UNIT I D.

C CIRCUITS AND NETWORK THEOREMS

Concept of Potential difference, voltage, current, work, Power, Energy, Electric

networks, voltage source and current sources, linear passive and active elements,
Unit-1 current-voltage relation, ideal and practical sources, Kirchhoff-s laws and
applications to network solutions using mesh and nodal analysis, Simplifications
of networks using series-parallel, Network Theorem –Superposition, Thevenin’s,
Norton's and Maximum Power Transfer.

1.1 Concept of Potential difference (or) Voltage:

1. Voltage (V or E): The difference in potential energy between the charges is called
potential difference. It is expressed by unit volt (V). The energy is transferred to the
electrical components in a circuit when the charge carriers pass through them. We use
a voltmeter to measure potential difference (or voltage).
Potential Difference formula: V = I x R
The potential difference (which is the same as voltage) is equal to the amount of
current multiplied by the resistance. A potential difference of one Volt is equal to one
Joule of energy being used by one Coulomb of charge when it flows between two
points in a circuit.
2. Charge (Q): It is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force
when close to other electrically charged matter. The elementary particles in charge are
electrons, protons and neutrons. Basically two types of charges are there. (i) Positive
charge and (ii) Negative charge.
It is expressed by unit coulomb (C).
3. Current (I): It is defined as the rate of flow of electrons (or) It is also defined as
the rate of change of charge with respect to time.
It is expressed by unit Ampere (A).
I=Q/t
4. Work is a measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is moved over a
distance by an external force at least part of which is applied in the direction of
the displacement.
W=F*D
5. Power (P): It is the rate at which work is done. It is expressed by Watts (W) or
Joule/Seconds.
P=V*I
6. Energy: Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states
that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of
energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving
it a distance of 1 meter against a force of 1 newton.
1.2 Electric Networks:
Interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements is called as an electric
network. A network contains at least one closed path, called as electric circuit.

Figure: 1.1 Network Figure: 1.2 Circuit

Branch: A part of the network which connects the various points of the network with
one another is called as a branch. A branch may contain one or more elements. In the
figure 1.3 AB, BC, BE and CF are various branches.
Junction Point: A point at which three or more branches meet is called as junction
point. Point B and E are the junction points in the network shown in the figure 1.3.

Figure: 1.3 Electrical circuit

Node: A point at which two or more elements are joined together is called node. In
the figure 1.3 A, B, C, D, E and F are the nodes of the network.
Mesh: A mesh is a loop that does not contain any inner loops. All meshes are loops,
but all loops are not meshes. In figure 1.3 ABED and BCFE are the meshes of the
network.
Loop: A loop is any closed path of branches. In figure 1.3 ABED, BCFE and
ABCFED are the loops of the network.
1.2 Voltage and Current sources:

Sources of electrical energy are active elements. They are classified into two types
namely:
1. Voltage source
2. Current source
1.2.1 Voltage source: A practical voltage source consists of internal resistance
(Source Resistance) R in series with the source voltage E. For ideal voltage source,
the source resistance becomes zero.

Figure: 1.4 Voltage source

1.2.2 Current source: A practical Current source consists of resistance R in parallel
with the source voltage E. For ideal Current source, the source resistance becomes
Infinite.

Figure: 1.5 Current source

1.3 Circuit Elements:
The circuit elements are classified as
 1. Active Elements: These elements supply voltage or current to the circuit to
operate it. They are voltage and current sources.
Examples: Generators, Transistor, Vaccum tubes etc.,
2. Passive Elements: These elements dissipate energy in the form of heat or store
the energy from external sources.
Examples: Resistor (R), Inductance (L) and Capacitance (C).

1.4 Current-Voltage Relation(Ohm’s Law):

At constant temperature, the steady current flowing through a conductor is directly

proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.
IαV
I=V/R
Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the voltage
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms.

1.5 Ideal & Practical Sources:

1.5.1 Ideal & Practical Voltage sources:
Ideal Voltage Source:
An ideal voltage source is defined as the two terminal devices capable of providing a
constant voltage across its terminals. The voltage across the terminals of an ideal
voltage source remains constant and is independent of load current.
Symbol:
The symbol of an ideal voltage source is shown below in figure 1.6.

Figure: 1.6 Ideal Voltage source

Characteristics:
As per the definition, the voltage across the terminals of such source is always
constant irrespective of the circuit resistance or output current. This means, the
characteristics of this source must be as shown below.
 Figure: 1.7 Characteristics of ideal voltage source
In the above, characteristics, circuit resistance means the resistance connected across
the terminals of source.
Internal Resistance:
The internal series resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero. Let us understand this
by using the following circuit diagram.

Figure: 1.8 Example Circuit

In the above circuit diagram, R represents the resistance connected across the
terminals A & B of a source having series internal resistance r. A current I is shown
flowing in the circuit.
Let us now calculate the voltage across the terminals A and B i.e. V AB.
VAB = (V-Ir) …………(1)
Now, for source to be ideal, the voltage across its terminal A & B must be constant
and equal to V irrespective of the value of current.
(V-Ir) = V
r=0
Thus, the internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is always zero. However, no
such source exists in the world. All the sources of voltage have some series connected
internal resistance and hence its terminal voltage varies with current I as per (1). Such
sources are called practical / real voltage source.
Practical Voltage Source:
A practical voltage source is one which we find around us. The terminal voltage
across its terminals is not constant rather it varies with output current. Internal
resistance of practical voltage source has some finite value. Though efforts are made
to minimize this internal resistance. Examples of voltage sources
are Batteries, Generators etc.
Symbol:
A practical voltage source is denoted as an ideal voltage source connected with a
series resistance. This series resistance (r) represents the internal resistance of the
source.

Figure: 1.9 Practical Voltage Source

Characteristics:
Since the practical voltage source have finite value of internal resistance, therefore,
the voltage across its terminal A&B i.e. VAB is not constant rather it depends upon the
circuit current. The more the value of current, the lesser will be the magnitude of
terminal voltage VAB. Similarly, if the current is less, the terminal voltage will be
more. In fact, the relationship between the circuit current and terminal voltage of a
practical voltage source is given as below.
VAB = (V-Ir)
For a given source, the source voltage and its internal resistance r are constant,
therefore the above expression represents a straight line having slope “-r”. The
characteristics of a practical voltage source are shown below.

Figure: 1.10 Characteristics of Practical Voltage source

From the above characteristic, it is clear that the terminal voltage is dependent on the
output current. However, the value of internal resistance is very small and hence there
is slight variation of terminal voltage with the output current. Hence, a practical
voltage source approaches ideal voltage source.
1.5.2 Ideal & Practical Current sources:

Ideal Current source

A current source is a device which provides the constant current to load at any time
and is independent of the voltage supplied to the circuit. This type of current is known
as an ideal current source; practically ideal current source is also not available. It has
infinite resistance. It is denoted by this symbol.

Figure: 1.11 Symbol of current source

Figure: 1.12 Circuit & Characteristics of Ideal current source

The graph represents the change in current of the current source with respect to time.
It is constant at any instance of time

Why ideal Current source has infinite resistance?

A current source is used to power a load, so that load will turn on. We try to supply
100% of the power to load. For that, we connect some resistance to transfer 100% of
power to load because the current always takes the path of least resistance. So, in
order for current to go to the path of least resistance, we must connect resistance
higher than load. This is why we have the ideal current source to have infinite internal
resistance. This infinite resistance will not affect voltage sources in the circuit.
Practical Current source
Practically current sources do not have infinite resistance across there but they have a
finite internal resistance. So the current delivered by the practical current source is not
constant and it is also dependent somewhat on the voltage across it. A practical
current source is represented as an ideal current source connected with resistance in
parallel.

Figure: 1.13 Circuit & Characteristics of Practical current source

The graph represents the current of the current source with respect to time. It is not
constant but it also keeps on decreasing as the time passes.

Examples of current and voltage sources

The examples of current source are solar cells, transistors and examples of some
voltage sources are batteries and alternators. The ideal sources are very useful for
calculations in theory but as ideal sources are not practically possible, only practical
sources are used in practical circuits. The batteries we use are a practical source of
power and the voltage and current decreases as we use it. Thus both are useful to us in
their own ways.

1.5.3 Series Connected independent sources:

Consider the series connection of 3 voltage sources as shown in figure 1.10. By

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) we can find that the total voltage between the
terminals AB is equal to algebraic sum of the individual sources.

Fig: 1.14 series connected independent voltage sources

That is a chain of voltage sources in series may be replaced by a single voltage source
whose voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of individual sources.
Note: Current sources cannot be connected in series if all the current sources have the
same current including sign at every instant.
1.5.4 Parallel Connected independent sources:
Consider the parallel connection of current sources as shown in figure 1.11. By
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), the total current I is equal to
I = I1-I2+I3

Fig: 1.15 Parallel connected independent sources

That is the parallel combination of current source is equivalent to a single current

source whose current is the sum of the parallel current sources.
Note: Voltage sources cannot be connected in parallel unless they have equal terminal
voltage at every instant.

1.6 Kirchhoff’s Law:

1.6.1Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the sum of currents entering any node
is equal to the sum of currents leaving that node.
 Consider the circuit shown in fig. 1.16.

Fig. 1.16 Circuit to illustrate KCL

The sum of the currents entering the node is,

ib + id = ia + ic
1.6.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around
any closed path in a circuit is zero.
(or)
 In a closed circuit, the sum of the potential drops is equal to the sum of the
potential rises.
In figure 1.17, ABCDA from a closed circuit. Assuming the current direction
as shown, from A to B, we have a potential drop of IR1 volts.

Fig. 1.17 Circuit to illustrate KVL

Writing for the entire loop ABCDA, We have,
Sum of potential drops = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅
Potential rise from D to A = E
𝐈𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐈𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐈𝐑 𝟑 = 𝐄
In general, the mathematical representation of Kirchhoff’s voltage law is

Where vj(t) is the voltage across the jth branch (with proper reference direction) in a
loop containing N voltages.
Example 1:
Consider the circuit shown in fig. 1.18, Find each branch current and voltage
across each branch when R1= 8Ω, v2 = -10V, i3=2A and R3=1Ω. Also find R2.

Fig. 1.18 Circuit diagram

Applying KCL (Kirchhoff’s Current Law) at node A, we get

i1 = i2 + i3
and using Ohm’s law for R3 we get,
v3 = R3i3 = 2V

Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) for the loop EACDE, we get

-10 + v1 + v3 = 0
v1 = 10 – v3 = 8V
Ohms law for R1 is
v1 = i1R1
i1 = = 1A
Hence, i2 = i1 – i3
=1–2
= -1 A
From the circuit, v2 = R2i2
R2 = = = 10Ω

1.6.3 The Node Method

A voltage is always defined as the potential difference between two points. When
we talk about the voltage at a certain point of a circuit we imply that the measurement
is performed between that point and some other point in the circuit. In most cases that
other point is referred to as ground.

