Tutorial class for Network Analysis and

Synthesis

By
Belaynesh Belachew (capt.)
Ethiopian Defence University College of Engineering
(EDUCoE)
Department of Electrical Engineering
May , 2024
 General Objectives and Learning Outcomes
 General Objectives

 Understand and apply the techniques of modeling, analysis, design and

synthesis of 1-and 2-port passive and active electric networks and filters in a
classical and a modern approach.
 Learning Outcomes

 Understand the basic concepts and principles of network analysis.

 Analyze the behavior of passive electrical networks, using analysis

techniques.
 Synthesize electrical network to meet specific design requirements, such
as impedance matching, frequency response shaping, and filter design.
 Understand and synthesis different types of element of network synthesis.

2
SOME BASIC TERMINOLOGIES OF
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
 Concept of Electric Charge
• The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is
the electric charge q.
• Charge is an electrical property of the atomic
particles of which matter consists.
 Concept of Electric Current
• If Q amount of charges flow through an area
in time t, then the current is given as,
 Concept of Electric Potential and
Potential Difference
• To move an electron in a conductor in a particular
direction, or to create a current, requires some work
or energy.
• This work is done by the potential or the potential
difference.
• This is also known as voltage difference or voltage
(with reference to a selected point such as earth.
• The voltage Vab between two points a and b is the
energy (or work) w required to move a unit positive
charge from a to b.
 Electric Circuits and Networks
• Any combination and interconnection of
network elements like resistors or inductors or
capacitors or electrical energy sources are
known as a ‘networks’.
• However, a closed energized network is known
as a ‘circuit’.
• A network need not contain an energy source;
but a circuit must contain an energy source.
Therefore, it can be stated that all circuits are
networks, but all networks are not circuits.
 Loop and Mesh
• A loop or mesh denotes a closed path obtained by starting at a node and
returning back to the same node through a set of connected circuit elements
without passing through any intermediate node more than once. However, the
difference between mesh and loop is that a mesh does not contain any other
loop within it, i.e. a mesh is the smallest loop. In Fig. 2.2,
• some loops are: a-b-e-d-c-a, a-b-e-g-f-c-a, c-d-e-b-g-f-c, etc; and
• some meshes are: a-b-e-d-c-a, c-d-e-g-f-c, g-e-b-g (through R7) and g-e-b-g
(through I ).
 Node and Branch
• A node is a point in a circuit where two or more circuit elements join. A node
is said to be an essential node if it joins three or more elements. Examples of
nodes for Fig. 2.2 are a, b, c, d, e, f and g and examples of some essential
node of Fig. 2.2 are b, c, e and g.
• A branch is a path that connects two nodes. Those paths that connect
essential nodes without passing through an essential node are known as
essential branches. Examples of branches of Fig. 2.2 are V1, R1, R2, R3, V2,
R4, R5, R6, R7 and I and some essential branches of Fig. 2.2 are c-a-b, c-d-e,
c-f-g, b-e, e-g, b-g (through R7 ), and b-g (through I ).
 BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• Active and Passive Elements
• Electric circuits consist of two basic types of elements. These are the
active elements and the passive elements. An active element is
capable of generating electrical energy. In electrical engineering,
generating or producing electrical energy actually refers to conversion
of electrical energy from a non-electrical form to an electrical form.
Similarly, energy loss would mean that electrical energy is converted to
a non-useful form of energy and not actually lost.
• Examples of active elements are voltage source (such as a battery or
generator) and current source. Most sources are independent of other
circuit variables, but some elements are dependent (modeling
elements such as transistors and operational amplifiers would require
dependent sources)
• Active elements may be ideal voltage sources or current sources. In
such cases, the particular generated voltage (or current) would be
independent of the connected circuit.
 A passive element
• is one which does not generate electricity but either consumes it
or stores it.
• Resistors, inductors and capacitors are simple passive elements.
• Diodes and transistors are also passive elements.
