manuel ascending tariff of 5% every year until 1974, when all
L. Quezon reelected as President by an impressive the Philippine exports will be paid in full to US import
majority over Juan Sumulong of the popular Front tax
Fixed the exchange rate at Php2 to a $1 Established the Agricultural Credit Cooperation
Rebellion problem in Central and Southern Luzon Financing Administration (ACCFA) to aid farmers in
Started as a guerilla organization in 1942 under Luis availing from government low interest loans
Taruc and was, above all, anti-Japanese Built the Ma. Cristina and Ambuklao Dam Projects
A peasant organization who believes in the ideals of Established the Boy’s Town of the Philippines
protecting the rights of the poor and the land less Downfall: Most damaging was the scam on the US
Finality of conflict came when Magsaysay became War Surplus Property
president
RAMON MAGSAYSAY (1953-1957) “Man of the
Roxas Masses”
Outlawed HUKBALAHAP, referring to them as lawless MAGSAYSAY’S ACCOMPLISHMENTS:
and communists Revitalized the Philippine Armed Forces by boosting
the morale of the soldiers
Quirino His policy of attraction among the masses through
Offered them an absolute amnesty after negotiations personal touch restored people’s faith in government
with Luis Taruc First president who conducted visits to the barrios
Upliftment of barrio life as his focus
April 28, 1949 First time for Philippine president in his inauguration to
Mrs. Aurora Quezon, wife of late President Quezon wear the barong tagalog
and their daughter were ambushed and shot to death
in Nueva Ecija Philippines entered into a treaty with US, France,
Britain, Australia, New Zealand and Pakistan to
QUIRINO ADMINISTRATION: Elpidio Quirino prevent communist expansion in Southeast Asia
(1948-1953) Establishment of Southeast Treaty Organization
Elpidio Quirino’s Promise (SEATO) in Manila on September 1954
As vice president, he immediately succeeded Roxas Malacañang opened its gates and was declared as a
as president after the latter’s death in 1948 “house of the people”
Promised to accomplish his two objectives:
- continuation of the country’s economic recovery March 17, 1957
- preservation of the faith and confidence of the Magsaysay was killed in a plane crash
people through restoration of peace and order
BELL MISSION REPORT
Headed by Daniel W. Bell to survey all aspects of the GARCIA ADMINISTRATION
Philippine economy Carlos P. Garcia
Cited the existence of inefficient production, low (1957-1961)
incomes excessive volumes of ports, misdirected GARCIA’S ACHIEVEMENTS:
investments, mounting deficits, inefficiency and National Economic Council passed the Resolution No.
corruption in the government 204 upon his endorsement
Recommended reforms in public administration, Promulgated “Filipino First” Policy on August 28, 1958
improvement of production, higher taxes, more foreign Austerity program was adopted to encourage budget
exchange and land reforms savings on the part of the government
Recommended an economic aid of $250 million be
granted to Philippine government
QUIRINO ACCOMPLISHMENTS Macapagal Administration
Successful in disabling the powerful HUKBALAHAP, Diosdado Macapagal
thereby restoring peace and order (1961-1965)
Worked on the creation of the President’s Action MACAPAGAL’S ACHIEVEMENTS:
Committee on Social Amelioration (PACSA) to Took his post December 30, 1961
improve economic condition of the masses Promised about a “New Era” of peace and prosperity
to Filipino people
Lifted economic controls
Under the Decontrol program, licenses for imports In 1965, Marcos, who was a prominent member of the
were lifted and peso was devaluated Liberal Party founded by Roxas, broke with it after
Agricultural Land Reform Law was enacted by failing to get his party’s nomination for president. He
congress on August 8, 1963 then ran as the Nationalist Party candidate for
Philippine officially filed its claim to Sabah on June 22, president against the Liberal president, Diosdado
1962 Macapagal. The campaign was expensive and bitter.
Responsible for transferring the celebration of FERDINAND E. MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965-
Philippine Independence day from July 4 to June 12 1986)
Marcos won and was inaugurated as president on
December 30, 1965. In 1969 he was reelected,
becoming the first Philippine president to serve a
MARCOS ADMINISTRATION second term.
Ferdinand E. Marcos During his first term he had made progress in
(1965-1986) agriculture, industry, and education.
MARCOS’ FIRST TERM (1965-1969) Yet his administration was troubled by increasing
student demonstrations and violent urban guerrilla
Took his office on December 30, 1965 activities.
Began his administration with a mountain of serious
problems inherited from the past administration FERDINAND E. MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965-
MARCOS’ ACCOMPLISHMENTS 1986)
Stabilization of government finances On September 21, 1972, Marcos imposed martial law
Greater rice production in the Philippines.
Building of more roads and bridges, schoolhouses, Holding that communist and subversive forces had
and other public works precipitated the crisis, he acted swiftly; opposition
Philippine National Railways improved politicians were jailed, and the armed forces became
Intensive operations against smuggling, crime an arm of the regime.
syndicates and the NPA Opposed by political leaders—notably Benigno
Holding of Manila Summit Conference on October 24- Aquino, Jr., who was jailed and held in detention for
25, 1966 almost eight years—Marcos was also criticized by
RE-ELECTION OF MARCOS church leaders and others.