The node method or the node voltage method is a very pow powerful
erful approach for
circuit analysis and it is based on the application of KCL, KVL and Ohm’s law.

The procedure for analyzing a circuit with the node method is based on the following
steps.

1. Clearly label all circuit parameters and distinguish the unk

unknown
nown parameters from
the known.
2. Identify all nodes of the circuit.
3. Select a node as the reference node also called the ground and assign to it a
potential of 0 Volts. All other voltages in the circuit are measured with respect to the
reference node.
4. Label the voltages at all other nodes.
5. Assign and label polarities.
6. Apply KCL at each node and express the branch currents in terms of the node
voltages.
7. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the node voltages.
8. Now that the node
de voltages are known, the branch currents may be obtained from
Ohm’s law.
Example 1:
Consider the circuit shown
wn below in fig.1.19
fig.1.19. Find I3 using nodal analysis.
 Fig. 1.19 Circuit diagram for Nodal analysis

In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the other three nodes
are assumed to have voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with respect to node D.
For example;
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉
+ =
10 20 40
As Va = 10v and Vc = 20v, Vb can be easily found by
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
1− +1− =
10 20 40
2=𝑉( + + )
80
𝑉 = 𝑉
7
2
𝐼 = 𝑜𝑟 0.286 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
7
Example 2:

For the circuit given find the node voltages 𝑽𝟏 and 𝑽𝟐 using nodal analysis.

Solution:
 Applying KCL,

At node 1,
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −6
+ + =0
10 6 5
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 6
+ + + − =0
10 6 6 5 5
1 1 1 1 6
𝑉 + + −𝑉 =
10 6 5 6 5
𝑉 [0.1 + 0.17 + 0.2] − 𝑉 [0.17] = 1.2
0.47𝑉 − 0.17𝑉 = 1.2 − − − − − (1)
At node 2,
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 − 10
+ + =0
6 7 5
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 10
− + + =
6 6 7 5 5
1 1 1 1
𝑉 + + −𝑉 =2
6 7 5 6

−𝑉 [0.17] + 𝑉 [0.17 + 0.143 + 0.2] = 2

−0.17𝑉 + 0.513𝑉 = 2 − − − − − (2)

0.47 −0.17 𝑉 1.2

=
−0.17 0.513 𝑉 2
Solve 𝑉 and 𝑉 by crammers’ rule,

0.47 −0.17
∆= = (0.47 × 0.513) − (−0.17 × −0.17)
−0.17 0.513
= 0.241 − 0.0289
∆= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟐
1.2 −0.17
∆ = = (1.2 × 0.513) − (2 × −0.17)
2 0.513
= 0.6156 + 0.34

∆𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟓𝟔
 ∆ 0.9556
𝑉 = =
∆ 0.212
𝐕𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟎𝟖 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬
0.47 1.2
∆ =
−0.17 2
= (0.47 × 2)— (−0.172 × 1.2)

= 0.94 + 0.204

∆𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝟒
∆ 1.144
𝑉 = = = 5.396 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
∆ 0.212
𝐕𝟐 = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟗𝟔 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬

Example 3:
Find the supply voltage V in the circuit shown below in figure, which drives a
current zero in the 10 Ω resistor employing nodal analysis.

Solution:
By nodal Analysis,

At node1,
𝑉 −V 𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉
+ + =0
3 2 10
0.33[𝑉 − V] + 0.5𝑉 + 0.1[𝑉 − 𝑉 ] = 0
0.83𝑉 − 0.33V + 0.1[𝑉 − 𝑉 ] = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
At node2,
 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 − 50
+ + =0
10 5 7
0.1[𝑉 − 𝑉 ] + 0.2𝑉 + 0.143[𝑉 − 50] = 0
0.1[𝑉 − 𝑉 ] + 0.343𝑉 = 7.15 … … … … … … … … . . . (2)
Given
ven that current drives at 10
10Ω is zero,
∴𝑉 −𝑉 =0
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1), 0.83𝑉 − 0.33V + 0.1[0] = 0
0..83𝑉 − 0.33V = 0 … … … … … … … … … … . (3)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2), ) 0.1
1[0] + 0.343𝑉 = 7.15
0.343𝑉 = 7.15
𝑉 = 20.85 V
∵𝑉 −𝑉 =0
𝑉 − 20.85 = 0
𝑉 = 20.85 V
Sub. V1 in (3),
0.83[20
20.85] − 0.33V = 0
17
17.31 − 0.33V = 0
𝑽 = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 𝐕
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟒:
Determine the voltage at each node for the given circuit figure.

Solution:

At node 1,
Apply KCL,
 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 − 10
+ + + =0
3 3 5 10

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 10
− + − + + − =0
3 3 3 3 5 10 10

1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑉 + + + −𝑉 + =0+1=1
3 3 5 10 3 3
𝑉 [0.33 + 0.33 + 0.2 + 0.1] − 𝑉 [0.33 + 0.33] = 1
0.96𝑉 − 0.66𝑉 = 1 … … … … … … (1)

At node 2,
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉
+ + =5
3 3 2
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
− + − + − =5
3 3 3 3 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
−𝑉 + +𝑉 + + −𝑉 =5
3 3 3 3 2 2
−𝑉 [0.33 + 0.33] + 𝑉 [0.33 + 0.33 + 0.5] − 𝑉 [0.5] = 5
−0.66𝑉 + 1.16𝑉 − 0.5𝑉 = 5 … … … … . (2)
At node 3,
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉
+ + =0
2 6 1
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
− + + =0
2 2 6 1
1 1 1
−𝑉 +𝑉 + +1 =0
2 2 6
−0.5𝑉 + 𝑉 [0.5 + 0.166 + 1] = 0

−0.5𝑉 + 1.666𝑉 = 0 … … … … … … … (3)

0.96 −0.66 0 𝑉 1
−0.66 1.16 −0.5 𝑉 = 5
0 −0.5 1.666 𝑉 0
 0.96 −0.66 0
∆= −0.66 1.16 −0.5 = 0.9
−
0 −0.5 11.666
1 −0.66 0
∆ = 5 1.16 −0.5 = 7.23
0 −0.5 1.666
666
∆ 7.23
𝑉 = = = 8.03 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
∆ 0.9
0.96 1 0
∆ = −0.66 5 −0.5 = 9.14
0 0 1.666
666
∆ 9.14
𝑉 = = = 10.15
15 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
∆ 0.9
0.96 −0.66 1
∆ = −0.66 1.16 5 = 2.748
0 −0.5 0
∆ 2.748
𝑉 = = = 3.05
05 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
∆ 0.9
𝑉 = 8.03𝑉, 𝑉 = 10.15
15𝑉, 𝑉 = 3.05𝑉

Example 5:

For the network shown in figure, find 𝑽𝑺 which makes 𝑰𝟎 = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝒎𝑨

𝑨. Use node
voltage method.

Solution:
Apply KCL at node 1,
−𝐼 − 𝐼 − 𝐼 = 0
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉
− − − =0
20 7 4
 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
− + − − + =0
20 20 7 4 4
1 1 1 1 −𝑉
𝑉 − − − +𝑉 =
2 7 4 4 20
𝑉 [−0.5 − 0.143 − 0.25] + 0.25𝑉 = −0.05 𝑉
−0.893𝑉 + 0.25𝑉 = −0.05𝑉 … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
Apply KCL at node 2,
𝐼 −𝐼 −𝐼 =0
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
− − =0
4 6 6
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
− − − =0
4 4 6 6
1 1 1 1
𝑉 −𝑉 + + =0
4 4 6 6
0.25𝑉 − 𝑉 (0.25 + 0.167 + 0.167) = 0

0.25𝑉 − 3.59𝑉 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2)

0.893 −0.25 𝑉 0.05𝑉

=
0.25 −3.59 𝑉 0

0.893 −0.25
∆= = (0.893 × −3.59)— (−0.25 × 0.25)
0.25 −3.59
= −3.205 + 0.0625
∆= −3.1425
0.893 0.05 𝑉
∆ = = (0.893 × 0) − (0.25 × 0.05𝑉 )
0.25 0
∆ = −0.0125𝑉
∆ −0.0125𝑉
V = = = 3.98 × 10
∆ −3.1425
V
I =
6
3.98 × 10 𝑉
7.5 × 10 =
6
7.5 × 10 = 6.63 × 10 𝑉
7.5 × 10
𝑉 =
6.63 × 10
= 0.1131 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Example 6:
Write the nodal equation for the network shown in fig. Hence find the potential
difference between nodes 2 and 4.

Solution:
Consider the 4th node as ground point,
Applying KCL to node1:
V V −V
+ = 4−3
5 1
6V
+V = 1
5
1.2 V − V = 1 … … … … … … … . . (1)
Applying KCL to node2:
V −V V V −V
+ + =3−4
1 4 2
7V V
V − + =1
4 2
V − 1.75V + 0.5V = 0 … … … … … … … (2)

Applying KCL to node3:

V V −V
+ = 4−4
5 2
7V V
− =0
5 2
0.7 V − 0.5V = 0

By solving equation (1),(2),(3) we get

V = 0.585
585v
 V = −0.2978
2978v
V = −0.212
212v
Example 7:
Solve the network given below by the node voltage method
method.

Solution:
At node 1:
𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 − 25
+ + =0
2 10 5
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
+ − + = 25
2 10 10 5
1 1 1 1
V1 + + −𝑉 =5
2 10 5 10
0.8 V1 − 0.1𝑉 = 5 … … … … … … . (1)

At node 2:
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 + 50
+ + =0
10 4 2
1 1 1 1
𝑉 + + −𝑉 = −25
10 4 2 10
−0.1𝑉 + 0.85𝑉 = −25 … … … … . . (2)
From eqn (1) & (2) we get

𝑉 = −2.6𝑉
𝑉 = −29.1𝑉
Now branch current can be calculated as,
25 − 𝑉
𝐼 = = 4.48𝐴
5
𝑉 −𝑉
𝐼 = = 3.17𝐴
10
𝑉
𝐼 = = 1.3𝐴
2
𝑉 − 50
𝐼 = = 10.45𝐴
2
 𝑉
𝐼 = = −7.28𝐴
4

Example 8:
Using node analysis find the node voltages and the currents through all the
resistors for the circuit shown in fig.