• Passive elements may either be linear or non-linear. Linear
elements obey a straight-line law.
• For example, a linear resistor has a linear voltage vs. current
relationship which passes through the origin (V=RI ).
• A linear inductor has a linear flux vs. current relationship which
passes through the origin (flux=kI ) and a linear capacitor has a
linear charge vs. voltage relationship which passes through the
origin (q= CV ). [R, k and C are constants.] Resistors, inductors
and capacitors may be linear or non-linear, while diodes and
transistors are always non-linear.
• Linear Element A circuit/network element is
linear if the relation between the current and
voltage involves a constant coefficient
• Bilateral System In a bilateral system, the same
relationship between current and voltage exists
for current flowing in either direction. On the
other hand, a unilateral system has different
current–voltage relationships for the two possible
directions of current, as in diodes and transistors.
 PASSIVE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• We will consider three basic passive elements, namely,
1. Resistor, 2. Inductor, and 3. Capacitor.
• Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an
object opposes an electric current through it.
• The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm. Its reciprocal
quantity is electrical conductance measured in siemen.
• Capacitance is a measure of the amount of electric charge
stored for a given electric potential. The most common form
of charge storage device is a two-plate capacitor. If the
charges on the plates are Q and −Q, and V gives the voltage
difference between the plates then the capacitance is given
by
 Inductance
• An electric current i flowing round a circuit
produces a magnetic field and hence a magnetic
flux through the circuit.
• The ratio of the magnetic flux to the current is
called the inductance, or more accurately self-
inductance of the circuit. Inductance is denoted
by L, in honour of the physicist Heinrich Lenz.
• The quantitative definition of the inductance is
therefore
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY SOURCES
• e
 Independent Voltage Source
• An ideal voltage source has the following features:
(i) It is a voltage generator whose output voltage remains absolutely
constant whatever be the value of the output current.
(ii) It has zero internal resistance so that voltage drop in the source
is zero.
(iii) The power drawn by the source is zero. In practical, the voltage
does not remain constant, but falls slightly; this is taken care of
by connecting a small resistance (r ) in series with the ideal
source. . In this case, the terminal voltage will be
i.e. it will decrease with increase in the current i
• The terminal voltage of a practical voltage source decreases as
the load current increases.
• The v–i characteristics of an ideal and practical voltage source
are shown in Fig. 2.14. A dc or ac generator or batteries are
some examples of independent voltage sources. A lead–acid
battery and a dry-cell are some examples of constant voltage
source which can produce constant terminal voltage within a
specified range of output current.
 Independent Current Source
• An ideal current source has the following features.
(i) It produces a constant current irrespective of the value
of the voltage across it.
(ii) It has infinity resistance.
(iii) It is capable of supplying infinity power. In practical,
the output current does not remain constant but
decreases with increase in voltage. So, a practical
current source is represented by an ideal current
source in parallel with a high resistance (R) and the
output current becomes
• Similar to voltage sources, an ideal current source is not
practically possible. No current source can maintain constant
current even when its terminals are open-circuited. The output
current of a practical current source decreases as the output
voltage increases. The v–i characteristics of an ideal and practical
current source are shown in Fig. 2.15.
 Dependent Sources
• In dependent sources (also referred as controlled sources), the source voltage
or current is not fixed, but is dependent on a voltage or current at some other
location in the circuit. Thus, there are four types of dependent sources.
(a) Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
(b) Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
(c) Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
(d) Current-controlled current source (CCCS)