Marcos was the only president of the republic to be re-
elected for a second term FERDINAND E. MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965-
Was the first Philippine president to take his oath of 1986)
office in the native language In the provinces Maoist communists (New People’s
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS Army) and Muslim separatists (notably of the Moro
Rising oil prices National Liberation Front) undertook guerrilla activities
Prices of prime commodities spiraled skyward intended to bring down the central government.
Overspending in 1969 elections that led to higher Under martial law the president assumed
inflation and floating peso extraordinary powers, including the ability to suspend
Frequent visits of natural calamities the writ of habeas corpus.
Marcos announced the end of martial law in January
D. FROM MARCOS TO AQUINO 1981, but he continued to rule in an authoritarian
ADMINISTRATIONS fashion under various constitutional formats. He won
FERDINAND E. MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965- election to the newly created post of president against
1986) token opposition in June 1981.
From 1946 to 1947 Marcos was a technical assistant FERDINAND E. MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965-
to Manuel Roxas, the first president of the 1986)
independent Philippine republic. He was a member of Marcos’s later years in power were marred by rampant
the House of Representatives (1949–59) and of the government corruption, economic stagnation, the
Senate (1959–65), serving as Senate president steady widening of economic inequalities between the
(1963–65). rich and the poor, and the steady growth of a
communist guerrilla insurgency active in the rural found her guilty of corruption (the conviction was
areas of the Philippines’ innumerable islands. overturned in 1998).
By 1983 Marcos’s health was beginning to fail, and IMELDA MARCOS & HER CHILDREN
opposition to his rule was growing. B. CORAZON COJUANGCO-AQUINO
FERDINAND E. MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965- ADMINISTRATION (1986-1992)
1986) Corazon Aquino, in full Maria Corazon Aquino, née
Hoping to present an alternative to both Marcos and Maria Corazon Cojuangco, (born January 25, 1933,
the increasingly powerful New People’s Army, Tarlac province, Philippines—died August 1, 2009,
Benigno Aquino, Jr., returned to Manila on August 21, Makati), Philippine political leader who served as the
1983, only to be shot dead as he stepped off the first female president (1986–92) of the Philippines,
airplane. The assassination was seen as the work of restoring democratic rule in that country after the long
the government and touched off massive anti- dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos.
government protests. B. CORAZON COJUANGCO-AQUINO
An independent commission appointed by Marcos ADMINISTRATION (1986-1992)
concluded in 1984 that high military officers were Corazon Cojuangco was born into a wealthy, politically
responsible for Aquino’s assassination. prominent family based in Tarlac province, north of
FERDINAND E. MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965- Manila. She graduated from Mount St. Vincent College
1986) in New York City in 1954 but abandoned further
To reassert his mandate, Marcos called for studies in 1955 to marry Benigno Simeon Aquino, Jr.,
presidential elections to be held in 1986. who was then a promising young politician. Corazon
But a formidable political opponent soon emerged in remained in the background during her husband’s
Aquino’s widow, Corazon Aquino, who became the subsequent career, rearing their five children at home.
presidential candidate of the opposition. Her husband, who had become a prominent
It was widely asserted that Marcos managed to defeat opposition politician, was jailed by Marcos for eight
Aquino and retain the presidency in the election of years (1972–80), and Corazon accompanied him into
February 7, 1986, only through massive voting fraud exile in the United States in 1980. Benigno was
on the part of his supporters. assassinated upon his return to the Philippines in
FERDINAND E. MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965- August 1983. This event galvanized opposition to the
1986) Marcos government.
Deeply discredited at home and abroad by his dubious B. CORAZON COJUANGCO-AQUINO
electoral victory, Marcos held fast to his presidency as ADMINISTRATION (1986-1992)
the Philippine military split between supporters of his When Ferdinand E. Marcos unexpectedly called for
and of Aquino’s legitimate right to the presidency. presidential elections in February 1986, Corazon
A tense standoff that ensued between the two sides Aquino became the unified opposition’s presidential
ended only when Marcos fled the country on February candidate. Though she was officially reported to have
25, 1986, at U.S. urging. He went into exile in Hawaii, lost the election to Marcos, Aquino and her supporters
where he remained until his death. challenged the results, charging widespread voting
EDSA PEOPLE POWER REVOLUTION fraud.
FERDINAND E. MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965- High officials in the Philippine military soon publicly
1986) renounced Marcos’s continued rule and proclaimed
Evidence emerged that during his years in power Aquino the Philippines’ rightful president. On February
Marcos, his family, and his close associates had 25, 1986, both Aquino and Marcos were inaugurated
looted the Philippines’ economy of billions of dollars as president by their respective supporters, but that
through embezzlements and other corrupt practices. same day Marcos fled the country.