Solution:
At node V1:
𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉
+ = 25
4 10
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
+ − = 25
4 10 10
1 1 1
𝑉 + − 𝑉 = 25
4 10 10
0.35𝑉 − 0.1𝑉 = 25 … … … … … … … … … … (1)
At node V2:
V V V V V
+ + = 25
10 2 10
1 1 1 1 1
− V +V + + − V = 25
10 10 2 10 10
Since V = 20
1 1 1 1 1
− V +V + + − 20 = 25
10 10 2 10 10
−0.1V + 0.7V = 27 … … … … … … … … (2)
At node V3:
20 − V V
++ =0
10 2
20 − V 20
+ =0
10 2
−V
= −12
10
V2 =120v
Sub V2 in eqn (1)
 0.35 𝑉 − 0.1(120) = 25
0.35 𝑉 − 12 = 25
0.35𝑉 = 25 − 12
0.35 𝑉 = 13
V = 37.14V
Example 9:

Calculate node voltages for the given circuit.

By Inspection Method, the Matrix model is

𝐺 𝐺 𝑉 𝐼
=
𝐺 𝐺 𝑉 𝐼
1 1 1
+ − 5
2 4 4 𝑉 =
1 1 1 𝑉 10 − 5
− +
4 4 6
0.75 −0.25 𝑉 5
=
−0.25 0.42 𝑉 5

0.75 −0.25
∆= = 0.2525
−0.25 0.42
5 −0.25
∆ = = 3.35
5 0.42

0.75 5
∆ = =5
−0.25 5
∆ 3.35
𝑉 = = = 13.267 𝑉
∆ 0.2525
∆ 5
𝑉 = = = 19.801 𝑉
∆ 0.2525
1.6.4 The Mesh Method
The mesh method uses the mesh currents as the circuit variables. A mesh is defined as
a loop which does not contain any other loops.

The procedure for obtaining the solution is similar to that followed in the Node
method and the various steps are given below.

1. Clearly label all circuit parameters and distinguish the unknown parameters from
the known.
2. Identify all meshes of the circuit.
3. Assign mesh currents and label polarities.
4. Apply KVL at each mesh and express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the mesh currents.
6. Now that the mesh currents are known, the voltages may be obtained from Ohm’s
law.

Example 1:

Consider the circuit shown below in fig. 1.20. Find the loop currents using mesh
analysis.

Fig. 1.20 The circuit for Mesh analysis

The first step in the Mesh Current method is to identify “loops” within the
circuit encompassing all components.
In this example circuit, the loop formed by B1, R1, and R2 will be the first while
the loop formed by B2, R2, and R3 will be the second.
 Fig. 1.21 The circuit for Mesh analysis with loop currents

The choice of each current’s direction is entirely arbitrary, just as in the Branch
Current method, but the resulting equations are easier to solve if the currents are going
the same direction through intersecting components (note how currents I 1 and I2 are
both going “up” through resistor R2, where they “mesh,” or intersect). If the assumed
direction of a mesh current is wrong, the answer for that current will have a negative
value. The next step is to label all voltage drop polarities across resistors according to
the assumed directions of the mesh currents. Remember that the “upstream” end of a
resistor will always be negative, and the “downstream” end of a resistor positive with
respect to each other, since electrons are negatively charged.

The battery polarities, of course, are dictated by their symbol orientations in the
diagram, and may or may not “agree” with the resistor polarities (assumed current
directions):

Fig. 1.22 The circuit for Mesh analysis with voltage polarities across resistors
 Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we can now step around each of these loops,
generating equations representative of the component voltage drops and polarities.

For Loop 1:
28 − 4𝐼 − 2(𝐼 + 𝐼 ) = 0
−28 + 6𝐼 + 2𝐼 = 0

For Loop 2:
2(𝐼 + 𝐼 ) + 1𝐼 − 7 = 0
2𝐼 + 3𝐼 − 7 = 0

Rearranging equations,
6𝐼 + 2𝐼 = 28
2I + 3I = 7

Solving the equations we get,

I = 5A
I = −1A
Example 2:

Using mesh analysis,

s, determine the current through 11𝜴 resistor in the circuit
shown below.

Solution:
Apply KVL to Loop 1,

50 − 10I − 5(I − I )-3(I + I ) = 0

50 − 10I − 5I + 5I − 3I − 3I = 0

50 − 18I + 5I − 3I = 0--------------------- (1)

Apply KVL to Loop2,

−2I − 10 − 1(I + I ) − 5((I − I ) = 0

−2I − 10 − I − I − 5I + 5I = 0

−5I − 2I − I − 10 = 0-------------------(2)

Apply KVL to Loop3,

−1(I + I ) − 3(I + I )+5=0

−I − I − 3I − I + 5 = 0

−3I − I − 2I + 5 = 0 --------------------(3)

By Solving Equation (1), (2) & (3)

we get

I1 = 0.406 A, I2 = 7.38 A, I3 = -6.802 A

Thus the current flowing through 1𝜴 resistor is= I2+I3

I1 = 7.38+(-6.802) = 0.578 A

Example 3:
Determine the current is the 4 Ω branch is the circuit shown in figure. Use mesh
analysis method.

Solution:

Apply KVL in loop 1,

−2I − 12(I − I ) − (I − I ) + 12 = 0
−2I − 12I + 12I − I + I = −12
−15I + 12I + I = −12

15I − 12I − I = 12 − − − − − −(1)

Apply KVL in loop 2,

−2I − 10 − 3(I − I ) − 12(I − I ) = 0

−2I − 10 − 3I + 3I − 12I + 12I = 0
12I − 17I + 3I = 10 − − − − − (2)
Apply KVL in loop 3,
 −(I − I ) − 3(I − I ) − 4I + 24 = 0

−I + I − 3I + 3I − 4I = −24

I + 3I − 8I = −24 − − − − − (3)

15 −12 −1 I 12
12 −17 3 I = 10
1 3 −8 I −24
15 −12 −1
∆= 12 −17 3
1 3 −8
= 15 (−17 × −8) − (3 × 3) + 12[(12 × −8) − (1 × 3)]
− 1[(12 × 3) + (1 × 17)]

= 15(136 − 9) + 12(−96 − 3) − 1(36 + 17)

= 15(127) + 12(−99) − 1(53) = 1905 − 1188 − 53 = 664

15 −12 12
∆ = 12 −17 10
1 3 −24
= 15 (−17 × −24) − (3 × 10) + 12[(12 × −24) − (1 × 10)]
+ 12[(12 × 3) + (1 × 17)]

= 15(408 − 30) + 12(−288 − 10) + 12(36 + 17)

= 15(378) + 12(−298) + 12(53)

∆ = 5670 − 3576 + 636 = 2730

Current flowing through the 4Ω branch is I3

∆ 2730
I = = = 4.11 A
∆ 664
I = 4.11 A
Example 4:

In the circuit shown in figure. Find the difference mesh currents, power
delivered by each source and the current through RL.

Solution :

Applying KVL TO Loop 1,

−I − (I − I ) − 2I + 10 = 0
−I − I + I − 2I = −10
−4I + I = −10
4I − I = 10 − − − −(1)
Applying KVL TO Loop 2,

−2I − 2(I − I ) − I − (I − I ) = 0
−2I − 2I + 2I − I − I +I = 0
I − 6I + 2I = 0 − − − − − (2)
Applying KVL TO Loop 3,

−I − 12 − I − 2(I − I ) = 0
 −I − I − 2I + 2I = 12

2I − 4I = 12 − − − − − (3)
4 −1 10
∆ = 1 −6 0
0 2 12

= 4 (−6 × 12) − (0 × 2) + 1[(1 × 12) − (0 × 0)] + 10[(1 × 2) − (0 × −6)]

= 4[−72] + 1[12] + 10[2]

= −288 + 12 + 20 = −256

∆ = −256
∆ 196
I = = = 2.58 A
∆ 76
∆ −56
I = = = 0.74 A
∆ 76
∆ −256
I = = = 3.37 A
∆ 76

Power delivered by 10V source:

= 10I = 10 × 2.58 = 25.8 Watts

Power delivered by 12V source:

= 12I = 12 × 3.37 = 40.44 Watts

Current through RL,

I =I −I

= 3.37 − 0.74

I = 2.63 A
 4 −1 0 I 10
1 −6 2 I = 0
0 2 −4 I 12
4 −1 0
∆= 1 −6 2
0 2 −4
∆= 4 (−6 × −4) − (2 × 2) + 1[(1 × −4) − (0 × 2)] + 0[(1 × 2) − (0 × −6)]

= 4[24 − 4] + 1[−4]

= 4[20] − [4] = 80 − 4 = 76

∆= 76
10 −1 0
∆ = 0 −6 2
12 2 −4
∆ = 10 (−6 × −4) − (2 × 2) + 1[(0 × −4) − (2 × 2)] + 0[(0 × 2) − (12 × 6)]

= 10[24 − 4] + 1[−4]

= 10[20] − 4 = 200 − 4 = 196

∆ = 196
4 10 0
∆ = 1 0 2
0 12 −4

∆ = 4 (0 × −4) − (12 × 2) − 10[(1 × −4) − (0 × 2)] + 0[(1 × 12) − (0 × 0)]

= 4[−24] − 10[−4]

= −96 + 40

∆ = −56

Example 5:
Write the mesh equation and nodal equation for the network in figure by
inspection method.

By Mesh equation,
8+4 −4 0 𝐼 100
−4 10 + 10 + 4 −10 𝐼 = 0
0 −10 10 + 4 𝐼 40
12 −4 0 𝐼 100
−4 24 − −10 𝐼 = 0
0 −10 14 𝐼 40
By nodal equation,
Converting the voltage source to current source,
100
𝐼 = = 12.5 A
8
40
𝐼 = = 10 A
4
1 1 1 1
+ + − 𝑉
8 4 10 10 12.5
=
1 1 1 1 𝑉 10
− + +
10 4 10 10
Example 6:

Determine current through the resistance in the circuit bridge network shown in
fig using kirchoff’s law.

Solution:
 In the given above circuit apply KVL
Loop 1:
6 − 2 [𝐼 − 𝐼 ] − 5 [𝐼 − 𝐼 ] = 0
6 − 2 𝐼 + 2 𝐼 − 5𝐼 + 5𝐼 = 0
7 𝐼 − 2 𝐼 − 5𝐼 = 6 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
Loop 2:
−2 [𝐼 − 𝐼 ] − 4 𝐼 − 15[𝐼 − 𝐼 ] = 0
2 𝐼 − 21 𝐼 + 15𝐼 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
Loop 3:
−15 [𝐼 − 𝐼 ] − 8 𝐼 − 5[𝐼 − 𝐼 ] = 0
5 𝐼 + 151 𝐼 − 28𝐼 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
Equating (1), (2), (3) we get
𝐼 = 1.357 𝐴
𝐼 = 0.49 𝐴
𝐼 = 0.504 𝐴
Example 7:

Find the voltage between A and B of the circuit shown below by Mesh Analysis.