Dependent sources are unilateral, because for a voltage-controlled voltage

source, say, v2= kv1, the output voltage v2 is controlled by the input voltage v1,
but the output current i2 has no influence on the input v1.
Application in electronic systems that uses either transistors or vacuum tubes
needs dependent sources.
 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
• Ohm’s Law Ohm’s law states that the voltage v(t ) across a resistor R is
directly proportional to the current i(t ) flowing through it.
• This general statement of Ohm’s law can be extended to cover inductances
and capacitors as well alternating current conditions and transient
conditions. This is then known as the generalized Ohm’s law. This may be
stated as

Z(p) is known as the impedance function of the circuit, and the above
equation is the differential equation governing the behaviour of the circuit.

• In the particular case of alternating current, p j , so that the equation

governing circuit behaviour may be written as
 Kirchhoff’s Law
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Kirchhoff’s current law is based on the principle
of conservation of charge. This requires that the algebraic sum of the charges
within a system cannot change. Thus the total rate of change of charge must
add up to zero. The rate of change of charge is the current

This is also sometimes stated as that the sum of the currents entering a node is
equal to the sum of the current leaving the node.
The theorem is applicable not only to a node, but to a closed system.
i1 +i2- i3 +i4 -i5 =0; Also, for the closed boundary, ia- ib+ ic -id -ie =0.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law is based on the principle of conservation of energy. This
requires that the total work done in taking a unit positive charge around a
closed path and ending up at the original point is zero. This gives us our basic
Kirchhoff’s law as the algebraic sum of the potential differences taken round a
closed loop is zero, i.e. around a loop,

va +vb –vc+ vd –ve= 0

 Sign Conventions for Applying
Kirchhoff’s Laws
(i) When tracing through a voltage source from a
positive to a negative terminal, the voltage should be
given a positive sign.
(ii) When tracing through a voltage source from a
negative to a positive terminal, the voltage should be
given a negative sign.
(iii) When tracing through a resistance in the direction
of current flow, the voltage should be given a positive
sign.
(iv) When tracing through a resistance in a direction
opposite to the direction of current flow, the voltage
should be given a negative sign.
 NETWORK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
• Network analysis is the determination of the
response output of a network when the input
excitation is given.
• There are two techniques of network analysis:
1. Nodal analysis
2. Loop or mesh analysis
• Nodal Analysis
• It is based on Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL). In this
method, the unknown variables are the node
voltages.
• Itis generally used when the circuit contains several
current sources
• Steps
(i) If there are ‘N’ number of nodes in a network, all nodes are
labeled. One node is treated as the datum or reference node (zero
potential) and the other node voltages are treated as unknowns to
be determined with respect to this reference.
(ii) KCL is written at each node in terms of node voltages.
(a) KCL is applied at N -1 of the N nodes of the circuit using
assumed current directions, as necessary. This will create N -1
linearly independent equations, known as node equations.
(b) In a circuit with independent voltage sources, if two nodes
of interest are separated by a voltage source instead of a resistor or
current source then the concept of supernode is used that creates
constraint equations.
(c) The current is computed based on voltage difference between
two nodes. The current in any branch is obtained via Ohm’ law .
(iii) Solution of the N 1 simultaneous equations
(by Gaussian elimination or matrix method)
gives the unknown node voltages.
 Concept of Supernode
• This concept is used when a circuit contains voltage sources.
• A supernode is formed by enclosing a dependent or independent
voltage source connected between two non-reference nodes and any
elements connected in parallel with it. This concept is necessary for
nodal analysis with voltage source, because the current through a
voltage source is unknown.

Properties of a Supernode
• (i) It provides the constraint equations.
• (ii) Both KCL and KVL are written for a supernode.
• (iii) A supernode does not have any voltage of its own
 Loop or Mesh Analysis
• It is based on Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL). In this method, the
unknown variables are the loop currents.
• It is generally used when the circuit contains several voltage sources.
• Steps
• (i) If there are ‘N’ number of loops/meshes in a network, all loops are
labeled.
• (ii) KVL is written at each loop/mesh in terms of loop/mesh currents.
Loop currents are those currents
• flowing in a loop; they are used to define branch currents.
• (a) For N independent loops, a total of N equations are written using
KVL around each loop. These
• equations are known as loop/mesh equations.
• (b) The concept of supermesh is used in case a circuit contains current
source that provides the constraint equations.
• (iii) Solution of the N simultaneous equations gives the required
loop/mesh currents
 Concept of Supermesh
• This concept is used when a circuit contains current sources.
• A supermesh is formed by excluding the branch containing a
dependent or independent current source connected in
common to two meshes and any elements connected in series
with it.
• This concept is necessary for loop analysis with a current source,
because the voltage drop across a current source is unknown.