Marcos and his wife, Imelda Romualdez-Marcos, were B. CORAZON COJUANGCO-AQUINO
subsequently indicted by the U.S. government on ADMINISTRATION (1986-1992)
racketeering charges, but in 1990 (after Marcos’s In March 1986 Aquino proclaimed a provisional
death) Imelda was acquitted of all charges by a constitution and soon thereafter appointed a
federal court. She was allowed to return to the commission to write a new constitution. The resulting
Philippines in 1991, and in 1993 a Philippine court document, which restored the bicameral Congress
abolished by Marcos in 1973, was ratified by a
landslide popular vote in February 1987. Aquino held Constitution of Biak-na-Bato (1897)
elections to the new Congress and broke up the The Katipunan revolution led to the Tejeros
monopolies held by Marcos’s allies over the economy, Convention where, at San Francisco de Malabón,
which experienced steady growth for several years. Cavite, on 22 March 1897, the first presidential and
B. CORAZON COJUANGCO-AQUINO vice presidential elections in Philippine history were
ADMINISTRATION (1986-1992) held—although only the Katipuneros (members of the
But she failed to undertake fundamental economic or Katipunan) were able to take part, and not the general
social reforms, and her popularity steadily declined as populace.
she faced continual outcries over economic injustice A later meeting of the revolutionary government
and political corruption. established there, held on 1 November 1897 at Biak-
These problems were exacerbated by persistent na-Bato in the town of San Miguel de Mayumo in
warfare between the communist insurgency and a Bulacán, established the Republic of Biak-na-Bato.
military whose loyalties to Aquino were uncertain. In The republic had a constitution drafted by Isabelo
general, her economic policies were criticized for Artacho and Félix Ferrer and based on the first Cuban
being mixed or faltering in the face of mass poverty. Constitution. It is known as the "Constitución
Provisional de la República de Filipinas", and was
WEEK 5 originally written in and promulgated in the Spanish
LESSON V: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE and Tagalog languages.
PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT Malolos Constitution (1899)
D. Comparison of Philippine The Malolos Constitution was the first republican
Constitutions constitution in Asia. It declared that sovereignty
resides exclusively in the people, stated basic civil
What is a Constitution? rights, separated the church and state, and called for
A Constitution is a body of fundamental rules the creation of an Assembly of Representatives to act
and maxims by which the powers of government are as the legislative body. It also called for a Presidential
defined by the sovereign and in accordance with form of government with the president elected for a
which those powers are habitually exercised. term of four years by a majority of the Assembly.
It is the supreme, fundamental law of the land. It was titled "Constitución política", and was
The fundamental law establishes the character written in Spanish following the declaration of
of a government: by defining the basic principles to independence from Spain, proclaimed on January 20,
which a society must conform; by describing the 1899, and was enacted and ratified by the Malolos
organization of the government and regulation, Congress, a Congress held in Malolos, Bulacan.
distribution, and limitations on the functions of different Commonwealth and Third Republic (1935)
government departments; and by prescribing the The 1935 Constitution was written in 1934, approved
extent and manner of the exercise of its sovereign and adopted by the Commonwealth of the Philippines
powers. (1935–1946) and later used by the Third Republic of
B. The Evolution and History of the Philippine the Philippines (1946–1972). It was written with an eye
Constitution: to meeting the approval of the United States
The Constitution of the Philippines (In Filipino: Government as well, so as to ensure that the U.S.
Saligang Batas ng Pilipinas) is the supreme law of the would live up to its promise to grant the Philippines
Philippines. The Constitution currently in effect was independence and not have a premise to hold onto its
enacted in 1987, during the administration of "possession" on the grounds that it was too politically
President Corazon C. Aquino, and is popularly known immature and hence unready for full, real
as the "1987 Constitution". independence.
Philippine constitutional law experts recognize
three other previous constitutions as having effectively The original 1935 Constitution provided for unicameral
governed the country: (1) the 1935 Commonwealth National Assembly and the President was elected to a
Constitution, (2) the 1973 Constitution, and (3) the six-year term without re-election. It was amended in
1986 Freedom Constitution. Constitutions for the 1940 to have a bicameral Congress composed of a
Philippines were also drafted and adopted during the Senate and House of Representatives, as well the
short-lived governments of Presidents Emilio creation of an independent electoral commission. The
Aguinaldo (1898) and José P. Laurel (1943).
Constitution now granted the President a four-year During his term, the President was not allowed to be a
term with a maximum of two consecutive terms in member of a political party or hold any other office.
office. Executive power was meant to be exercised by the
A Constitutional Convention was held in 1971 to Prime Minister who was also elected from the
rewrite the 1935 Constitution. The convention was Members of the National Assembly. The Prime
stained with manifest bribery and corruption. Possibly Minister was the head of government and
the most controversial issue was removing the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. This
presidential term limit so that Ferdinand E. Marcos constitution was subsequently amended four times
could seek election for a third term, which many felt (arguably five depending on how one considers
was the true reason for which the convention was Proclamation No. 3 of 1986).
called. In any case, the 1935 Constitution was On 16–17 October 1976, A Majority Of Barangay
suspended in 1972 with Marcos' proclamation of Voters (Citizen Assemblies) Approved That Martial
martial law, the rampant corruption of the Law Should Be Continued And Ratified The
constitutional process providing him with one of his Amendments To The Constitution Proposed By
major premises for doing so. President Marcos.