Solution:

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = 10 𝐴
 Loop 2:
20 − 4[I − I ] − 5I − 1[I − I ] = 0
20 − 4I − 4I − 5I − I − I = 0
4I − 10I + I = −20
∵ 𝐼 = 10 𝐴
4[ 10] − 10I + I = −20
40 − 10I + I = −20
− 10I + I = −60 … … … … . … (1)
Loop 3:
20 − 20 − 1 [I − I ] − 4I = 0
−I + I − 4I = 0
I − 5I = 0 … … … … … . … . (2)
Solving (1)and (2),
– 10I + I = −60
(2) × 10 I − 5I = 0
– 49I = −60
I = 1.22 A
Sub. the above value in (1),
− 10I + 1.22 = −60
− 10I = −61.22
I = 6.122 A
Current across AB, I = I − I
= 10 − 6.122
I = 3.878 A
Voltage across AB, V = 3.878 × 4
𝐕𝟒𝛀 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟓 𝐕

Example 8:

Determine the value of current through the branch DC of the network shown
below in figure. When the current through the branch BD is zero.

Solution:
 We have marked in AB as 𝐼 and AD as𝐼 . Since there is no current in BD, 𝐼
flows through BC and 𝐼 through DC.

For ADCA, apply KVL,

−6𝐼 − 12𝐼 + 2 − 5(𝐼 + 𝐼 ) = 0
−6𝐼 − 12𝐼𝐼 − 5𝐼 − 5𝐼 = −2
−5𝐼 − 23𝐼 = −2
5𝐼 + 23𝐼 = 2 … … … … … … … … . . (1)
For ABCDA, apply KVL,
−2𝐼 − 4𝐼 + 12𝐼 + 6𝐼 = 0
−6𝐼 + 18𝐼 = 0
6𝐼 = 18𝐼
𝐼 = 3𝐼 … … … … … … . . . … ((2))
𝑆𝑢𝑏 (2) 𝑖𝑛 (1), 𝑤𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑡
5((3𝐼 ) + 23𝐼 = 2
15
15𝐼 + 23𝐼 = 2
38𝐼 = 2
2
𝐼 =
38
𝐼 = 0.0526 𝐴

Example 9:

Find the power delivered

vered to the 𝟒Ω resistor for the circuit shown below using
mesh analysis.

Solution:
By applying KVL for two loops, we get
5𝐼 − 3𝐼 = −120 … … … … … … … … … (1 1)
−
−3𝐼 + 7𝐼 = −60 … … … … … … … … … . . (2)
(
 5 −3 𝐼 −120
=
−33 7 𝐼 −60
5 −120
∆=
−3 −60
= −300 − 360
= −660
∆
𝐼 =
∆
−660
=
26
𝐼 = −25.38 𝐴
The negative sign indicates that the direction of 𝐼 is anti-clock wise.
𝐼 = 25.38 𝐴
Power delivered to the 4Ω resistor when
∆ = 0,
5 −120
= 360 − 360 = 0
−3 3 72
Example 10:

Determine the current IL in the circuit shown below.

The given circuit can be modified as shown in the figure below

Loop 1:
𝐼 + 3(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) + 5(𝐼
(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) = 8
𝐼 + 3𝐼 − 3𝐼 + 55𝐼 −5𝐼 = 8
9𝐼 − 3𝐼 + −5𝐼 = 8 … … … … … … … … (1)
 Loop 2:
3𝐼 + 3(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) + 3(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) = 4
3𝐼 + 3𝐼 −3𝐼 + 3𝐼 − 3𝐼 = 4
−3𝐼 + 9𝐼 −3𝐼 = 4 … … … … … … … . . (2)
Loop 3:
𝐼 + 5(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) + 3(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) = −6
𝐼 + 5𝐼 − 5𝐼 + 3𝐼 − 3𝐼 = −6
−5𝐼 − 3𝐼 +9𝐼 = −6 … … … … … … … (3)
9 −3 −5 𝐼 8
−3 9 −3 𝐼 = 4
−5 −3 9 𝐼 −6
9 −3 −5
∆ = −3 9 −3 = 252
−5 −3 9
8 −3 −5
∆ = 4 9 −3 = 420
−6 −3 9
∆ 420
𝐼 = = = 1.667 A
∆ 252
9 −3 8
∆ = −3 9 4 = 168
−5 −3 −6
∆ 168
𝐼 = = = 0.667 A
∆ 252
I =I −I
I = 1.667 − 0.667
I =1A
Example 11:

Determine the current supplied by each battery in the circuit shown in the figure
using mesh analysis.
 Loop 1:
( − 𝐼 ) − 5 + 20 = 0
−5𝐼 − 3(𝐼
−5𝐼 − 33𝐼 + 3𝐼 + 15 = 0
8𝐼 − 3𝐼 = 15 … … … … … … … … . . (1
1)
Loop 2:
− 4𝐼 − 2(𝐼 + 𝐼 ) + 5 + 5 + 5 − 3 (𝐼 − 𝐼 ) = 0
− 4𝐼 − 2𝐼 − 2 𝐼 + 15 − 3𝐼 + 3 𝐼 = 0
3𝐼𝐼 − 9𝐼 − 2 𝐼 = −15 … … … … … … . . . . (2)
(
Loop 3:
( + 𝐼 ) + 5 + 30 = 0
− 8𝐼 − 2(𝐼
− 8𝐼 − 22𝐼 − 2𝐼 + 35 = 0
2𝐼 + 10𝐼 = 35 … … … … … . … … … . (33)

Solving (1), (2) and (3),

𝐼 = 1.181 𝐴
𝐼 = 1.85 𝐴
𝐼 = 3.13 𝐴
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝐸 = 𝐼 = 1.181 𝐴
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝐸 = 𝐼 − 𝐼 = 1.181 − 1.85 = −0.669
669𝐴
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝐸 = 𝐼 = 1.85 𝐴
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝐸 =𝐼 + 𝐼 = 1.85 + 3.13 = 4.98𝐴
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝐸 = 𝐼 = 3.13 𝐴
Example 13:

Using mesh analysis, determine

termine the current through 11𝜴 resistor in the circuit
shown below.
 Solution:

Apply KVL to Loop 1,

50 − 10𝐼 − 5(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) − 3(𝐼 + 𝐼 ) = 0
50 − 10𝐼 − 5𝐼 + 5𝐼 − 3𝐼 − 3𝐼 = 0
50 − 18𝐼 + 5𝐼 − 3𝐼 = 0 … … … … … … … … … . (1)
Apply KVL too Loop2,
−2𝐼 − 10 − 1(𝐼 + 𝐼 ) − 5((𝐼 − 𝐼 ) = 0
−2𝐼 − 10 − 𝐼 − 𝐼 − 5𝐼 + 5𝐼 = 0
−5𝐼 − 2𝐼 − 𝐼 − 10 = 0 … … … … … … … … . . (2)
Apply KVL to Loop3,
−1(𝐼( + 𝐼 ) − 3(𝐼 + 𝐼 ) + 5 = 0
−𝐼 − 𝐼 − 3𝐼 − 𝐼 + 5 = 0
−3𝐼 − 𝐼 − 2𝐼 + 5 = 0 … … … … … … … … . . (3)
By Solving Equation (1), (2) & (3), we get
𝐼 = 0.406 𝐴
𝐼 = 7.38𝐴
𝐼 = −6.802𝐴
Thus the current flowing through 11Ω resistor is= I2+I3
𝐼 = 7.38 + (− 6.802))
= 0.578 𝐴

Example 14:
Find the current in 4 𝜴 resistor in th
thee circuit shown below, using mesh analysis.

Solution:

Apply KVL to Loop 1,

42 − 3I − 4(𝐼 ( − I ) + 25 = 0
−7𝐼 + 4𝐼𝐼 + 67 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
Apply KVL to Loop 2,
−25 − 4(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) − 5𝐼 − 57 − 6(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) − 70 = 0
−4𝐼 + 4 4𝐼 − 5𝐼 − 6𝐼 + 6𝐼 − 152 = 0
4𝐼 − 15𝐼 + 6𝐼 − 152 = 0 … … (2)
Apply KVL to Loop3,
70 − 6(𝐼 − 𝐼 ) − 7𝐼 + 4 = 0
6𝐼 − 13𝐼 + 74 = 0 … … (3)
By Solving Equation (1), (2) & (3), we get
𝐼 = −5 𝐴
𝐼 =8𝐴
𝐼 = −2 𝐴
Thus the current flowing through 44𝜴 is = (I1-I2)
𝐼 = −5 − 8
= −13 𝐴
Therefore I4𝜴 = -13A
13A (Here current flowing in opposite direction)

Example 15:

Determine the power dissipation in the 4Ω resistor of the given circuit.

Solution:

By Inspection Method:
8 −3 0 𝐼 50
−3 9 4   = 0
0 4 10 𝐼 10
8 −3 0
∆= −3 9 4 = 502
0 4 10
50 −3 0
∆ = 0 9 4 = 3580
10 4 10
8 50 0
∆ = −3 0 4 = 1180
0 10 10
8 −3 0
∆ = −3 9 4 = 30
0 4 10
∆ 3850
𝐼 = = = 7.13 𝐴
∆ 502
∆ 1180
𝐼 = = = 2.35 𝐴
∆ 502
∆ 30
𝐼 = = = 0.06 𝐴
∆ 502
The current flowing through the 4Ω resistor = I 2 +I3=2.35+0.06= 2.41A
The power dissipated in the 4Ω resistor = I2R = (2.41)2× 4 = 23.23 W

Example 16:
For the circuit shown in figure, find the current flowing through the 10Ω
10 resistor.