• Properties of a Supermesh
• (i) It provides the constraint equations.
• (ii) Both KCL and KVL are written for supermesh.
• (iii) A supermesh does not have any current of its own.
 Network Topology (Graph Theory)
• The word topology refers to the science of place.
• In mathematics, topology is a branch of geometry in which figures are
considered perfectly elastic.
• Network topology refers to the properties that relate to the geometry of
a network (circuit).
• These properties remain unchanged even if the circuit is bent into any
other shape provided that no parts are cut and no new connections are
made.
• In electrical engineering, solution of network analysis problems involves
finding the current through and voltage across different circuit elements.
Different laws (like Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s laws, etc.) have been
postulated for simplifying the solution method.
• However, it is sometimes found that the algebraic equations written by
different laws are not independent.
• On the other hand, the equations formed by network topology method
are all independent.
• The network topology method has many other merits
and can be listed as follows.
1. The graph theory or network topology deals with those
properties of networks which do not change with the
change in the shape of the networks.
2. All the equations (KCL and KVL) formed by graph
theory concept are independent equations.
3. The graph theory concept eases the solution method
for solving networks with a large number of nodes and
branches.
GRAPH OF A NETWORK
• A linear graph (or simply a graph) is defined as a
collection of points called nodes, and line segment
called branches, the nodes being joined together by the
branches.
 TERMINOLOGY
Node A node is a point in a circuit where
two or more circuit elements join.
• Example a, b, c, d, e, f and g
Essential Nodes A node that joins three or
more elements.
• Example b, c, e and g
Branch A branch is a path that connects
two nodes.
• Example v1, R1, R2, R3, v2, R4, R5, R6,
R7 and I
Essential Branch Those paths that
connect essential nodes without passing
through an essential node.
• Example c-a-b, c-d-e, c-f-g, b-e, e-g, b-
g (through R7), and b-g (through I)
Loop A loop is a complete path, i.e., its
starting at a selected node, tracing a set of
connected basic-circuit elements and
returning to the original starting node
without passing through any intermediate
node more than once.
Oriented Graph A graph whose branches are oriented is called a directed or
oriented graph.
Rank of a Graph The rank of a graph is (n- 1) where n is the number of nodes
or vertices of the graph.
Planar and Non-Planar Graph A graph is planar if it can be drawn in a plane
such that no two branches
• intersect at a point which is not a node
• Loops of a graph have the following properties:
1. There are at least two branches in a loop.
2. There are exactly two paths between any pair of nodes in a circuit.
3. The maximum number of possible branches is equal to the number of nodes.

• Tree A tree is a set of branches with every node connected to every other node
in such a way that removal of any branch destroys this property. Alternately, a
tree is defined as a connected sub-graph of a connected graph containing all the
nodes of the graph but not containing any loops.
• Branches of a tree are called twigs. A tree contains (n − 1) twigs where n is the
number of nodes in the graph. Figure 9.7 shows a graph and its trees.
• Trees have the following properties:
1. There exists only one path between any pair of nodes in a tree.
2. A tree contains all nodes of the graph.
3. If n is the number of nodes of the graph, there are (n − 1)
branches in the tree.
4. Trees do not contain any loops.
5. Every connected graph has at least one tree.
6. The minimum terminal nodes in a tree are two.
Co-tree Branches which are not on a tree are called links or chords.
All links of a tree together constitute the compliment of the
corresponding tree and is called the co-tree.
A co-tree contains b − (n − 1) links where b is the number of
branches of the graph. In Fig. 9.7 (b) and (c) the links are {2, 3, 6} and
{1, 4, 6} respectively.
Subgraph A subgraph is a subset of the branches and nodes of a graph. The
subgraph is said to be proper
• if it consists of strictly less than all the branches and nodes of the graph.
Path A path is a particular sub graph where only two branches are incident at
every node except the terminal nodes (i.e., starting and finishing nodes). At the
terminal nodes, only one branch is incident.
• In the example in the Fig. 3.3 (c), branches 2, 3, and 4, together with all the
four nodes, constitute a path.
• A graph is connected if there exists a path between any pair of vertices.
Otherwise, the graph is disconnected