Second Republic (1943)
The 1943 Constitution was drafted by a committee
appointed by the Philippine Executive Commission, The 1976 amendments were:
the body established by the Japanese to administer (1) an Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) substituting
the Philippines in lieu of the Commonwealth of the for the Interim National Assembly
Philippines which had established a government-in- (2) the President would also become the Prime
exile. In mid-1942 Japanese Premier Hideki Tojo had Minister and he would continue to exercise legislative
promised the Filipinos "the honor of independence" powers until martial law should have been lifted.
which meant that the commission would be
supplanted by a formal republic. The Sixth Amendment Authorized The President To
The 1943 Constitution remained in force in Japanese- Legislate:
controlled areas of the Philippines, but was never Whenever in the judgment of the President there
recognized as legitimate or binding by the exists a grave emergency or a threat or imminence
governments of the United States or of the thereof, or whenever the Interim Batasang Pambansa
Commonwealth of the Philippines and guerrilla or the regular National Assembly fails or is unable to
organizations loyal to them. act adequately on any matter for any reason that in his
In late 1944, President Laurel declared a state of war judgment requires immediate action, he may, in order
existed with the United States and the British Empire to meet the exigency, issue the necessary decrees,
and proclaimed martial law, essentially ruling by orders or letters of instructions, which shall form part
decree. His government in turn went into exile in of the law of the land.
December, 1944, first to Taiwan and then Japan. The 1973 constitution was further amended in 1980
After the announcement of Japan's surrender, Laurel and 1981. In the 1980 amendment, the retirement age
formally proclaimed the Second Republic as of the members of the judiciary was extended to 70
dissolved. years. In the 1981 amendments, the false
The New Society and the Fourth Republic (1973) parliamentary system was formally modified into a
The 1973 Constitution, promulgated after Marcos' French-style semi-presidential system:
declaration of martial law, was supposed to introduce Executive power was restored to the President;
a parliamentary-style government. Legislative power Direct election of the President was restored;
was vested in a National Assembly whose members An Executive Committee composed of the Prime
were elected for six-year terms. The President was Minister and not more than fourteen members was
ideally supposed to be elected as the symbolic and created to "assist the President in the exercise of his
purely ceremonial head of state from the Members of powers and functions and in the performance of his
the National Assembly for a six-year term and could duties as he may prescribe;" and the Prime Minister
be re-elected to an unlimited number of terms. Upon was a mere head of the Cabinet.
election, the President ceased to be a member of the Further, the amendments instituted electoral reforms
National Assembly. and provided that a natural born citizen of the
Philippines who has lost his citizenship may be a headed by the President, the Legislative branch
transferee of private land for use by him as his composed of Congress and the Judicial branch with
residence. the Supreme Court occupying the highest tier of the
judiciary.
The last amendments in 1984 abolished the Executive
Committee and restored the position of Vice-President The President and the members of Congress are
(which did not exist in the original, unamended 1973 directly elected by the people, while the members of
Constitution). the Supreme Court are appointed by the President
In actual practice, while the 1973 Constitution was from a list formed by the Judicial and Bar Council.
ideally supposed to set up a true parliamentary As with the American system of government, it is
system, the late President Marcos had made use of Congress which enacts the laws, subject to the veto
subterfuge and manipulation in order to keep power of the President which may nonetheless be
executive power for himself, rather than devolving overturned by a two-thirds vote of Congress (Section
executive powers to the Parliament, as headed by the 27(1), Article VI).
Prime Minister. The President has the constitutional duty to ensure the
The end result was that the 1973 Constitution - due to faithful execution of the laws (Section 17, Article VII),
all amendments and subtle manipulations - was while the courts are expressly granted the power of
merely the abolition of the Senate and a series of judicial review (Section 1, Article VIII), including the
cosmetic text-changes where the old American- power to nullify or interpret laws. The President is also
derived terminologies such House of Representatives recognized as the commander-in-chief of the armed
became known as the "Batasang Pambansa" forces (Section 18, Article VII).
(National Assembly), Departments became known as The Constitution also establishes limited political
"Ministries", cabinet secretaries became known as autonomy to the local government units that act as the
"cabinet ministers", and the President's assistant - the municipal governments for provinces, cities,
Executive Secretary - became known as the "Prime municipalities, and barangays. (Section 1, Article X)
Minister." Local governments are generally considered as falling
under the executive branch, yet local legislation
Ultimately, Marcos' so-called "Parliamentary System" requires enactment by duly elected local legislative
therefore functioned as an authoritarian-run bodies. The Constitution (Section 3, Article X)
Presidential System due to the series of amendments mandated that the Congress would enact a Local
and other modifications put in place after the 1973 Government Code. The Congress duly enacted
Constitution was ratified. Republic Act No. 7160, The Local Government Code
"The 1986 Freedom Constitution" of 1991, which became effective on 1 January 1992.
Following the EDSA People Power Revolution that The Supreme Court has noted that the Bill of Rights
removed President Ferdinand E. Marcos from office, "occupies a position of primacy in the fundamental
the new President, Corazon C. Aquino issued law". The Bill of Rights, contained in Article III,
Proclamation No. 3 as a provisional constitution. It enumerates the specific protections against State
adopted certain provisions from the 1973 constitution power. Many of these guarantees are similar to those
and granted the President broad powers to reorganize provided in the American constitution and other
this government and remove officials from office, and democratic constitutions, including the due process
mandated that the president would appoint a and equal protection clause, the right against
commission to draft a new constitution. unwarranted searches and seizures, the right to free
Significant features of the 1987 Constitution speech and the free exercise of religion, the right
against self-incrimination, and the right to habeas
The Constitution establishes the Philippines as a corpus. The scope and limitations to these rights have
"democratic and republican State", where "sovereignty largely been determined by Philippine Supreme Court
resides in the people and all government authority decisions.
emanates from them" (Section 1, Article II).