Solution:

By applying KVL for three loops, we get,

14𝐼 − 2𝐼 − 2𝐼 = 40 … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
−2𝐼 + 16𝐼 − 12𝐼 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
−2𝐼 − 12𝐼 + 16𝐼 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … . (3)
14 −2 −2
∆=
= −2 16 −12
−2 −12 16
∆= ( + 32)
= 14(256 − 144) + 2(−32 − 24) − 2(24

∆=
= 1344
40 −2 −2
∆ = 0 16 −12
0 −12 16
∆ = 40(256 − 144)

∆ = 4480
∆ 4480
𝐼 = = = 3.33 𝐴
∆ 1344
Current through 10
10𝜴 resistor is 3.33A

1.7 Resistors
1.7.1 Resistors in Series
When a number of resistors are connected in series as shown in fig. 1.23, the
equivalent resistance of the combination is given by

Fig. 1.23 Series combination of resistors

R = R1 + R2 + · · · + Rn

Thus the total resistance is the algebraic sum of individual resistances

1.7.2 Resistors in Parallel

When a number of resistors are connected in parallel as shown in 1.24, then the
equivalent resistance of the combination is computed as follows:

Fig. 1.24 Parallel combination of resistors

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯.+
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛

Example 1: Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in fig.

Solution:

Rs= 1.2+2 = 3.2Ω

( . ∗ )
Rp= = 1.23Ω
( . )

Rs1 = 1+1.23 =2.23 Ω

( ∗ . )
Rp2=Rt = = 1.05Ω
( . )

Example 3:
Determine
termine the equivalent resistance between terminals A and B of figure shown
below.

Solution:
50ΩΩ and 12.5 Ω are connected in parallel.

50 × 12.5
= 10Ω
50 + 12.5

10Ω
Ω and 20Ω are connected in series, 10+20=30
10+20=30Ω

10Ω
Ω and 10Ω are connected in series,
10 + 10 = 20Ω
30Ω
Ω and 20Ω are connected in parallel,
 30 × 20 600
= = 12Ω
30 + 20 50

8Ω
Ω and 12Ω are connected in series,
8 + 12 = 20Ω

60Ω
Ω and 20Ω are connected in parallel,
60 × 20 1200
= = 15Ω
60 + 20 80

35Ω
Ω and 15Ω are connected in series,
35 + 15 = 50Ω

Equivalent resistance
sistance between terminals A and B is,
𝑅 = 50Ω

Example 4:

Determine the total current taken from the source

Solution:

50Ω
Ω and 50Ω are connected in series,
50 + 50 = 100Ω

100Ω
Ω and 100Ω are connected in series,
100 + 100 = 200Ω

100Ω and 100Ω are connected

ected in parallel,
100 × 100 10000
= = 50Ω
100 + 100 200
200Ω
Ω and 50Ω are connected in parallel,

200 × 50 20000
= = 40Ω
200 + 50 270
40Ω
Ω and 50Ω are connected in series,
 = 40 + 50 = 90Ω
90Ω
Ω and 90Ω are connected in parallel,

90 × 90
= 45Ω
90 + 90

45Ω and 55Ω are connected

ected in series,

𝑅 = 45 + 55 = 100Ω
100Ω
Ω and 100Ω are connected in parallel,

100 × 100 10000

= = 50Ω
100 + 100 200
𝑉 100
𝐼= = = 2𝐴
𝑅 50
Total current taken from the source is𝐼 = 2𝐴

Example 5:
Determine the current I delivered by the source.
Since 3Ω
Ω and 3Ω are in series,
3 + 3 = 6Ω

6 Ω is in parallel with 6Ω,

1 1
+ = 0.333 333
6 6
1
= = 3Ω
0.333
333

3Ω and 7Ω are in series,

3 + 7 = 10Ω Ω

10 Ω is in parallel with 10Ω,

1 1
+ = 0.2
10 10
1
= = 5Ω
0.2

5Ω and 5Ω are in series,

 𝑅 = 5 + 5 = 10Ω

𝑉 10
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛  𝐼 = = =1𝐴
𝑅 10

Example 6:
If Req =50Ω
Ω in the circuit in figure, find value of R.

Solution:
Three 12 Ω resistors are connected in parallel,
1 1 1 1
= + + = 4Ω
𝑅 12 12 12

10Ω, 4 Ω and R are connected in series = 10 + 4 + 𝑅 = 14 + 𝑅 =  (𝑠𝑎𝑦)

60Ω
Ω and A are connected in parallel,
 60 × 𝐴 60𝐴
=
60 + 𝐴 60 + 𝐴
60𝐴
𝑅 = 30 +
60 + 𝐴
60𝐴
50 = 30 +
60 + 𝐴
60
60𝐴
= 20
60 + 𝐴
60𝐴 = 20(60 + 𝐴) = 1200 + 20𝐴
60𝐴 = 1200 + 20𝐴
40𝐴 = 1200
1200
𝐴= = 30
40
𝐴 = 30
𝐴 = 14 + 𝑅
14 + 𝑅 = 30
𝑅 = 30 − 14
𝑅 = 16Ω

1.7.33 Voltage Division Rule:

The series circuit acts as a Voltage divider. Since the same current flows through each
resistor, the voltage drops are proportional to the values of resistors. Using this
principle, different voltages can be obtained from a single source, called a voltage
divider.
 Fig: 1.25 Circuit to illustrate Voltage divider rule

Example: 1
What is the voltage across the 10 Ω resistor?

Vout = Vin R2/R1+R2

Voltage across 10Ω resistor = 50*10/5+10

= 500/15
=33.3V
Example: 2
Find the voltage between A and B in the given circuit?

Vout = Vin R2/R1+R2

Voltage across A and B i.e (5+4=9KΩ) = 90V

1.7.4 Current Division Rule:

Consider a two branch parallel circuit as shown in fig. 1.26. The branch currents I1
andI2 can be evaluated in terms of total current I as follows
 Fig: 1.26 Circuit to illustrate Current divider rule

IR2
I1 =
R1 + R2

IR1
I2 =
R1 + R2

That is, current in one branch equals the total current multiplied by the resistance of
the other branch and then divided by the sum of the resistances
Example 1:
The current in the 6Ω resistor of the network shown in Fig. 1.4 is 2A. Determine the
current in all branches and the applied voltage

Solution

Voltage across 6Ω = 6 × 2
= 12 volts

Since 6Ω and 8Ω are connected in parallel, voltage across 8Ω = 12 volts

Therefore, the current through 8Ω (between A and B) = = 1.5 A

Total current in the circuit = 2+1.5 = 3.5A

Current through 8Ω (between C and D) = 3.5 x = 2.5A

Therefore, current through 20Ω = 3.5 – 2.5 = 1A

Total resistance of the circuit = 4 + + = 13.143Ω

Therefore applied voltage, V = 3.5 x 13.143

(V=IR)
1.8 Star to delta – Delta to star Transformation
There are certain circuit configurations that cannot be simplified by series-parallel
combination alone.
A simple transformation based on mathematical technique is readily simplifies the
electrical circuit configuration. A circuit configuration shown below in fig. is a
general one-port circuit.

Fig. 1.27 One port network

When any voltage source is connected across the terminals, the current entering
through any one of the two terminals equals the current leaving the other terminal. For
example, resistance, inductance and capacitance act as a one-port.
On the other hand, a two-port is a circuit having two pairs of terminals. Each pair
behaves as a one-port; current entering in one terminal must be equal to the current
living the other terminal.

Fig. 1.28 Two port network

Fig. 1.28 can be described as a four terminal network, for convenience subscript 1 to
refer to the variables at the input port (at the left) and the subscript 2 to refer to the
variables at the output port (at the right).
The most important subclass of two-port networks is the one in which the minus
reference terminals of the input and output ports are at the same. This circuit
configuration is readily possible to consider the ‘π or Δ ’ – network also as a three-
terminal network in fig. 1.29(a). Another frequently encountered circuit configuration
that shown in fig.1.29 (b) is approximately referred to as a three terminal Y connected
circuit as well as two-port circuit.

Fig. 1.29 (a) Three terminal network Fig. 1.29(b)Three

terminal network

The name derives from the shape or configuration of the circuit diagrams, which look
respectively like the letter Y and the Greek capital letter Δ.

1.8.1 Delta (Δ) conversion to Star / Wye (Y)

Consider the networks shown in fig. 1.30 (a) and (b). The below equations are used to
calculate the unknown value of resistors in star network.

Fig. 1.30 (a) Delta network Fig. 1.30 (b) Star/Y

network

R ∗R
R =
R +R +R

R ∗R
R =
R +R +R

R ∗R
R =
R +R +R

1.8.2 Star / Wye (Y) to Delta (Δ) conversion

Consider the networks shown in fig. 1.31 (a) and (b). The below equations are used to
calculate the unknown value of resistors in delta network.

Fig. 1.31 (a) Delta network Fig. 1.31(b) Star/Y

network

R R
R =R +R +
R
 R R
R =R +R +
R

R R
R =R +R +
R

1.9 Network Theorems:

1.9.1 Superposition Theorem

The Superposition theorem states that the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit with multiple sources is the algebraic sum of the voltages
across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone
[i.e. with all other sources replaced by their internal impedance.
Example 1:
To find the current in each resistor using superposition principle of fig.1.32
shown

Fig. 1.32 The circuit for superposition theorem

Step 1: Consider 50V source alone
The circuit becomes,

Fig. 1.33 The circuit when 50V source is alone is considered

By ohms law and by current divider rule, the total current (I1) from the source and
Current through 3 ohms resistor I1’ is
50
I1 
10  3 P5
I1  4.2 A
5
I1'  I1 
53
5
I1'  4.2    2.6 A
8

Step 2: Consider 25V source alone

The circuit becomes,

Fig. 1.34 The circuit when 25V source is considered

By ohms law and by current divider rule, the total current (I2) from the source and
Current through 3 ohms resistor I2’ is

25
I2 
5  10 P3
I 2  3.4 A
10
I 2'  I 2 
10  3
 10 
I 2 '  3.4    2.6 A
 13 
Therefore the current through the resistors is given by
Current through 3 resis tan ce  I1'  I 2'  5.2 A
Current through 10 resis tan ce  I1  2.6 A
Current through 5 resis tan ce  I 2  2.6 A
Example 2:
Find the current through 5 Ω resistor using superposition theorem, in the circuit
shown in figure.

Solution:
Converting all the current source to voltage source

Step 1:
-4I1 – 2 (I1+I2) +32=0
6I1 + 2 I2=32 - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - (1)
-5I2 -10I2 – 2 (I2+I1) +32=0
2I1 + 17 I2=32- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - (2)

Therefore I2’= 1.306A

Step 2:

-1.33I2 -10I2 – 5I2+45=0

I2’’ = 2.755A

Step 3:
-1.33I2 -5I2 – 10I2+40=0
I2’’’ = 2.449A
Hence I2 = I’2 + I2’’ + I2’’’
= 1.306 + 2.755 + 2.449 = 6.51A
Example 3:

Solve for current in 5 Ω resistor by principle of superposition theorem.

Solution:
Step: 1

R = 10 + 5 parallel with 21
5 × 21
= 10 + = 14.04 Ω
5 + 21
R = 14.04 Ω
20
I = = 1.425
425 A
14.04
21
I = 1.425 × = 1.151 A
26
Step – 2: Allow 1A source to ac
act. 20 V is removed.
 10 × 5
= = 3.33 A
15

1×1
I = = 0.041
041A
1 + 20 + 3.3
10
I = 0.041 × = 0.027 A
15
Step – 3: I = I + I = 1.151
151 + 0.027 = 1.178 A
I = 1.178 A
Example 4:

Calculate the current in the 4Ω resistor of figure using superposition.

Solution:: Converting all the current source to voltage source

Step 1: I4Ω due to 10Vsource

4 ×4
𝑅 = 3+ =5Ω
4+4
𝑉 10
𝐼 = = = 2𝐴
𝑅 5
𝐼 ×4 2×4
𝐼 ( )= = = 1A
4+4 4+4

Step 2: I4Ω due to 2V source

3 ×4
𝑅 = 4+ = 5.714Ω
3+4
𝑉 2
𝐼 = = = 0.35𝐴
𝑅 5.714
𝐼 × 3 0.35 × 3
𝐼 ( )= = = 0.15A
4+3 7

Therefore I4Ω = 1+ 0.15 = 1.15A

Example 5:
Compute the current in the 23 Ω resistor of the following figure shown below by
applying the super position principle.

Solution:
Step 1: Considering 200V voltage source alone,
 Now, 4 Ω is in series with 23 Ω
∴ 𝑎𝑡𝐵, 4 + 23 = 27Ω

Now 27 Ω is in parallel with 27 Ω

1 1
∴ 𝑎𝑡𝐵, + = 13.5Ω
27 27

∴𝑅 = 47 + 13.5 = 60.5 Ω
𝑉 200
𝐼= = = 3.31 𝐴
𝑅 60.5
Applying current division technique at node A
27
𝐼 = 3.31 × = 1.66 𝐴
27 + 4 + 23

Considering 20A source alone,

Now 27 Ω is in parallel with 47 Ω

 1 1
+ = 17.15Ω
27 47
Applying current division technique at node B
4 + 17.15
𝐼 = 20 = 9.58 𝐴
4 + 17.15 + 23
Current through 23 Ω resistor due to both sources
𝐼 = 1.66 + 9.58 = 11.24 𝐴
Example 6
Find the current through various branches of the circuit shown in figure by
employing superposition theorem.

Solution:
Case (i): Considering 100V source only,

1
𝑅 = 50 +
+
𝑅 = 54.54 Ω
𝑉 100
𝐼= =
𝑅 54.54
𝐼 = 1.833 𝐴
5
𝐼 = 1.833
50 + 5
𝑰′𝟓𝟎 Ω = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝑨

Case (ii): Considering 10A source only,

50
𝐼 = 10
50 + 50
 𝑰”𝟓𝟎 Ω = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟓 𝑨
∴ 𝐼 Ω = 𝐼′ Ω + 𝐼” Ω
= 0.166 + 5
𝑰𝟓𝟎 Ω = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝑨

1.9.2 Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem states that ""Any Any linear circuit containing several voltages and
resistances
ances can be replaced by just a Single Voltage in series with a Single Resistor".
Resistor
In other words, it is possible to simplify any "Linear" circuit, no matter how complex,
to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source in series with a resistance
connected to a load as shown below. Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in
analyzing power or battery systems and other interconnected circuits where it will
have an effect on the adjoining part of the circuit.

Fig. 1.35 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any "one-port"

port" network consisting
of resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by one single
equivalent resistance Rs and equivalent voltage Vth / Vs, where Rth / Rsis the source
resistance value looking back into the circuit and Voc is the open circuit voltage at the
terminals as shown in the fig. 1.4.

Example 1:
For example, consider the circu
circuit shown in fig. 1.36.. Find current in the circuit by
finding the thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
 Fig. 1.36 Circuit for Thevenin’s theorem

First, we have to remove the centre 40Ω resistor and short out (not physically as this
would be dangerous) all the emf´s connected to the circuit, or open circuit any current
sources.

To find the Equivalent Resis

Resistance (Rs / Rth)

The value of resistor Rs is found by calculating the total resistance at the terminals A
and B with all the emf´s removed, and the value of the voltage required Vs is the total
voltage across terminals A and B with an open circuit and no lload oad resistor Rs
connected. Then, we get the following circuit.

Fig. 1.37 Circuit to find equivalent resistance

10Ω
Ω resistor is in parallel with 20Ω resistor
R R 20 ∗ 10
R = =
R R 20 + 10

=6.67Ω

To find the Equivalent

lent Voltage (Vth / Vs)
 Fig. 1.38 Circuit to find Thevenin’s voltage

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit and as VS = VAB the
current flowing around the loop is calculated as:

20𝑉 − 10𝑉
𝐼=
20 + 10

= 0.33amps

So the voltage
oltage drop across the 20Ω resistor can be calculated as:

VAB = 20 - (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.

Then the Thevenins Equivalent circuit is shown below with the 40Ω resistor
connected.

Fig. 1.39 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

and from this the current flowing

lowing in the circuit is given as:
 13.33𝑉
I=
6.67 + 40

= 0.286amps

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps,

Thevenin’s theorem can be used as a circuit analysis method and is particularly

useful if the load is to take a series of different values. However, Thevenin’s
equivalent circuits of Transistors, Voltage Sources such as batteries etc, are very
useful in circuit design.

Thevenin’s Theorem Summary

The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem is as follows:
1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current
sources.
3. Find VS by the usual circuit analysis methods.
4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.
Example 2:
Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across terminal AB shown in the
figure.

Solution:
Redrawing the circuit,

To find the Vth – voltage across VAB:

Applying KVL to Loop 1
 −5𝐼 − 2𝐼 + 10 = 0
−7𝐼 = −10
𝐼 = 1.429 𝐴

Applying KVL to Loop 2

−5𝐼 − 1𝐼 + 5 = 0
−6𝐼 = −10
𝐼 = 0.833 𝐴
Voltage drop across 2 Ω resistor V = 2 × 1.429
V = 2.858 V
Voltage drop across 1 Ω resistor V = 1 × 0.833
V = 0.833 V
∴ 𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 = 2.858 − 0.833
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝑽
To find the Rth:

5Ω is in parallel with 2 Ω
1
𝑅 = = 1.426Ω
+
5Ω is in parallel with 1 Ω
1
𝑅 = = 0.833Ω
+
𝑅 = 1.426 + 0.833
𝑹𝑻𝑯 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟔𝛀
Equivalent Circuit:

Example 3:
For the circuit shown in figure, using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current in the
10Ω resistor.
Solution:
Step 1: To calculate Vth – let us disconnecting RL

10
𝐼 = = 2𝐴
2+3
Voltage drop across 12 Ω resistor 𝑉 = 3 × 2 = 6𝑉
4
𝐼 = = 1𝐴
3+1
Voltage drop across 3 Ω resistor𝑉 = 1 × 3 = 3𝑉
∴ 𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 = 6 − 3 = 3𝑉
Step 2: To find Rth

2×3
= 1.2𝐴
2+3
3×1
= 0.75𝐴
3+1
Therefore Rth = 1.2+0.75 = 1.95Ω
Step 3:The equivalent circuit will be
Example 4:
Calculate I in 2 Ω resistor using Thevenin’s theorem.

Solution: To find R

1×1 1
R = = = 0.5 Ω
1+1 2
To find V :

2−I−I= 0
−2I = −2
I=1A
V = V =1×2
= 2 Volts

V
∴I =
R +R
 2 2
= = = 0.8 A
0.5 + 2 2.5
Example 5:
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the network faced by the 1 kΩ resistor.

Converting the 4 V source to current sources,

V
I=
R
4
=
2 × 10
= 2 × 10
I = 2mA

Since 2 mA and 2 mA are in same direction,

2 + 2 = 4 𝑚𝐴

By converting, 4 mA current source to voltage source,

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
= [4 × 10 ][2 × 10 ]
𝑉 = 8𝑉

2 kΩ and 3kΩ are in series,

2 + 3 = 5 kΩ
Equivalent Circuit:
 Current across 1kΩ
V
∴I Ω =
R +R
8
=
[5 × 10 ] + [1 × 10 ]
𝐈𝟏𝐤Ω = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑 𝐦𝐀

Example 6:

Find the current through the 5 Ω resistor by Thevenin’s theorem.

Solution: To find R

R = (2 parallel with 3) + 1
2×3
= +1
2+3
6
= + 1 = 2.2 Ω
5

To find V :

10 − 2I − 3I = 0
−5I = −10
 I = 2A
V =I×R=2×3= 6
V = 6 Volts
To findI :
V 6
I = =
R +R 5 + 2.2
6
= = 0.83 A
7.2
2

1.9.3 Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s Theorem states that ""Any Any linear circuit containing several energy sources
and resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with
a Single Resistor". As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance,
RS/ RN is the value of the resistance looking back into the network with all the current
sources open circuited and voltage sources short circuited and I S/ IN is the short circuit
current
ent at the output terminals as shown below in the circuit fig.1.40.

Norton’s equivalent circuit

Fig. 1.40 Norton’s equivalent circuit

The value of this "constant current" is one which would flow if the two output
terminals where shorted together while th
thee source resistance would be measured
looking back into the terminals, (the same as Thevenin
Thevenin’s).

Example 1:

Consider the circuit shown below in fig.1.

fig.1.41 and find the Norton’s equivalent
circuit.
 Fig. 1.41 Example circuit for Norton’s theorem

To find Norton’s Current IN/ Isc:

To find the Norton’s equivalent of the above circuit, firstly remove the centre 40Ω
load resistor and short out the terminals A and B to give us the foll
following
owing circuit
shown in fig. 1.42

Fig. 1.42 Circuit to find Norton’s Current

When
en the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are connected in
parallel across their two respective voltage sources and the currents flowing through
each resistor as well as the total short circuit current can now be calculated as:

10V
I = = 1𝑎𝑚𝑝
10

20V
I = = 1𝑎𝑚𝑝
20

Total current I = I + I = 2amps

To find Norton’s equivalent resistance R N/ RS:

By shorting the two voltage sources and open circuiting the terminals A and B, the
two resistors are now effectively connected together in parallel. The value of the
internal resistor Rs is found by calculating the total resistance at the terminals A and B
giving us the following
ing circuit as shown in fig.1.43

Fig. 1.43 Circuit to find Norton’s Equivalent Resistance

The Equivalent Resistance

nce (Rs) is given by,

10Ω
Ω Resistor in parallel with 20Ω Resistor so,

R R 20 ∗ 10
R = =
R R 20 + 10

= 6.67Ω

Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal resistance, Rs
this then gives us the following Norton’s equivalent circuit shown in fig. 1.44

Norton’s equivalent circuit.