Consistent with the doctrine of separation of powers, F. Description of the Present Philippine Government:
the powers of the national government are exercised
in main by three branches — the Executive branch and
ART. 2, Declaration of Principles and State Policies As interpreted, the preamble has a value in the
interpretation of vague or not clear provisions of the
WEEK 5 constitution like the promotions of the constitution like
1987 Philippine Constitution & Preamble that of the general welfare and not for private
purposes.
Parts of the
1987 Constitution
ARTICLE II:
The Constitution is divided into 18 parts, excluding the
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND STATE
Preamble, which are called Articles.
POLICIES
The Articles are as follows:
a. PRINCIPLES
SECTION 1. The Philippines is a democratic and
Article I - National Territory
republican state. Sovereignty resides in the people
Article II - Declaration of Principles and State Policies
and all government authority emanates from them.
Article III - Bill of Rights
Explanation:
Article IV - Citizenship
The Philippines, is a democratic and republican state.
Article V - Suffrage
A) a republican government is a democratic
Article VI - Legislative Department
government by representatives chosen by the people
Article VII - Executive Department
at large. The essence therefore, of a republican state
Article VIII - Judicial Department
is indirect rule.
Article IX - Constitutional Commission
B) it embodies some features of a pure or direct
Article X - Local Government
democracy such as initiative, referendum, and recall.
Article XI - Accountability of Public Officers
Article XII - National Economy and Patrimony
Manifestations of a democratic
Article XIII - Social Justice and Human Rights
and republican state:
Article XIV - Education, Science and Technology, Arts,
The existence of a bill of right;
Culture and Sports
The observance of the rule of majority;
Article XV - The Family
The observance of the principle that ours is a
Article XVI - General Provisions
government of laws, and not of men;
Article XVII - Amendments or Revisions
The presence of election through popular will;
Article XVIII - Transitory Provisions
The observance of the principle of separation of
Preamble
powers and the system of checks and balances;
Meaning of Preamble
The observance of the principle that the legislation
The term preamble is derived from the latin term
cannot pass irrepealable laws;
preambulare, which means, “to walk before.” It is an
The observance of the law on public officers;
invocation or the opening prayer in any activity or the
The observance of the principle is that the state
prologue of the constitution, invoking the highest
cannot be sued without its consent.
sovereign god almighty to bless this instrument.
If we looked deeper into the preamble, this is not an
Explanation:
integral part of the constitution and could not enforced,
Sovereignty implies the supreme authority to govern,
however its significance is that studies made showed
thus the Filipino people, being sovereign people have
that almost all of the constitution made to contain a
the right to constitute their own government, to change
preamble.
it, and define its jurisdiction and powers. Exercised
indirectly through public officials. Exercised directly
Objectives of the Preamble
through suffrage.
Section 1 above impliedly recognizes that the people,
It is generally considered that a preamble is not a
as the ultimate judges of their destiny, can resort to
necessary part of a constitution, but as an introductory
revolution as a matter of right. A provision in the
part, it is needed in the Philippine constitution.
Constitution, however, expressly recognizing the
The preamble of the Philippine Constitution shows its
people’s right to revolt against an oppressive or
framers and to whom it is addressed to and also the
tyrannical government is not necessary and proper.
general purposes and basic principles of the charter.
PRINCIPLES SECTION 4. The prime duty of the Government is to
SECTION 2. The Philippines renounces war as an serve and protect the people. The Government may
instrument of national policy, adopts the generally call upon the people to defend the State and, in the
accepted principles of international law as part of the fulfillment thereof, all citizens may be required, under
law of the land and adheres to the policy of peace, conditions provided by law, to render personal military
equality, justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity with or civil service.
all nations. Explanation:
Explanation: “… the foremost duty of the government is to serve
The declaration refers only to the renunciation by the and protect the people. The government exists for the
Philippines of aggressive war, not a war in defense of people and not the people for the government.”
her national honor and integrity. Thus, when provoked Prime duty of the Government
and attacked the Philippines can retaliate and engage Defense of the State by the people against foreign
into war. aggression …the government may call upon the
Renunciation of war as an instrument of national people to defend the State. For self-preservation and
policy. Adoption of the generally accepted principles of to defend its territorial honor and integrity, the
international law as part of our law. International law Philippines can engage in a defensive war. The
refers to the body of rules and principles which defense of the State is one of the duties of a citizen.
governs the relations of nations and their respective Explanation:
peoples in their intercourse with one another. Military and civil service by the people:
1. Defense of State performed through an army.
Explanation: The joint obligations of the government and the people
The doctrine of incorporation is the automatic adoption cannot be performed without an army. It is apparently
of international law as part of the law of the clear that an army should be organized, thus, military
Philippines. and civil service. Military services here means the
The Philippines seeks only peace and friendship with armed forces involvement while civil service means
her neighbors and all countries of the world, employment of the citizens to munitions plants or
regardless of race, creed, ideology, and political related employment of the Armed forces of the
system, on the basis of mutual trust, respect, and Philippines.
cooperation. Explanation:
PRINCIPLES Military and civil service by the people:
SECTION 3. Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme 2.Compulsory. Compulsory is the compulsion of
over the military. The Armed Forces of the Philippines citizens to render military, or civil service. Any citizen
is the protector of the people and the State. Its goal is recruits cannot refuse to render military or civil service
to secure the sovereignty of the State and the integrity according to law.
of the national territory. 3.Personal. Personal means rendering of service not
Explanation: through another.