Fig. 1.44 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

To find the total current in the circuit

Solve with the original 40Ω load resistor connected across terminals A and B as
shown below.

Fig. 1.45 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit with Load Resistor

Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the terminals A and B which
gives us a total resistance of:

R R 6.67 ∗ 40
R = =
R R 6.67 + 40

= 5.72Ω

The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is given as:

V = I ∗ R = 2 ∗ 5.72 = 11.44V
Then the current flowing in the 40Ω load resistor can be found as:

V 11.44
I= = = 0.286 amps
R 40

Norton’s Theorem Summary

The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Norton’s Theorem is as follows:

1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned

 2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current
sources
3. Find IS by placing a shorting link on the output terminals A and B
4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL
Example 3:
Determine the Norton’s equivalent circuit across terminals A and B as shown in
figure.

Solution:
To find IN:

2
I =I Ω = 25 = 5.55 A
2+3+4
To find RTH:

Since 25 A current is open circuited, 5Ω resistor has no value.

2Ω, 3Ω and 4Ω are in series,
2 + 3 + 4 = 9Ω
9Ω is in parallel with 5Ω,
1
R = = 3.214Ω
+
 Equivalent Circuit:

Example 4:
Using Norton’s theorem find current through 6Ω resistance shown in figure.

Solution:
To find R .
5 × 10
5Ω and 10Ω are in parallel R = = 3.33 Ω
5 + 10
To find I :

No current in 10Ω resistance because, it is short circuit.

20
∴I = = 4A
5
Norton’s Equivalent Circuit:

4 × 3.33
I = = 1.427 A
3.33 + 6
Current through 6 Ω = 1.427 A
Example 5:
Evaluate the current I. flowing through the 1 ohm resistance by applying
Norton’s theorem.
Solution:
Let remove the load resistor 1Ω and short circuit it.

Convert the voltage sources into equivalent current sources.

I = 1 + 1.5 + 1 = 3.5 A
To calculateRth:

2×2
R = =1Ω
2+2
Norton’s Equivalent Circuit:

I R 3.5 × 1
I = = = 1.75 A
R +R 1+1

Example 6:
Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit for the network faced by the 1 kΩ resistor.

Converting the 4 V source to current sources,

V
I=
R
4
=
2 × 10
= 2 × 10
I = 2mA

Since 2 mA and 2 mA are in same direction,

2 + 2 = 4 𝑚𝐴

By converting, 4 mA current source to voltage source,

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
= [4 × 10 ][2 × 10 ]
𝑉 = 8𝑉

2 kΩ and 3kΩ are in series,

2 + 3 = 5 kΩ
 By converting,
rting, 8 V voltage source to current source,

V
I=
R
8
=
5 × 10
= 1.6 × 10
I = 1.6 mA
Equivalent Circuit:

Current across 1kΩ

∴I =I Ω
5000
= [1.6 × 10 ]
1000 + 5000
𝐈𝟏𝐤Ω = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝐦𝐀

1.9.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The maximum powerr transfer theorem states that, to obtain maximum external
power from a source with a finite internal resistance,, the resistance of the load must
equal the resistance of the source as viewed from its output terminals and the
equivalent
lent circuit is shown in fig.1.46.

Fig. 1.46 Maximum power transfer theorem Equivalent Circuit with Load Resistor
In the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit above, the maximum power transfer theorem
states that "the
the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance if
it is equal in value to the Thevenin or Norton source resistance of the network
supplying the power".

In other words, the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation must be
equal in value to the equivalent Thevenin
Thevenin’s source resistance, then RL = RS but if the
load resistance is lower or higher in value than the Thevenin
Thevenin’s source resistance of the
network, its dissipated power will be less than maximum.

Example 1:

Find the value of the load resistance, RL that will give the maximum power transfer
trans in
the following
lowing circuit shown in fig. 1.47

Where:
RS = 25Ω
RL is variable between 0 -
100Ω
VS = 100v

Fig. 1.47 Example circuit to find the Maximum power transfer to Load Resistor

Solution
By The theorem, RL =RS and since RS = 25Ω, RL = 25 Ω

By using the following Ohm's Law equations:

V
I= and P = I R
R +R

The maximum power transfer theorem states that “maximum power is transferred
from source to load, when the load resistance is equal to source resistance”.
Proof
Consider a DC source of voltage, E with internal resistance RS. Let us connect a
load resistance R to the dc source as shown in 1.21.
Let I be the current through the circuit. By ohm’s law we can write

E
I
RS  R
P  Power delivered to Load
P  I 2R
2
 E  ER
P   R  ( R  R) 2
R
 S  R  S

The condition for maximum power can be obtained by differentiating P with

respect to R and equating (dP/dR) = 0

2
dP  E   RS  R  E2 R  2 RS  R 
2
u du  v  u  dv
  d 
dR  (RS  R)4 
 v v2
for (dP / dR)  0, the numerator should be zero
E2  RS  R  2E2 R  RS  R  0
2 2

2E2 R  RS  R  E2  RS  R
2

on dividing throughout by E 2  RS  R  we get

2 R  RS  R
2 R  R  RS
 R  RS

The condition R=Rs is the condition for maximum power transfer to load, which
states that the maximum power is transferred from source to load when resistance
is equal to source resistance.
On substituting R for Rs, we get expression for maximum power
on dividing throughout by E 2  RS  R  we get
 Maximum Power PMax  P at RS  R
E2R E2R E2
  
( R  R ) 2 (2 R ) 2 4 R
Example 2:
What value of RL for the circuit of fig.1.52 will receive the maximum power?
Determine the maximum power delivered to the load R L?

Fig. 1.48 Example circuit to find the Maximum power transfer to Load Resistor

Solution

First obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the fig. 1.49.

Step 1: To find Thevenin’s Voltage (Vth) across RL. Open circuiting the load resistor
and redrawing the circuit, we have

Fig. 1.49 Circuit to find Thevenin’s Voltage across Load Resistor

By mesh analysis we try to solve for the two loop currents I and I2 and thereby we find
voltage across 3Ω resistance (by Ohm’s Law) as shown below.

By Ohm’s Law,
 1 5  5   I1   5 
  5 1 0   I    0 
   2   
  1 5 0  2 5 
  1 2 5
5 0  5 
   0 1 0 
1

 5 0 0

15 50 
  
0 
2
5
 2  250
250
I 2 
125
 2 A

1 500
I1    4A
 125

Vthis the voltage across 3 ohms resistor

Vth  I 2  3
 23  6
Vth  6V

Step 2: To find Thevenin’s equivalent resistance (Rth) across RL. Deactivating the
sources and opening the the load resistor and redrawing the circuit, we have

Fig. 1.50 Circuit to find Thevenin’s equivalent resistance

 10  5
Rth   2 P3  1.91
15
Rth  1.91
Vth 2
Pmax 
4  RL
 4.5 watts

RL=Rth=1.9Ω

Example 3:

Find the value of RL for maximum power delivered to it:

Solution:
According to maximum power transfer theorem R must be equal to the
resistance between A and B with R disconnected and all the sources killed (=R ).
The corresponding circuit is as follow.

5 × 5 25
5∥ 5= = = 2.5 Ω
5 + 5 10
R = R = (10 + 2.5) ∥ 20
12.5 × 20
=
12.5 + 20
R = R = 7.7 Ω
Example 4:
Determine the value of resistance that may be connected across A and B so that
maximum power is transferred from the circuit to the resistance. Also, estimate
the
he maximum power transferred to the resistance shown in fig.

To find Vth:
10Ω is in series with 4 Ω,
= 10 + 4 = 14Ω
14 Ω is parallel to 8 Ω,
14 × 8
= = 5.09 Ω
14 + 8
5.09Ω is in series with 2Ω,
=55.09 + 2 = 7.09Ω
20
𝐼 = = 2.82 𝐴
7.09
8
𝐼 =𝐼 ×
8 + 4 + 10
8
= 2.82 × = 1.025 𝐴
8 + 4 + 10
∴𝑉 = 𝑉 = 5+ 𝑉
= 5 + (𝐼 × 10)
=5+ (1.025 × 10) = 15.25 𝑉
To find Rth:

2 Ω is parallel to 8 Ω,
2×8
= = 1.6 Ω
2+8
1.6Ω is in series with 4Ω,
=1 1.6 + 4 = 5.6Ω
5.6Ω is parallel to 10 Ω,
5.6 × 10
= = 3.59 Ω
5.6 + 10
 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit,

Example 5:
In the given circuit of the figure, 𝐑 𝐠 varies between 2 and 55 ohms. What value
of𝐑 𝐠 results in maximum power transfer across terminals AB?

Solution: Let the source voltage byE .

E
|I | =
R + R + j5
E
=
R + 10 +5
100
=
R + 10 + 25
PowerdeliveredtoR = P

100
P = |I | R = ⎛ ⎞ × 10

⎝ R + 10 + 25⎠
100000
P =
R + 10 + 25
From the above expression forP , it is seen thatR must be minimum for
maximum P , as R varies between 2 and 55 Ω.
P ismaximumwhenR = 2Ω
100000
maximumP =
(2 + 10) + 25
P = 592 Watts
Example 6:
Find the value of 𝐑 𝐋 which maximum power transferred to𝐑 𝐋 and hence the
maximum power transferred to 𝐑 𝐋 figure.

Solution:
To findR :
1×3 3
= = 0.75 Ω
3+1 4
0.75 + 2 + 0.5 = 3.25 Ω
R = 3.25 Ω
To find V : − 0.5I + 12 − 2I − 1I = 0
−0.5I − 2I − 1I = −12
−3.5I = −12
12
I = = 3.42 A
3.5
V = 3.42 × 1 = 3.42 Volts

V (3.42) 11.696
P = = = = 0.899 Watts
4R 4 × 3.25 13
Example 7:
Calculate the value of 𝐑 𝐋 so that maximum power is transferred from battery.

Solution:
Thevenin’s resistance (Rth): Remove the load resistor and Short circuit the voltage
source.
 10 × 10
R = = 5Ω
10 + 10

Open circuit voltage Voc : Remove the load resistor.

50 × 10
V =V = = 25V
50 + 10
The maximum power is transferred to the load resistor only when the load
l
resistance equals the thevenin’s resistance.