Supremacy of civilian authority over the military is: 4.By Law. This point to preventive arbitrariness on the
Inherent in a republican system. As a republican part of public officials to render military or civil service.
government, it is that civilian authority is above the PRINCIPLES
military and is internationally recognized. This is a SECTION 5. The maintenance of peace and order, the
traditionally accepted principle as one of the protection of life, liberty, and property, and the
separation of powers which is significant during promotion of the general welfare are essential for the
periods of martial law or suspension of the writ of enjoyment by all the people of the blessings of
habeas corpus. (Article III, sec. 15; art. VII, sec. 18) democracy.
it is a safeguard against military dictatorship. To Explanation:
safeguard the abuses of the military civilian Only when peace and order, security, and a life of
government like the republican and democratic dignity are established and maintained will political
government has the authority to appoint and control stability and economic prosperity become attainable
the military, like the president who is the commander- and the people truly enjoy the “blessings of
in-chief of the armed forces of the Philippines. independence and democracy.”
PRINCIPLES PRINCIPLES
SECTION 6. The separation of Church and State shall Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty,
be inviolable. thus promoting a nuclear-weapons-free Southeast
NOTE: This Section will be discussed in another Asia.
Lesson. State policies
b. State policies SECTION 9. The State shall promote a just and
SECTION 7. The State shall pursue an independent dynamic social order that will ensure the prosperity
foreign policy. In its relations with other states the and independence of the nation and free the people
paramount consideration shall be national sovereignty, from poverty through policies that provide adequate
territorial integrity, national interest, and the right to social services, promote full employment, a rising
self-determination. standard of living, and an improved quality of life for
Explanation: all.
Foreign policy is a set of guidelines followed by a Explanation:
government of a country in order to promote its All the advanced countries that had achieved a
national interest through the conduct of its relations developed status had undergone the same process of
with other countries. economic development.
Foreign Policy of the Philippines. - Foreign policy is The core of this process is the training, education and
the interaction of states with each other. States could full employment of its people.
not exist without the other since trade and exchange Indeed, the development of the human resource of a
of culture and technology is the basis of its country ensures the employment of its citizens who
development. It is the objective of a State to promote will then be productive contributors to the society and
international relationships for national interest. economy.
Explanation: State policies
Pursuit of an independent foreign policy. - An SECTION 10. The State shall promote social justice in
independent foreign policy means one that is not all phases of national development.
subordinate or subject to nor dependent upon the Explanation:
support of another government. In the fulfillment of this duty, the State must give
An independent foreign policy, however, is not one preferential attention to the welfare of the less
that completely rejects advice or assistance from fortunate members of the community, those who have
without. In general, our basic foreign policy objective is less in life.
to establish friendly relations with all countries of the State policies
world regardless of race, religion, ideology and social SECTION 11. The State values the dignity of every
system and to promote as much beneficial relationship human person and guarantees full respect for human
with them particularly in economic and trade activities. rights.
Explanation: Explanation:
Paramount consideration. - In its relations with other …the individual enjoys certain rights which cannot be
states, the paramount consideration of the Philippines modified or taken away by the lawmaking body.”
shall be a) national sovereignty, b) territorial integrity, These rights are protected or guaranteed because of
c) national interest, and d) the right to self- the belief in the inherent dignity and basic moral worth
determination. of every human person.
State policies ..the human person is the end of every social
SECTION 8. The Philippines, consistent with the organization…
national interest, adopts and pursues a policy of The value accorded to human dignity is measured by
freedom from nuclear weapons in its territory. the extent of respect for human rights, principally the
Explanation: rights to life, liberty and property.
The Philippines is not known or believed to possess State policies
weapons of mass destruction. Article II Section 8 of SECTION 12. The State recognizes the sanctity of
the Philippine Constitution explicitly forbids the family life and shall protect and strengthen the family
presence of nuclear weapons in the Philippines. as a basic autonomous social institution. It shall
The Philippines, as a ratifier to the Biological Weapons equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the
Convention, bans all production and import of unborn from conception. The natural and primary right
biological weapons in the country. It also signed the and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth for civic
efficiency and the development of moral character SECTION 15. The State shall protect and promote the
shall receive the support of the Government. right to health of the people and instill health
Explanation: consciousness among them.
Right to life of unborn from conception. According to Explanation:
the Catholic Moral Code, the unborn child is already Right to health. - Since people are the basic social unit
considered a human being and subject to human of government, it is the obligation of the State to
rights. It is the obligation of the State to protect the promote and protect the right of the people to health.
unborn child. Healthy people mean productivity and consciousness
This provision of the Constitution is a preventive to their participation in nation-building. (Article XIII,
measure of the possibility of abortion being legalized Secs. 11-13)
by future legislation. The youth’s participation in nation State policies
building must be maintained as a joint action by the SECTION 16. The State shall protect and advance the
State and family. right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology
State policies in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
SECTION 13. The State recognizes the vital role of Explanation:
the youth in nation-building and shall promote and It is the constitutional right of the people to have a
protect their physical, moral, spiritual, intellectual, and balance and healthful ecology. - Ecology refers to the
social well-being. It shall inculcate in the youth branch of science that deals with the study of the
patriotism and nationalism, and encourage their relationships of living things (organisms, plants and
involvement in public and civic affairs. animals) and their environments. (Article XII. Sec. 3)
Explanation: State policies
The youth as future leaders. - The youth are the SECTION 17. The State shall give priority to
backbones of the Philippine society and comprise the education, science and technology, arts, culture, and
great majority of our people and therefore is the sports to foster patriotism and nationalism, accelerate
concern of the State to promote and protect their well- social progress, and promote total human liberation
being. It could not be denied that today’s youth are and development.
more informed and articulate and politically informed. Explanation:
It is for this reason that more youth today are involved Art. XIV: Education, Science and Technology, Arts,
in radicalism and in policy-making decisions of the Culture and Sports
country. Specially, the State shall protect and promote the right
State policies of all citizens to quality education at all levels.
SECTION 14. The State recognizes the role of women Towards this end, the Constitution provides the
in nation-building, and shall ensure the fundamental exercise of academic freedom. Academic Freedom, in
equality before the law of women and men. Lovejoy’s Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, is the
Explanation: freedom of the teacher or research worker in higher
Women participation in nation-building. - It is generally institutions of learning to investigate and discuss the
accepted that the role of women both in business and problem of his science and to express his conclusions,
politics cannot be over-emphasized. It must be whether through publication or in the instruction of
recalled that Filipino women during the past decades students, without interference from political or
especially during the colonization days took active part ecclesiastical authority, or from administrative officials
in nation-building, much more the current events that of the institution in which he is employed, unless his
women played an important role in politics. Men methods are found by qualified bodies of his
compared to women are more susceptible to graft and profession to be clearly incompetent or contrary to
corruption, the reason that confidence on women had professional duties.
evolved.
It is on this aspect that the Constitution gives State policies
recognition of the role of women not only in the SECTION 18. The State affirms labor as a primary
management of the homes but also in nation-building. social economic force. It shall protect the rights of
State policies workers and promote their welfare.
Explanation:
The State shall afford full protection to labor, local, and The Public-Private Partnership (PPP) can be broadly
overseas, organized and unorganized, and promote defined as a contractual agreement between the
full employment and equality of employment Government and a private firm targeted towards
opportunities for all. It shall guarantee the rights of all financing, designing, implementing and operating
workers to self-organization, and peaceful concerted infrastructure facilities and services that were
activities, including the right to strike in accordance traditionally provided by the public sector.
with law. They shall be entitled to security of tenure, It embodies optimal risk allocation between the parties
humane condition of work, and a living wage. They – minimizing cost while realizing project
shall also participate in policy and decision-making developmental objectives. Thus, the project is to be
processes affecting their rights and benefits as may be structured in such a way that the private sector gets a
provided by law. reasonable rate of return on its investment.
Explanation: Explanation:
The State shall promote the principle of shared PPP offers monetary and non-monetary advantages
responsibility between workers and employers and the for the public sector. It addresses the limited funding
preferential use of voluntary modes in settling resources for local infrastructure or development
disputes, including conciliation and shall enforce their projects of the public sector thereby allowing the
mutual compliance therewith to foster industrial peace. allocation of public funds for other local priorities. It is
The State shall regulate the relations between workers a mechanism to distribute project risks to both public
and employers, recognizing the right to labor to its just and private sector. PPP is geared for both sectors to
share in the fruits of production and the right to gain improved efficiency and project implementation
enterprises to reasonable returns of investments and processes in delivering services to the public.
to expansion and growth. Most importantly, PPP emphasizes Value for Money –
Explanation: focusing on reduced costs, better risk allocation, faster
The Constitutional rights of labor are the following: implementation, improved services and possible
Right to self-organization generation of additional revenue.
Right to security of tenure State policies
Right to strike in accordance with law SECTION 21. The State shall promote comprehensive
Right to just share in fruits of production rural development and agrarian reform.
Right to collective bargaining and negotiation Explanation:
Right to peaceful and concerted activities This is the Constitutional basis of the present Agrarian
Right to humane conditions of work and living wages Reform Program started by former Pres. Corazon
Right to participate in decision-making process Aquino known as CARP (Comprehensive Agrarian
affecting them Reform Program) aimed at promoting “social justice
State policies and industrialization.”
SECTION 19. The State shall develop a self-reliant State policies
and independent national economy effectively SECTION 22. The State recognizes and promotes the
controlled by Filipinos. rights of indigenous cultural communities within the
Explanation: framework of national unity and development.