V 25
Maximum power P = = = 31.25
4R 4×5
P = 31.25 W

.
15 × 30
= 10Ω
15 + 30
R = 10 + 5 = 15Ω
To find V :By
By inspection method,

16 −12 I 120
=
−12 54 I 0
 16 −12
∆
∆= = 864 − 144 = 720
−12 54
16 120
∆II = = 0 + 1440 = 1440
−12 0
∆I 1440
I = = = 2A
∆ 720

Voltage across AB,V = 30 × 2 = 60V.

For maximum power transfer,
R = R = 15Ω
V (60)
MaximumpowerP = = = 60 W
4R 4 × 15

1. Determine the load resistance to receive maximum power from the source and
also find the power. Deliver to the load on the circuit shown in figure.
(Aug’10)

Solution:
To indR :

5 × 15 10 × 20
R = + = 3.75 + 6.66 = 10.41 Ω
5 + 15 10 + 20

To find V :

Voltage at point A is
 50 × 15
V = = 37.5 V
15 + 5
Voltage at point B is
50 × 20
V = = 33.33 V
20 + 10
V =V = V − V = 37.5 − 33.33 = 4.17 V
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:

According to maximum power transfer.

transfer.R = R = 10.41 Ω

V (4.17)
MaximumpowerP = = = 0.4176 W
4R 4 × 10.41
P = 0.4176 W
PART – A
1. Define Electric Current.
 Electric current is defined as rate of flow of electric charge.
𝑑𝑞
𝑖= 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Where q - charge in coulombs.
 The unit of current is the ampere which is th thee current that flows when 1
coulomb of charge is transferred in one second.

2. Define Electrical Potential or Voltage

 This is generally measured between two points of its unit is volt.
 If the work done in moving a charge of one coulomb between any two
points
ts is 1 joule, then the potential of one point with reference to the second
point is 1 volt.
𝑑𝑤
𝐸=
𝑑𝑄
3. What is meant by resistance?
 The resistance of a circuit is the property by which it opposes the flow of
current. This parameter means used in ohms is responsible for energy
dissipation.

4. Define conductance.
  The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance: its unit is the Siemen
and its symbol is G.
1
𝐺=
𝑅
5. Find the equivalent conductance G eq of the circuit shown below.

Solution:

5 × 20
𝐺 = +6
5 + 20
𝑮𝒆𝒒 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑺

6. Define Electrical Power.

 The rate at which work is done in an electrical circuit is called electrical
power of its unit is joule per second or watt.
𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃=𝐼 𝑅
𝑉
𝑃=
𝑅
7. What is meant by electr
electrical energy?
 Electrical Energy is the total amount of work done and hence is the product
of power and time.
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡
=𝑉×𝐼𝑡
= 𝐼 𝑅𝑡
𝑉
𝑊= 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 − sec)
𝑅𝑡
8. An electrical appliance consumes 1.2 kWh in 30 mins at 120V. What is the
current drawn bt the appliance? Given:
E = 1.2 KWh
t = 30 mins = 0.5 hrs
V = 120 V
Solution:
 𝑃
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 =
𝑉
𝐸
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 =
𝑡
[1.2 × 1000]
𝑃=
0.5
𝑃 = 2400 𝑊
𝑃
𝐼=
𝑉
2400
=
120
𝑰 = 𝟐𝟎 𝐀

9. What is meant by Unilateral and Bilateral elements?

Unilateral element:
 Voltage current relation is not same for both the direct.
Example: Diode, Transistors.
Bilateral element:
 Voltage – current relation is same for both the direction in this type of
elements.
Example: Resistor

10. What is meant by lumped and distributed elements?

Lumped element:
 Physically separable elements are called Lumped element.
Example: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage source, etc.,
Distributed element:
 A distributed element is one which is not separable for electrical purpose.
Example: Transmission line has distributor resistance, capacitance and
inductance.

11. Define Lumped Circuits.

 It is a circuit in which all the elements are physically separated.
Example: Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor.
12. What are the ideal sources?
 Independent sources are called ideal sources.
 Their voltages and currents are not affected by other points the circuit.
 Their voltages and currents are fixed.

13. Draw the V-I characteristics of ideal voltage source.

  In ideal conditions the voltage across a voltage source should be constant
for whatever current delivered by the source.

14. Define active and passive networks.

Active Networks:
 A circuit which contains a source of energy is called active network.
 Voltage and current sources are energy sources.
Passive Network:
 A circuit which contains no-energy source is called passive circuit.
 The passive network contains resistor, capacitor and inductor.

15. State ohms law.

 At constant temperature, the steady current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the
conductor.
𝑣𝛼𝐼
𝑣= 𝐼𝑅

16. State limitations of Ohm’s law.

 It is applicable only when the temperature is constant.
 It is preferable only for linear networks and not for nonlinear networks
[Zener diode, Vacuum tubes].
 It is applicable for metallic conductors.

17. State Kirchhoff’s laws.

Kirchhoff’s current law
 The sum of the current flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of the
current flowing away from it.
 𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 + [−𝐼 ] + [−𝐼 ] = 0
𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 =𝐼 + 𝐼
Kirchhoff’s voltage law
 In a closed circuit, the sum of the potential drops is equal to the sum of the
potential rises,

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅

𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅
18. In the figure shown, find the value of I.

Sum of current entering the node = sum of current leaving the node.
2−3+5=𝐼−2
4=𝐼−2
𝐼 = 4+2
𝑰=𝟔𝑨

19. Find the equivalent resistance of circui

circuitt with three resistors connected in
series each having a resistance value of 3 ohms.

𝑅 =𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅
=3+3+ 3
 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟗 𝛀
20. Find the equivalent resistance between A and B in figure.

Since 1 Ω is in parallel with 1 Ω,

(0.1
( 1 𝑋 0.1)
𝑅 =
(0.1
( + 0.1)
𝑅 = 0.5 Ώ

Now 0.5 Ω is in series with 0.5 Ω,

𝑅 = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1 Ώ

Since 1 Ω is in parallel with 1 Ω,

(0.1
( 1 𝑋 0.1)
𝑅 =
(0.1
( + 0.1)
𝑅 = 0.5 Ώ

𝑹𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓 Ω
21. Estimate the resultant resistance produced by the parallel connection
conn of two
resistors of 10Ω and 30Ω.

1 1 1
= + = 0.133
𝑅 10 30
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝛀

22. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in the Fig.
 The resistors 3.2Ω and 4.27Ω are in parallel
3..2 × 4.27
𝑅 =
4..27 + 3.2
= 1.829
829 Ω

Now 1.829 Ω and 1 Ω are in series,

  = 1 + 1.829
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐.. 𝟖𝟐𝟗𝛀

23. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in fig.

Solution:

The resistors 2Ω and 1.2Ω are in series,

𝑅 = 2 + 1.2 = 3.2 Ω

The resistors 3.2Ω and 2 Ω are in parallel

3
3.2 × 2
𝑅 =
2 + 3.2
=1 1.23 Ω
 The resistors 2Ω and 1.23 Ω are in series,
𝑅 = 2 + 1.23 = 2.23 Ω

The resistors 2.23 Ω and 2 Ω are in parallel

2.23 × 2
𝑅 = 𝑅 =
2 + 2.23
𝑹𝑻 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓 𝛀

24. The resistance of 1.5 Ω and 3.5 Ω are connected in parallel and this parallel
combination is connected in series with a resistance of 1.95 Ω. Calculate the
equivalent resistance value.

The resistors 1.5 Ω and 3.5 Ω are in parallel,

1.5 × 3.5
𝑅 =
1.5 + 3.5
𝑅 = 1.05 Ω

The resistors 1.05 Ω and 1.95 Ω are iin series,

𝑅 = 1.05 + 1.95
 𝒆𝒒 = 𝟑𝛀

25. Determine voltage across 20

20Ω resistor.
Solution:
Since 8 Ω is in series with 12 Ω,
8 + 12 = 20 Ω
Now 10 Ω, 20 Ω and 20 Ω are in parallel,
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 10 20 20
1
= 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.05
𝑅
1
= 0.2
𝑅
𝑅 = 5Ώ
Let,
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑅
5
=
5
𝐼 =1𝐴

(10𝑋20)
𝑅 =
(20 + 10)
𝑅 = 6.66Ώ
𝑅
𝐼 =𝐼 x
𝑅 +𝑅
6.66
= 1 ×
(6.66 + 20)
𝐼 = 0.25 𝐴
𝑉 =𝐼 × 𝑅
𝑉 = 0.25 × 20
 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟓 𝐕
26. Find ‘R’ in the circuit shown below.

Let the current through 44Ω,

4
𝐼 =
4
𝐼 = 1𝐴
The two branches 8ΩΩ and (R+4) Ω are in parallel.
Voltage across them is same as 16 V
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
16 = 𝐼 × [𝑅 + 4]
16 = 1 × [𝑅 + 4]
16 = 𝑅 + 4
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟐 𝛀

27. Define ‘Mesh Analysis’ of a circuit.

 Mesh analysis is one of the basic techniques used for finding current flowing
through the loop in a network.
 Mesh analysis is applicable if the given network contains voltage sources. If
there exist current sources in a circuit, then it should be converted into
equivalent voltage sources.

28. Write the general form of mesh analysis.

[𝑅][𝐼] = [𝑉]

29. Distinguish between mesh and loop of an electric circuit.

 A mesh is a loop that does not contain othe
other loops.
 All meshes are loops.
 But all loops are not meshes.
 A loop is any closed path of branches.

30. Distinguish between a branch and a node of a circuit.

 A part of the network which connects the various points of the network
with one another is called a branch.
 A point at which two or more elements are joined together is called node.

31. Define ‘Nodal Analysis’ of a circuit .

  In node voltage method, one of the principal nodes is selected as reference
node.
 At each of the other principal nodes, a voltage is assigned.
 This voltage is with reference to the reference node.
 At each principal node KCL is applied and the equations are obtained.
 In this method, the node voltages are independent variables.
 By finding the values of these node voltages, we cacan
n calculate the various
branch currents.

32. Determine current in the circuit shown in fig .

Solution:
From the given circuit the KVL can be given as,
−5𝐼 + 10 − 10𝐼 + 5 = 0
−5𝐼 − 10
10𝐼 = −5 − 10
−15
15𝐼 = −15
𝑰 = 𝟏𝑨

33. Obtain the current in each branch of the network shown in figure using
kirchoffs current law?

Solution:
Loop 1:
−20 + 5 I + 10[[I − I ] = 0
15 I − 10I = 20 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
Loop 2:
10[I − I ] + 2 I + 8 = 0
−10I + 12 I = −8 … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2)
Solving (1) and (2),
I =2A
I =1A
I =I −I =𝟏𝐀