Economic development is the ultimate goal of the Explanation:
State. - In the declaration, Section 19 outlines the “Cultural minorities” refers to that groups of Filipinos
constitutional guidelines in the development of the with cultural inferiority. This is so because these
economy as a policy in order to achieve economic groups had shied away from civilization of Philippine
self-reliance, independent national economy and society.
effective Filipino control of the economy. (Article XII, State policies
National Economy and Patrimony, Sec. 1) SECTION 23. The State shall encourage non-
State policies governmental, community-based, or sectoral
SECTION 20. The State recognizes the indispensable organizations that promote the welfare of the nation.
role of the private sector, encourages private Explanation:
enterprise, and provides incentives to needed NGO activities include, but are not limited to,
investments. environmental, social, advocacy and human rights
Explanation: work. They can work to promote social or political
change on a broad scale or very locally. NGOs play a accountable local government structure instituted
critical part in developing society, improving through a system of decentralization whereby local
communities, and promoting citizen participation. government units shall be given more powers,
State policies authority, responsibilities, and resources.
SECTION 24. The State recognizes the vital role of The process of decentralization shall proceed from the
communication and information in nation-building. National Government to the local government units.
Explanation: State policies
In every society, public and private institutions and SECTION 26. The State shall guarantee equal access
individuals undertake internal and external to opportunities for public service, and prohibit political
communication for many reasons. There is often no dynasties as may be defined by law.
over-arching idea or vision to help coordinate or Explanation:
rationalize these various actions, probably because Citizen has all the opportunities to public service
policy-makers and planners do not see how they can (Article VI, Secs. 4, 5 and 7 and Article X, Sec. 8).
be related. In a democratic system of government, it is a
A national policy on information and communication constitutional policy that prohibits political dynasties.
for development provides a necessary conceptual and This is so because when political dynasties exist there
institutional framework for the coordination and is no equal access to opportunities for public service.
integration of technical and social interventions State policies
undertaken by institutions ranging from agricultural SECTION 27. The State shall maintain honesty and
extension to education and health ministries, from integrity in the public service and take positive and
NGOs such as women’s resource groups and human effective measures against graft and corruption.
rights activists, to private sector interests such as SECTION 28. Subject to reasonable conditions
chambers of commerce or banks. prescribed by law, the State adopts and implements a
Explanation: policy of full public disclosure of all its transactions
The contribution of a national policy is to articulate involving public interest.
principles, values and norms that are applicable to Explanation:
communication at all levels of government, to civil The essence of democratic system of government is
society and the private sector, within the context of the that the people have the right to examine all
development goals of the nation. government transactions. In a society like ours, where
An approach that considers information and democratic principles are adhered to all transactions
communication as a «sector» for development by the government which involve public interest must
planning would also help to rationalize investments as be publicly presented and discussed to the Filipino
well as provide a basis for integrating information and people.
communication interventions within national The Filipino people have all the rights to know such
development strategies. public transactions, especially involving expenditures
State policies of public funds. However, for reasons of government
SECTION 25. The State shall ensure the autonomy of systems management, limitations are made like
local governments. records involving the security of the State or those
Explanation: which are classified as confidential. (Article II, Section
Pursuant thereto, Congress enacted RA 7160,[227] 7)
otherwise known as the "Local Government Code of G. SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE
1991" (LGC), wherein the policy on local autonomy ART. II, Sec. 6 of the Philippine Constitution, “The
had been more specifically explicated as follows: separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.”
Sec. 2. Declaration of Policy. – (a) It is hereby Explanation:
declared the policy of the State that the territorial and Principle of separation of the church and state. - The
political subdivisions of the State shall enjoy genuine principle simply means that the church is not to
and meaningful local autonomy to enable them to interfere in purely political matters or temporal aspects
attain their fullest development as self-reliant of man’s life and the state, in purely matters of religion
communities and make them more effective partners and morals, which are the exclusive concerns of the
in the attainment of national goals. Toward this end, other.
the State shall provide for a more responsive and
The state shall have no official religion; the state
cannot set up a church, whether or not supported with
funds; nor aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer
one religion over another; every person is free to
profess belief or disbelief in any religion;
Meaning of “establishment of religion clause. - Every
religious minister is free to practice his calling; and the
state cannot punish a person for entertaining or
professing religious beliefs or disbeliefs. Preamble –
the command that church and state be separate is not
to be interpreted to mean hostility to religion.

Respect of religion. - Our Constitution and laws

exempt from taxation, properties devoted exclusively
to religious purposes; No hostility towards religion.
The use of public money or property is not prohibited
when a priest, preacher, minister, or dignitary as such
is assigned to the armed forces, or to any penal
institution, or government orphanage or leprosarium;
Optional religious instruction in public elementary and
high school is by constitutional mandate allowed;
Thursday and Friday of Holy Week, Christmas Day
and Sundays are made legal holidays because of the
idea that their observance is conducive to beneficial
moral results; and the law punishes polygamy and
bigamy, and certain crimes against worship are
considered crimes against the fundamental laws of the
State.

Reason underlying the principle. It is significant that

the separation of the State and the Church is to
protect Philippine society from using each other for
their self-interest.